A. D.

Chiasson
P.E., Research Associate
Geo-Heat Center,
Oregon Institute of Technology,
Evaluation of Electricity
3201 Campus Drive,
Klamath Falls, OR 97601 Generation From Underground
C. Yavuzturk
Ph.D., C.E.M.
Coal Fires and Waste Banks
Assoc. Professor
Department of Civil & Architectural Engineering, A temperature response factors model of vertical thermal energy extraction boreholes is
University of Wyoming, presented to evaluate electricity generation from underground coal fires and waste banks.
1000 E. University Avenue, Sensitivity and life-cycle cost analyses are conducted to assess the impact of system
Dept. 3295, parameters on the production of 1 MW of electrical power using a theoretical binary-
Laramie, WY 82071 cycle power plant. Sensitivity analyses indicate that the average underground tempera-
e-mail: cyturk@uwyo.edu ture has the greatest impact on the exiting fluid temperatures from the ground followed by
fluid flow rate and ground thermal conductivity. System simulations show that a binary-
D. E. Walrath cycle power plant may be economically feasible at ground temperatures as low as
Ph.D. 190C. DOI: 10.1115/1.2718576
P.E., Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Keywords: underground coal fires, energy extraction, borehole, binary-cycle power plant
University of Wyoming,
Laramie, WY 82701

Introduction coal, when combusted, releases about 31,650 MJ of energy that is

A significant amount of combustible material is present in un-
derground coal beds. Through mining, the combustion of coal
beds becomes more likely due to the increased availability of
oxygen. In abandoned underground coal mines, fires generally
start in partially mined coal seams that are considered uneconomi-
cal for further mining. The initial ignition of the coal bed may be
forced through lightning, brush and forest fires, or other uncon-
trolled sources. A spontaneous combustion is also possible due to
exothermic reactions in the coal bed.
Ignition of coal deposits is dependent on many factors, such as
the temperature of the heat source, extent of previous oxidation,
concentration of oxygen in contact with coal, area of exposed coal
surface, and the attitude of the deposit. Once the conditions are
conductive for ignition, the fire is fanned by oxygen that
reaches the point of ignition through existing shafts, cracks and
fissures in the overburden, the outcrop, and other entries. Most
underground coal bed and waste bank fires exhibit smoldering
combustion that may involve only small amounts of coal capable
of burning with as little as 2% oxygen content in the air and may
burn for extended periods of time.
There are a number of industry-accepted methods for control
and/or extinction of underground coal and waste bank fires. Some
common methods include excavating the burning coal, inundating
the coal deposit with water, and smothering the burn area with fill
material to prevent further oxygen intrusion into the coal deposit
via surface cracks. However, none of the current methods of ex-
tinguishing and controlling of underground coal fires is routinely
successful and they may be prohibitively expensive.
In an underground coal fire, heat transfer occurs through con-
vection within the mine and radiation and conduction between the
fire and the overburden. The overburden surface soil above the
coal seam, due to its relatively low thermal conductivity, acts as
an insulator that prevents the transfer of heat away from the burn
zone. Considering that one ton of medium volatile bituminous
Contributed by the Advanced Energy Systems Division of ASME for publication
in the JOURNAL OF ENERGY RESOURCES TECHNOLOGY. Manuscript received September
9, 2004; final manuscript received July 18, 2006. Review conducted by Srinivas
Garimella.
then absorbed by the surrounding rock formation, temperature in
the overburden above large coal deposits may be as high as
500 C at some locations in Northern Wyoming, temperatures as
high as 815 C have been recorded. Under such conditions, sig-
nificant amounts of heat continuously transferred to the overbur-
den create a large heat reservoir in the overburden and surround-
ing rock.
There are currently about 600 underground coal mine and waste
bank fires burning at various locations in the United States. With
poor success in extinguishing them, most fires are left to burn
themselves out with a predicted burning time of up to 80 years
for some locations. Fires at shallow depths to 150 m present
excellent opportunities for thermal energy extraction for a variety
of industrial and residential applications, including potential elec-
tricity production, due to relatively low cost of available drilling
technologies.
A review of literature yields no publications reporting on direct
electricity production from underground coal and waste bank fires.
However, a relatively large body of literature is available dealing
with applications of high-temperature geothermal energy and ap-
plications of low-temperature thermal energy storage and extrac-
tion in underground rock/soil formations.
This paper presents a concept for extracting thermal energy
from underground coal and waste bank fires. A temperature re-
sponse factors approach based on the transient, two-dimensional
finite difference model of a matrix of vertical energy extraction
boreholes is used to evaluate the concept. A sensitivity and life-
cycle cost analysis are also presented to assess the influence of
primary impact parameters on the production of 1 MW of electri-
cal power considering a theoretical direct-flash and binary-cycle
power plant. The analyses are presented using data from an exist-
ing underground coal and waste bank fire site in Northern Wyo-
ming.
Background
The heat extraction concept from underground coal fires pos-
sesses many similarities to existing geothermal power plants.
Geothermal power plants are of two main types, depending on the
geothermal fluid temperature. If the heat transfer fluid exists from

