From Proposal To Publications PDF

Topics in Contemporary Physics
From proposal to
publications
Luis Roberto Flores Castillo

Chinese University of Hong Kong
Hong Kong SAR

February 11, 2015
PART 1 Brief history
Basic concepts
Colliders & detectors
From Collisions to
papers 5
S
ATLA sample GeV)
oton 2 126.5
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4l d diph 2011
and 201 fit (m H =
Data (*) HZZ Selecte Data
Bkg incl
usive
ZZ 2400 Sig +
V
-1
round nomial
s, tt er poly 4.8 fb
ts/5 Ge
/ GeV
Backg Ldt =
25 round
Z+jet
V)
2200 4th ord
s=7
TeV, -1
Backg 25 Ge 2000 5.9 fb
l (m H=1 Ldt =
Events
Signa TeV,
1800 s=8
Even
Unc. 1600
20 Syst. -1
fb
The Higgs discovery

t = 4.8 1400
Te V: Ld -1
s=7 5.8 fb 1200
15 Ldt =
TeV: 1000
s=8 800
600 nary
10 Prelimi
400 ATLAS
200
250 160
5 0 ]
200 m100 [GeV 150
m [Ge
V]
- Bkg
4l 140
150 0 130
Data
0 100 -100
120
110
100
BSM
MVA Techniques
The future
L. R. Flores Castillo CUHK February 11, 2015 2
last time:
Accelerators
Some applications
Cross section and luminosity
Acceleration technologies
Accelerator lattice
LHC parameters
Detectors
Examples of detector technologies
Detector systems
Quick reminders:
Homework on Friday
Extra credit question: 10 points (out of 100)
Late hand in: - 40%

Reminder: interactions
QED:
QCD:
SM Particle Content
Cabibbo-Kobayashi-Maskawa matrix
Weak:
NO Flavor-Changing-Neutral-Currents
W/Z: W/Z/:

Reminder: Relativistic kinematics
Maxwell c for all observers Lorentz
equations transformations
" v %
t ' = $t 2 x ' x 0 ' = (x 0 x1 ) Four-vector
# c &
x ' = (x vt)
x1 ' = (x1 x 0 ) x ' = x
x 0 = ct,
y' = y 1
x = x,
x2 ' = x2 time-position: x = (ct, x, y, z)
proper velocity: =dx/d = (c, vx, vy, vz)
x 2 = y,
x3 ' = x3 v energy-momentum: p = m = (E/c, px, py, pz)
z' = z x3 = z
c E = mc 2 = mc 2 + 12 mv 2 + 83 m cv4 +...
4
contravariant Scalar product:

I (x 0 )2 (x1 )2 (x 2 )2 (x 3 )2
I=x x a b a b
is Lorentz-invariant covariant
Energy-momentum Useful:
p = mv
p p = (m )(m ) = m 2 c 2 2 p / E = v / c2
E = mc
2 2 4
E = m c +p c 2 2 v = pc 2 / E
E2
p p = 2 p 2

c For v=c, E = hv

Symmetry, conservation laws, groups
1917: Emmy Noethers theorem:

Every symmetry yields a conservation law
Conversely, every conservation law reflects
an underlying symmetry
A symmetry is an operation on a system that leaves it invariant.

i.e., it transforms it into a configuration indistinguishable from the
original one.
The set of all symmetry operations on a given system forms a group:
Closure: If a and b in the set, so is ab
Identity: there is an element I s.t. aI = Ia = a for all elements a.
Inverse: For every element a there is an inverse, a-1, such that aa-1 = a-1a = I
Associativity: a(bc) = (ab)c
if commutative, the group is called Abelian

Angular Momentum
Classically, orbital (rmv), spin (I) not different in essence.
In QM,
Spin interpretation no longer valid
All 3 components cannot be measured simultaneously; and most we can measure:
the magnitude of L ( L2 = L L ). Allowed values: j(j+1)2
one component (usually labeled z) Allowed values: -j,,j in integer steps
2j+1 possibilities
Differences: Orbital angular momentum (l) Spin angular momentum (s)
Allowed values integer integer or half integer

For each particle type any (integer) value fixed
Ket notation: l ml , s ms , j mj
A particle with spin 1 :

a particle with s=1
simple label, not the magnitude of its spin angular momentum: S 2 = s(s +1) !
notice that the magnitude is always a bit larger than the maximum z component
Spin-statistics connection: half-integer spin: fermions; integer spin: bosons.