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 Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of a a direct-flash steam power plant and b a binary-cycle plant

the ground at temperatures exceeding about 210 C, direct-flash
power plants are typically economical 1,2. If the fluid exists at
temperatures in the range of about 100 C to 210 C, direct-flash
power plants are typically not economical and binary-cycle power
plants must be used. In direct-flash plants, water is injected into
the ground and is allowed to flash into steam, which is used di-
rectly to do mechanical work on a turbine. In binary-cycle plants,
the thermal energy of the heat transfer fluid is transferred via a
heat exchanger to a secondary working fluid. Schematic diagrams
of a flash-steam power plant and a binary-cycle power plant are
shown in Fig. 1.
The type of power plant obviously has an important impact on
the mathematical modeling approach. In a direct-flash plant, a
phase change within the borehole would need to be modeled in
association with large pressure changes. In a binary-cycle plant, a
constant pressure process and no phase change within the bore-
hole may be stipulated.
Methodology
Underground Coal Fire Thermal Energy Extraction
Concept. Thermal energy can be extracted from underground coal
and waste bank fires using a series of vertical boreholes drilled
directly into the heated volume of the ground/overburden. A con-
ceptual diagram of the underground energy extraction system is
shown in Fig. 2.
A number of physical parameters were considered relevant to
the underground energy extraction system model. These were cat-
egorized as geologic parameters, thermal parameters, and system
parameters. The geologic parameters include soil/rock types, coal
seam depth and thickness, and regional extent of coal fire. The
thermal parameters are thermal conductivity of geologic materials,
volumetric heat capacity of geologic materials, and the under-
ground Earth temperatures. The heat extraction system parameters
consider the number of boreholes, borehole spacing and depth,
heat transfer fluid properties and flow rate, and the borehole and
heat exchanger geometry.
A wide variety of borehole and heat exchanger geometries are
possible. Based on the authors experience, a concentric-type steel
heat exchanger is likely the most appropriate type due to its rela-
tively lower thermal resistance to heat transfer between the heat
transfer fluid and the surrounding ground volume, and its capabil-
ity to tolerate relatively high fluid temperatures. A conceptual dia-
gram of a concentric Earth heat exchanger with typical dimen-
sions is shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 2 Conceptual diagram of the underground energy extraction system

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Fig. 3 Conceptual diagram of concentric-type underground
Earth heat exchanger
Mathematical Modeling.
Mathematical Model. The basis of the mathematical model for
this study was the work of Yavuzturk and Spitler 3, which is an
extension of Eskilson 4,5. A series of dimensionless, time-
dependent temperature response factors known as g-functions
have been developed from a transient finite difference model that
approximates the time-dependent solution to the heat diffusion
equation in and around the heat extraction borehole. The
g-functions are fixed for prescribed borehole field geometry and
borehole spacing/depth ratio. The g-function allows the calcula-
tion of the temperature change at the borehole wall and ground
interface in response to a step heat extraction pulse, which can be
determined by summing the responses of the previous step func-
tions
n
qi qi1 tn ti1 rb
Tborehole = T + 2k
g
ts
,
H
i=1
where t is the time s, ts is a time scale s H2 / 9, where is the
thermal diffusivity of the overburden ground m2 / s, rb is the
borehole radius m, H is the borehole depth m, k is the thermal
conductivity W/m K, Tborehole is the temperature at the borehole
wall C, T is the average underground volume temperature, q is
the step heat extraction pulse per length of bore W/m, i denotes
the time step, and g is the temperature response factor
g-function. The temperature of heat transfer fluid as it exits the
ground is then calculated iteratively considering an overall energy
balance on the heat transfer fluid.
Computer Model. A mathematical model has been implemented
for use in TRNSYS 6, a component-based, transient system simu-
lation environment. The purpose was to allow the underground
heat extraction model the versatility to be coupled to other com-
ponent models such that larger system simulations can be con-
ducted considering a complex power plant with associated
equipment.
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Fig. 4 Underground heat extraction model component con-
figuration for TRNSYS
Each component subroutine is a FORTRAN code that describes
the thermal performance of the component in the overall system.
The components are linked together to configure piping and wir-
ing connections in the overall system. Each TRNSYS component
model was formulated on the concept of inputs, parameters, and
outputs. Inputs are received by the model and may change with
time. Parameters are fixed in the model and do not change with
time. Outputs are calculated by the model and also change with
time. The configuration of the underground heat extraction model
is shown graphically in Fig. 4.
Model Implementation
Single-borehole simulations. The temperature response factors
model was firstly used to make calculations of exiting fluid tem-
peratures from the ground and corresponding heat extraction rates.
The single-borehole simulations thus allow for the assessment and
selection of the type of power plant direct-flash versus binary-
cycle for further system simulations and economic feasibility
analyses. Geological and thermal input data for the model were
based on information collected from drilling at the Acme Coal
Mine site 7, located in Northern Wyoming. Considering the ge-
ology of the site, a 61 m deep borehole was simulated with ther-
mal properties corresponding to shales and sandstones. A borehole
thermal resistance was used that corresponded to the borehole
1 geometry of a concentric-type steel heat exchanger borehole
shown previously in Fig. 3. Average underground Earth tempera-
tures of 120, 260, and 815 C were simulated to represent the
widest range recorded at the site, including temperature extremes.
A heat transfer fluid flow rate per unit length of borehole of 1.0
105 m3 / s m was used with a constant inlet temperature to the
ground of 93 C over a 1 y simulation time. The range of selected
fluid flow rate allows for continuous turbulent flow regime in the
boreholes for typical borehole configurations in order to ensure
maximum possible energy extraction from the ground. Selection
of the constant fluid inlet temperature to the ground is conserva-
tive, since lower temperatures stipulate impractically large heat
extraction rates and typical temperature drops across a borehole
do not exceed of 4 C 5 C 8.
The second objective of the single-borehole simulations was to
conduct a sensitivity analysis of several key parameters on exiting
fluid temperatures from the ground and heat extraction rates. A
base case was established using typical and commonly encoun-
tered average values for the impact parameters and each param-
eter was varied individually as shown in Table 1 for a total of 25
JUNE 2007, Vol. 129 / 83
 Table 1 Sensitivity analyses

Parameter varied Units Base

Thermal conductivity W/m-K 1.0 1.6 2.1 3.1 4.2

Volumetric heat capacity kJ/K-m3 1340 1680 2010 2350 2680
Average underground Earth C 120 190 260 400 540
temperature
Borehole/pipe diameter mm 102/ 51 127/ 102 152/ 102 178/ 102 203/ 152
Flow rate per unit length of m3/s-m 5.2 106 7.8 106 1.0 105 1.6 105 2.1 105
borehole