Addition of Angular Momenta
Besides total angular momentum, sometimes we need the specific states:
j1+ j2
j1 m1 j2 m2 = Cmj jm1 1j2m2 j m , with m = m1 + m2
j= j1 j2 Clebsch-Gordan (Particle Physics Booklet,
coefficients internet, books, etc.)
2 1 1
2
1
2 = 2 5
5 2 12 3 3
5 2 12
State of the Linear combination of angular
separate systems momentum eigenstates of the
combined system

Spin
Spinors: two-component column vectors: ! 1 $ " 0 %
1 1 1 1
ms= (spin up, ), ms= (spin down, ) 2 2 =# & 2 2 =$ '
" 0 % # 1 &
General state of a ! $ ! $ ! $
spin particle:
## && = # 1 & + # 0 & and complex, and
2
+ =1
2
" % " 0 % " 1 %
Operators for the three

! ! 0 1 $ ! ! 0 i $ ! ! 1 0 $
spin projections: Sx = # &, Sy = # &, Sz = # &
2" 1 0 % 2" i 0 % 2 " 0 1 %
or in terms of the ! 0 1 $ ! 0 i $ ! 1 0 $
Pauli spin matrices: S = ( )
!
2
x =# &, y = # &, z = # &
" 1 0 % " i 0 % " 0 1 %
Probability of possible Construct matrix representing observable A
outcomes in a QM system: Allowed values of A are the eigenvalues of
Write state as linear combination of these eigenvectors
The probability to measure ei is |ci|2
Rotating a spinor:
where U ( ) = e i( )/2
! ' $ ! $
is a vector pointing along the axis of rotation,
# ' & = U ( ) # &
# & # & and its magnitude is the angle of rotation.
" % " % e A = 1+ A + 12 A2 + 3!1 A3 + ...
Flavor Symmetries
Neutron & proton very similar wrt strong interaction
mp = 938.28 MeV/c2; mn = 939.57 MeV/c2.
! $ ! $ ! $
Two states of the same particle? N = ## & p = ## 1 && , n = ## 0 &&
Heisenberg introduced Isospin I. & " 0 % " 1 %
" %
Borrowing angular momentum machinery:
Nucleon carries isospin
Third component, I3 (from an abstract space), has eigenvalue + , -.
Strong interactions are invariant under rotations in isospin space.
by Noethers theorem, isospin is conserved in strong interactions
= 1 1 , 0 = 1 0 , + = 1 1 = 3
2
23 , 0 = 3
2
12 , + = 3
2
1
2
, ++ = 3
2
3
2

Discrete Symmetries. Parity
Nature is not invariant under mirror reflection (parity)
1956, Lee&Yang: no exptl constrain on Weak force. C.S. Wu
carried out the test that they proposed.
Maximal P violation:
all neutrinos are left-handed
all anti neutrinos are left-handed
Strong and EM forces do respect Parity; Weak force does not
scalar P(s) = s time, m, E, charge density
pseudoscalar P(p) = -p helicity, magnetic flux
vector (polar vector) P(v) = -v x, v, a, p, F, electric field,
psudovector (axial v) P(a) = a angular momentum, mag. field,
Eigenvalues +1 and -1
Hadrons (baryons, mesons) are eigenstates of P, correspond to either P=+1 or P=-1
Fermions: P(particle) = - P(antiparticle)
Bosons: P(particle) = P(antiparticle)
Quarks: positive parity
Photons: intrinsic parity -1
Composite system: product of parities of its constituents (in its ground state)
Excited states of two particles: additional factor (-1)l where l is the orbital angular momentum.

CP and neutral K mesons
Gell-Mann & Pais noted an odd implication of CP invariance:
0
K0 (strangeness +1) can turn into K (strangeness -1):
So the observed K0 should be a linear combination of them

Now:
P K0 = K0 , P K0 = K0 (pseudoscalar)
C K0 = K0 , C K0 = K0 (definition of C)
combining them: CP K 0 = K 0 , CP K 0 = K 0
hence K1 = 1
2 ( )
K0 K0 , K2 = 1
2 ( K0 + K0 )
are eigenvalues of CP.
Gell-Mann & Pais noted an odd implication of CP invariance:
CP K1 = K1 , CP K 2 = K 2
if CP is conserved by the weak interactions

K1 can decay only to states with CP=+1 (e.g., 2 pions)
K2 can decay only to states with CP=-1 (e.g., 3 pions)
The 2 decay releases more energy, so it should be faster
Conclusion: starting from a beam of K0s, K 0 = 1

2 (K
1
+ K2 )
the K1 component will decay quickly, and only K2 survives:
i.e.,
Near the source, a lot of 2 events,
but only 3 events further down the line.
From Cronins memoir:
[Gell-Mann and Pais] predicted that in addition to the short-lived K
mesons, there should be long-lived K mesons. They did it beautifully,
elegantly and simply. [] I think theirs is a papar one should read
sometime just for its pure beauty of reasoning. [] At the time, many
of the most distinguished theoreticians thought this prediction was
really baloney.
In 1956, K2 meson was discovered at Brookhaven.

Lifetimes:
1 = 0.895 10-10 s mostly gone after few cm
2 = 5.11 10-8 s travel many meters
Masses: m2-m1 = 3.48 10-6 eV/c2
Each (K1, K2) its own antiparticle (C=-1 for K1, +1 for K2)

CP violation
With a long beam, we can get a pure sample of K2
If we then find decays into 2 pions, CP has been violated
Discovered by Cronin and Fitch in 1964.

Beam: 57 ft.
Out of 22,700 decays, 45 two-pion decays.
Conclusion: The long-lived neutral Kaon contains a small

admixture of K1:
KL = 1
1+
2 (K 2
K1 )
measurement: = 2.24 10-3
Accommodated into the CKM matrix

Time Reversal and TCP
T is expected to be not be a perfect symmetry.
The TCP theorem, from QFT:

From Lorentz invariance, QM, interactions as fields: The
combination TCP (in any order) should be an exact symmetry
of any interaction.
Since CP is violated, there must be a compensating
violation of T.
Unless the TCP theorem does not apply to reality
One test: TCP implies that mass and lifetime of particles
and antiparticles should be the same.
Most sensitive to date: m(K 0 ) m(K 0 )
0
18
< 10
m(K )
From proposals to publications
17
Early stages: Machines and physics goals
LEP (Geneva, Switzerland): e+e-
Discovery of the Z and W
Higgs searches at specific energies
Fermilab (Chicago, IL): p pbar
Same beampipe!
LHC (Geneva, Switzerland): pp, pPb, PbPb
Same tunnel as LEP
Clear indications of something to be found at 1TeV
Search for (and discovery of) the Higgs boson
Search for high-mass resonances
Next?
e+e- would greatly improve Higgs measurements
pp could follow in the same tunnel

Early stages
Energy
Is there a clear energy target?
Promising models, or some interesting effect to study further?
Luminosity
Even at very high energy, not much gain if very low luminosity
1032 cm-2s-1 achievable. Should a new machine aim at that?
Investment example
~10 B USD for the tunnel + detectors
~1 B USD/yr for operations
Around 15 years for government approval
10-15 years for construction
Detector and capability design
Should consider expected capabilities in accelerator, detector,
computing technologies
From Collisions to Publications
Accelerator, detectors collisions, hits in the detectors
Triggers event streams / datasets
(leptons, jets, MET,, combs)
Reconstruction software physics objects
- identification
- obtain their 4-momenta
Computing, networking storage & processing capabilities
Grid processing search/measurement specific
selection and treatment
Theoretical models expected physics phenomena
MonteCarlo simuation expected observation
Statistical analysis physics results
Collaboration-wide review publication
- identification
Triggers
Large number of high-energy collisions

Most of them are not interesting
Need to filter out most of them Trigger systems
Data Acquisition (DAQ) systems have become more complex
22
Simple trigger for spark chamber set-up
Light
Scintillator Guide
0 Photo-multiplier
-12kV
0
C1
-12kV
0 Spark
-12kV Chamber
0
C2
C1 Discriminator
And Gate Amplifier Spark Gap Spark
Chamber
C2 Discriminator
Logic signals
e.g. NIM