simulation cases. Each case was run for a simulation time of 20 y
corresponding to the life-cycle time span with a constant inlet
temperature to the ground of 93 C.
Borehole field simulations. An actual underground thermal en-
ergy extraction system will consist of a matrix of vertical bore-
holes. In order to investigate thermal interference and optimum
spacing between boreholes, the temperature response factors
model was used to simulate a core matrix of 10 10 borehole
field. The boreholes were assumed to be equally spaced in a
square pattern, each borehole with a depth of 61 m. Inputs to the
model were those corresponding to the base case as shown in
Table 1. The borehole spacing was successively increased and the
heat extraction rate after 20 y was examined. An optimum bore-
hole spacing was assumed to be approached when the incremental
heat extraction rate became negligible.
Economic Analysis. The life-cycle economics of an under-
ground coal fire thermal energy extraction system are dependent
on many factors. The following key variables were considered in
this study:
Capital cost of the power plant
Operating and maintenance costs
Variations in drilling costs
Variations in plant thermal conversion efficiency
Variation in ground thermal properties
Power sales rate to grid
Annual discount rate
The borehole field configuration yielding the optimum borehole
spacing as determined from the borehole field simulations de-
scribed above was used to obtain annual quantities of thermal
energy extracted from an underground coal fire over a period of
20 y. A net present value approach was utilized to compare eco-
nomic scenarios at various capital costs, thermal conversion effi-
ciencies, ground thermal properties, and power sales rate to the
grid.
System Simulation Results and Discussion
Single-Borehole Simulations. Model-calculated exiting fluid
temperatures from the ground and corresponding heat extraction
rates are shown in Fig. 5 for three average underground Earth
temperatures 120, 260, and 815 C. Based on a review of Fig.
5a, a direct-flash power plant would not be feasible since exiting
fluid temperatures with an average underground temperature as
high as 815 C approach only 120 C after one year of operation.
As previously mentioned, direct-flash plants become economical
at fluid temperatures exceeding 210 C. Therefore, the focus of
attention for subsequent simulation and modeling efforts was a
system using a binary-cycle power plant.
Based on heat extraction rates shown in Fig. 5b, estimates
were made of the number of equivalent boreholes required to
produce 1 MW of electrical power at an average thermal conver-
sion efficiency of 20% Fig. 6. A review of Fig. 6 shows that the
number of boreholes required to produce 1 MW increases expo-

Fig. 5 Exiting fluid temperatures from the ground and heat extraction rates for a 61 m deep single borehole

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 Fig. 6 Number of 61 m deep boreholes required to produce
1 MW of electrical power at 20% thermal conversion efficiency
at various average underground temperatures
nentially as the average underground temperature decreases.
The results of the sensitivity analyses with single borehole
simulations using primary impact parameters given in Table 1 are
shown in Fig. 7. In order to quantify the influence of the various
impact parameters on the exiting fluid temperature and corre-
sponding heat extraction rate, changes in the results i.e., exiting
fluid temperature and heat extraction rate normalized relative to
the base case are plotted against changes in each parameter nor-
malized relative to the parameters used in the base case. In Fig.
7a the normalized result refers to changes in the absolute
temperature in K between the base case and other cases where
primary impact parameters were varied. In Fig. 7b, correspond-
ing heat extraction changes are shown.
A review of Fig. 7a shows that the average underground tem-
perature has the greatest impact on the exiting fluid temperatures
from the ground, followed by fluid flow rate and ground thermal
conductivity. Volumetric heat capacity of the ground and the
borehole/pipe diameter has essentially no effect on the existing
fluid temperatures from the ground. Doubling the average under-
ground temperature results in an increase in exiting fluid tempera-
ture by a factor of 2.7. Doubling the underground thermal conduc-
tivity results in an increase in exiting fluid temperature by a factor
Fig. 7 Normalized results of sensitivity analyses
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Fig. 8 Heat extraction rate of a 10 10 borehole field as a func-
tion of borehole spacing
of 1.6. Changes in exiting fluid temperature are observed to be
linear with changes in average underground temperature and ther-
mal conductivity. An inverse nonlinear change is observed in ex-
iting fluid temperature with changing fluid flow rate. Halving the
flow rate results in an increase in exiting fluid temperature by a
factor of nearly 2, while increasing the flow rate by a factor of 1.5
results in a decrease in exiting fluid temperature by a factor of
nearly 0.7. Volumetric heat capacity of the ground and the
borehole/pipe diameter have essentially no effect on the exiting
fluid temperatures from the ground. A review of Fig. 7b shows
that the average underground temperature and the ground thermal
conductivity are the only parameters that affect the heat extraction
rate from the ground. The remaining parameters volumetric heat
capacity of the ground, the borehole/pipe diameter, and fluid flow
rate have essentially no effect on the heat extraction rate from the
ground. The flow rate of the heat transfer fluid only serves to
impact the temperature differential across the underground heat
exchangers and does not impact the heat extraction rate.
Borehole Field Simulations. Results of the borehole field
JUNE 2007, Vol. 129 / 85