Dead time
Experiment frozen from trigger to end of readout

Trigger rate with no deadtime = R per sec.
Dead time / trigger = sec.
For 1 second of live time = 1 + R seconds
Live time fraction = 1/(1 + R)
Real trigger rate = R/(1 + R) per sec.
Rate in Hz Dead time ms. Live time % Trigger rate Hz

10 10 91 9.1
1000 10 9.1 91

Evolution of trigger systems
1980s and 1990s
Improved systems:
Bigger experiments more data per event
Higher luminosities more triggers per second
both led to increased fractional dead time
To reduce dead-time: multi-level triggers

First level: fast detectors, fast algorithms
Higher levels:
data from slower detectors + more elaborate algorithms
improve event selection / background rejection

Evolution of trigger systems
1990s and 2000s
Focus on rarer processes
Need large statistics to have these rare events
Increasingly difficult to select interesting events
DAQ system (and off-line analysis capability) under
increasing strain - limiting useful event statistics
major issue at hadron colliders
High Level Trigger reduces requirements for

The DAQ system
Off-line data storage and off-line analysis

Example: ATLAS data rates
From detectors > 1014 Bytes/sec
After Level-1 accept ~ 1011 Bytes/sec
Into event builder ~ 109 Bytes/sec
Onto permanent storage ~ 108 Bytes/sec
~ 1015 Bytes/year

TDAQ Comparisons

Evolution of DAQ systems

Typical architecture
Readout (units/drivers/buffers/)
Switching network
Processor Farm
Control and Monitor System
Trigger levels
Level 1 (sometimes Level 0): up to a few s
Small systems: standard electronic modules
Larger systems:
Application-Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs)
Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs)
Low granularity/precision
(Energy sum in calorimeters / tracking by masks)
Event data stored in front-end electronics or in
pipelines
t t-1 t-2 t-(N-1) t-N
Data put into many parallel pipelines - moves along the pipeline at
every bunch crossing, falls out the far end after 2.5 microseconds
Trigger levels
Level 2
10-100 s: hardwired, fixed algorithm, adjustable parameters
1-100 milliseconds
Dedicated microprocessors, adjustable algorithm
3D, fine-grain calorimetry
Tracking, matching, topology
Sub-detectors handled in parallel
Combined in global trigger processor or passed to next level
Few milliseconds (2008)
Processor farm with linux PCs
Partial events received via high speed network
Specialized algorithms
One processor per event. Many processors to handle the large rate

Trigger levels
Level 3
Milliseconds to seconds
Processor farm
Microprocessors / emulators / workstations
Standard server PCs
Event building (collection of all data from all detectors)
Full or partial event reconstruction
Each event allocated to a single processor; large farm of

processors to handle rate.

Statistical tools
Several slides from Glen Cowans Summer Student Lectures on Statistics, CERN, 2011
34
- identification
Data analysis in particle physics
Select and study events of

a certain type (signature)
Measure properties of each event (momenta, angles, energy,

number of accompanying particles or jets,...)
Theories (e.g. SM) predict distributions of these properties
up to free parameters, e.g., , MZ, s, mH, ...
Goals of data analysis:
Measure parameters (value and uncertainty)
Test agreement between a model / theory and data
( is it the SM Higgs? is there new physics in sight?)

Dealing with uncertainty
Sources of uncertainty
Quantum mechanics is not deterministic
Measurement uncertainties (independent of QM effects)
Limited knowledge
aspects of measurement or calculation that we could know in
principle but dont
e.g. from limitations of cost, time, equipment, access,
How to treat them?

Using probability tools, we can
Quantify and model these uncertainties
Evaluate their effect on measurements and searches

Random variables (rv), probability density functions (pdf)
Random variable: a numerical characteristic assigned to an element of

the sample space; can be discrete or continuous.
For a continuous value (x):
f(x): probability density function (pdf)
x must have some value
For a variable x with discrete allowed values xi :
probability mass function
x must take on one of its possible values

Histograms
pdf = histogram with

infinite data sample,
zero bin width,
normalized to unit area.

Probability densities for multiple rvs
Outcome of experiment characterized by several values,

e.g. an n-component vector, (x1, ... xn)
joint pdf
We may need only pdf of one (or some) of the components

marginal pdf
x1, x2 independent if
Sometimes we want to consider some components as

constant
conditional pdf

Expectation values
For a continuous r.v. x with pdf f (x).