Fig. 9 Net present value of an underground coal fire thermal
energy extraction system with binary-cycle power plant at vari-
ous drilling costs, various thermal conversion efficiencies n,
and various power selling rates to the grid
simulations are shown in Fig. 8. A review of Fig. 8 shows that
optimum borehole spacing is approached at 75 m. These results
indicate that a borehole spacing of progressively less than 75 m
would result in increasing thermal interaction between boreholes,
and therefore a progressively less than optimum quantity of ther-
mal energy extraction. On the contrary, borehole spacings larger
than 75 m would result in less than optimum use of land.
Economic Analysis/Life-Cycle Cost Analysis. The following
data and information have been used in the economic analysis:
Capital cost of a 1 MW binary power plant: $2.5 million
1,2
Fig. 10 Effect of average underground temperature on net present value of an underground coal fire thermal energy extrac-
tion system with binary-cycle power plant at various drilling costs, various thermal conversion efficiencies n, and various
power selling rates to the grid
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Annual operating & maintenance costs: $44,000/y 1
Drilling cost range: $12.50 to $75 per ft of vertical bore,
which includes all drilling, labor, materials, and horizontal
transfer piping
Power plant thermal conversion efficiency range: 15% to
30%
Ground thermal property variations based on sensitivity
analyses:
Average underground temperature: 190 C to 400 C
Average underground thermal conductivity: 1.0 to 3.1
W/m K
Power sales rate to grid: $0.03/ kWh to $0.05/ kWh
An annual discount rate of 6%
Net present values NPVs are plotted for 20 y of operation in
Figs. 911. NPVs shown in Fig. 9 were derived using input values
described as the base case in Table 1 with a 10 10 borehole
field and borehole spacing of 75 m. NPVs shown in Fig. 10 were
derived by varying the average underground temperature from the
base value to 190 C and then to 400 C. NPVs shown in Fig. 11
were derived by varying the average underground thermal con-
ductivity from the base value to 1.0 W / m K and then to
3.1 W / m K.
A review of Fig. 9 shows that with an average underground
temperature of 260 C and an average thermal conductivity of
2.1 W / m K, the power selling rate to the grid would need to equal
or exceed $0.04/ kWh for the system to be economically viable.
At $0.04/ kWh, a positive NPV is observed at low to moderate
drilling costs i.e., $16/ ft at 15% thermal conversion efficiency
and $32/ ft at 30% thermal conversion efficiency. At $0.05/ kWh,
a positive NPV is observed at much higher drilling costs i.e.,
$32/ ft at 15% thermal conversion efficiency and $68/ ft at 30%
thermal conversion efficiency.
Figure 10 shows the impact of the average underground tem-
perature on the system economics. A decrease in the average un-
derground temperature from 260 C to 190 C, as one would ex-
pect, has an undesirable impact on the NPV Fig. 10a. The
impact is greater at higher drilling rates, as the drilling cost be-
comes a greater percentage of the system first cost. Power sales
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 Fig. 11 Effect of average underground thermal conductivity on net present value of an underground coal fire thermal energy
extraction system with binary-cycle power plant at various drilling costs, various thermal conversion efficiencies n, and
various power selling rates to the grid. Solid lines= $0.03/ kW h selling rate to the grid. Short dashes= $0.04/ kW h selling rate to
the grid. Long dashes= $0.05/ kW h selling rate to the grid.
rates of $0.04/ kWh become economically feasible only at higher
power plant thermal conversion efficiencies, as compared to the
base case. For economic feasibility at $0.05/ kWh sales rate to the
grid, lower drilling costs must be available than in the base case;
drilling costs must be less than $18/ ft at 15% thermal conversion
efficiency and $36/ ft at 30% thermal conversion efficiency.
An increase in the average underground temperature from
260 C to 400 C, as expected, has a desirable impact on the NPV
Fig. 10b. At $0.03/ kWh sales rate to the grid, economic fea-
sibility may be achieved at very low drilling rates $12.50/ ft but
relatively high thermal conversion efficiencies 30%. As com-
pared to the base case, power sales rates of $0.04/ kWh becomes