Expectation (mean) value:
Often denoted ~ center of gravity of pdf.
For a function y(x) with pdf g(y),
(equivalent)
Variance:
Notation:
Standard deviation:
s ~ width of pdf, same units as x.

Some pdfs
Distribution/pdf Example in HEP

Binomial Branching ratio
Multinomial Histogram with fixed N
Poisson Number of events found
Uniform Monte Carlo method
Exponential Decay time
Gaussian Measurement error
Chi-square Goodness-of-fit
Cauchy Mass of resonance
Landau Ionization energy loss

Binomial distribution
Consider N independent experiments (Bernoulli trials), where

outcome of each trial is success or failure;
probability of success on any given trial is p.
Define discrete rv n = number of successes (0 n N).

Probability of a specific sequence (in order): e.g. ssfsf is
But order not important; there are
ways (permutations) to get n successes in N trials, total

probability for n is sum of probabilities for each permutation.

The binomial distribution is then
random parameters
variable
For the expectation value and variance we find:

Binomial distribution for several values of the parameters:
Example: In a total of N observed decays of W, the number n of them

which are W is a binomial rv, p = branching ratio.

Poisson Distribution
Consider binomial n in the limit
n follows the Poisson distribution:
Example: number of scattering events n

with cross section s found for a fixed
integrated luminosity, with

Uniform Distribution
Consider a continuous rv x with - < x < . Uniform pdf is:
Example: for p0 , E is uniform in [Emin, Emax], with
It can be used to produce rv with other pdfs

The Monte Carlo Method
Numerical technique to calculate probabilities and related

quantities using sequences of random numbers.
(1) Generate sequence r1, r2, ..., rm uniform in [0, 1].

(2) Transform it into a sequence x1, x2, ..., xn
distributed according to the pdf of interest, f(x).
(3) Use the x values to estimate some property of f(x),
e.g., fraction of x values with a < x < b gives
Formally, MC calculation = integration

MC-generated values are often used as simulated data
used to test or improve statistical procedures
Monte Carlo event generators
Simple example: e+e- +-
Generate cos and :
Less simple: event generators for a variety of reactions:

e+e- +-, hadrons, ...
pp hadrons, DY, SUSY,...
e.g. PYTHIA, HERWIG, ISAJET...
Output = events, i.e., for each event we get a list of
generated particles and their momentum vectors, types, etc.
Monte Carlo detector simulation
Takes as input the particle list and momenta from MC generator.
Simulates detector response:
multiple Coulomb scattering (generate scattering angle),
particle decays (generate lifetime),
ionization energy loss (generate D),
electromagnetic, hadronic showers,
production of signals, electronics response, ...
Output: simulated raw data
input to reconstruction software: track finding, fitting, etc.
Predict what you should see at detector level given a certain
hypothesis for generator level. Compare with the real data.
Estimate efficiencies = #events found / # events generated.
Programming package: GEANT
Example: Particle Identification
Measure energy and momentum
Measure energy
photon
muon
electron
CMS
~ 3300 physicists (~1500 students)
179 institutes, 41 countries

Particle identification
Measure energy and momentum
Measure energy
Reconstruction and identification are

not perfect:
A very narrow jet of particles can look
photon
like an electron muon
A high energy pion may show up in the
muon detectors (mis-idd as a muon)
If a track for an electron is not found, it
electron will look like a photon
Good precision when measuring e,
CMS Jets are messier and very frequent

Sub-system interaction
Length : ~ 46 m 20MHz ~400Hz by
3-level trigger system
Radius : ~ 12 m
Weight : ~ 7000 tons
~108 electronic channels
3000 km of cables
ATLAS

Full detector simulation

Full detector simulation
Events / 5 GeV
7 ATLAS Preliminary s = 7 TeV Data L dt = 2.3 fb
-1
10 H ZZ ll Total Background
106 Low pile-up data Top
105 ZZ,WZ,WW
Z
104 Other Backgrounds
Signal (m = 200 GeV)
103 H
Signal (m = 400 GeV)
H
102
10
1
Data / MC
1.2
1
0.8
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Emiss
T [GeV]
Missing transverse momentum distribution for events with exactly

two oppositely charged electrons or muons with |mll-mZ|<15 GeV
Full Simulation vs Fast Simulation vs toy MC
Full simulation: Physics Generator
detailed simulation of
particles passage through
detector material
Detector
Magnetic fields simulation Smearing
Particle trajectories
Hits left Reconstruction
Triggers
Full simulation Fast simulation

Reconstruction algorithms:
Event Analysis
same as applied in data
Fast simulation: Toy MC:

Apply resolution functions Use only final distributions;
as measured in data or full e.g., to test fit procedures.
simulation.
Some books and papers on Statistics
G. Cowan, Statistical Data Analysis, Clarendon, Oxford, 1998

see also www.pp.rhul.ac.uk/~cowan/sda
R.J. Barlow, Statistics, A Guide to the Use of Statistical
in the Physical Sciences, Wiley, 1989
see also hepwww.ph.man.ac.uk/~roger/book.html
L. Lyons, Statistics for Nuclear and Particle Physics, CUP, 1986
F. James, Statistical Methods in Experimental Physics, 2nd ed.,
World Scientific, 2007; (W. Eadie et al., 1971).
S. Brandt, Statistical and Computational Methods in Data Analysis,
Springer, New York, 1998 (with program library on CD)
K. Nakamura et al. (Particle Data Group), Review of Particle Physics,
J. Phys. G 37, 075021 (2010);
see also pdg.lbl.gov sections on probability statistics, Monte Carlo

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Topics in Contemporary Physics

Luis Roberto Flores Castillo

Chinese University of Hong Kong

Hong Kong SAR

Colliders & detectors

The Higgs discovery

L. R. Flores Castillo CUHK February 11, 2015 3

L. R. Flores Castillo CUHK February 11, 2015 4

contravariant Scalar product:

L. R. Flores Castillo CUHK February 11, 2015 5

1917: Emmy Noethers theorem:

A symmetry is an operation on a system that leaves it invariant.

L. R. Flores Castillo CUHK February 11, 2015 6

Allowed values integer integer or half integer

A particle with spin 1 :

L. R. Flores Castillo CUHK February 11, 2015 7

L. R. Flores Castillo CUHK February 11, 2015 8

" % " 0 % " 1 %

Operators for the three

L. R. Flores Castillo CUHK February 11, 2015 10

L. R. Flores Castillo CUHK February 11, 2015 11

So the observed K0 should be a linear combination of them

if CP is conserved by the weak interactions

The 2 decay releases more energy, so it should be faster

Conclusion: starting from a beam of K0s, K 0 = 1

In 1956, K2 meson was discovered at Brookhaven.

L. R. Flores Castillo CUHK February 11, 2015 14

Discovered by Cronin and Fitch in 1964.

Conclusion: The long-lived neutral Kaon contains a small

L. R. Flores Castillo CUHK February 11, 2015 15

The TCP theorem, from QFT:

L. R. Flores Castillo CUHK February 11, 2015 18

Large number of high-energy collisions

L. R. Flores Castillo CUHK February 11, 2015 23

Experiment frozen from trigger to end of readout

Rate in Hz Dead time ms. Live time % Trigger rate Hz

L. R. Flores Castillo CUHK February 11, 2015 24

To reduce dead-time: multi-level triggers

L. R. Flores Castillo CUHK February 11, 2015 25

High Level Trigger reduces requirements for

L. R. Flores Castillo CUHK February 11, 2015 26

From detectors > 1014 Bytes/sec

After Level-1 accept ~ 1011 Bytes/sec

Into event builder ~ 109 Bytes/sec

Onto permanent storage ~ 108 Bytes/sec

L. R. Flores Castillo CUHK February 11, 2015 27

L. R. Flores Castillo CUHK February 11, 2015 28

L. R. Flores Castillo CUHK February 11, 2015 29

L. R. Flores Castillo CUHK February 11, 2015 32

Each event allocated to a single processor; large farm of

L. R. Flores Castillo CUHK February 11, 2015 33

Select and study events of

Measure properties of each event (momenta, angles, energy,

L. R. Flores Castillo CUHK February 11, 2015 36

How to treat them?

L. R. Flores Castillo CUHK February 11, 2015 37

Random variable: a numerical characteristic assigned to an element of

For a continuous value (x):

f(x): probability density function (pdf)

x must have some value

For a variable x with discrete allowed values xi :

probability mass function

x must take on one of its possible values