economically feasible at relatively high drilling rates i.e., $33/ ft
at 15% thermal conversion efficiency and $66/ ft at 30% thermal
conversion efficiency. At power sales rates of $0.05/ kWh, the
system is economically viable at all drilling rates considered, ex-
cept above $60/ ft when the thermal conversion efficiency is low
i.e., 15%.
Figure 11 shows the impact of the average underground thermal
conductivity on the system economics. Trends are similar to those
observed for the average underground temperature with lesser im-
pact.
Conclusions and Recommendations
The results of the analyses presented in this paper show that the
average underground temperature has the greatest impact on the
exiting fluid temperatures from the ground, followed by fluid flow
rate and the thermal conductivity of the ground/overburden. There
is a linear relationship between the exiting fluid temperature from
the ground and the underground temperature and thermal conduc-
tivity. An inverse nonlinear relationship is observed between ex-
iting fluid temperature and fluid flow rate. The volumetric heat
capacity of the ground and borehole/pipe geometry have only an
insignificant impact on exiting fluid temperature from the ground.
Analyses also reveal that the primary impact parameters dictate
the type of the power plant for electricity production. For the
thermal conditions encountered at the Acme Coal Mine site in
Northern Wyoming, a direct-flash plant was not possible for tem-
peratures of the fluid returning from the ground were unsuitably
low for direct-flash even at the highest average underground tem-
peratures.
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The results of the analyses also indicate that thermal energy
extraction from underground coal fires and waste banks for the
purpose of electricity production are economically feasible using
binary-cycle power plant configurations for average underground
temperatures as low as 190 C. It should be noted, however, that
the economic feasibility is strongly dependent on electricity sell-
ing rates to the grid, the borehole drilling costs, the overall ther-
mal efficiency of the binary-cycle power plant and the thermal
conductivity of the ground. In order to achieve positive net
present values in a 20 y life-cycle cost analysis at a relatively low
average ground temperature of 190 C, a minimum selling rate to
the grid of $0.04 per kW h, minimum plant efficiency of 20%,
and a minimum ground thermal conductivity of 2.1 W / m K is
required while the drillings costs may not be more than
$15 per vertical ft of borehole.
It is obviously desirable that the analyses presented in this pa-
per be field-validated, specifically with respect to energy extrac-
tion from underground coal and waste bank fires. To that end, the
following recommendations for further investigation are offered:
1 A detailed, quantitative aerial thermal mapping of an actual
underground coal or waste bank fire Acme Coal Mine or
other is necessary to accurately identify thermal energy
levels in the overburden. For the same site, a detailed quan-
titative on-field thermal mapping may also be conducted to
supplement and validate aerial mapping, and to assess the
expansion of the hot overburden volume.
2 Borehole core samples of the overburden are of interest in
order to assess the thermal properties of the ground.
3 An experimental facility consisting of a series of
concentric-type boreholes is highly desirable to obtain
long-term preferably 1 y data on exiting fluid tempera-
tures from the ground.
Acknowledgment
The authors would like to acknowledge the contributions and
support of the National Science Foundation, Drakon Energy, and
Peter Kiewit Sons Co. on this project.
Nomenclature
g temperature response factor g-function
JUNE 2007, Vol. 129 / 87
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Technology, Klamath Falls, OR.
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NPV Net present value $ Klamath Falls, OR.
rb borehole radius m 3 Yavuzturk, C., and Spitler, J. D., 1999, A Short Time Step Response Factor
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T average underground volume temperature C den.
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m2 / s Peter Kiewit Sons Co.Big Horn Coal Co./Acme No. 1 Underground Mine-
Map: a Location of Monitor holes, date: 81982, b Mine Fire Area Re-
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