Purposive sampling

Purposive sampling (also known as judgment, selective or subjective sampling) is a sampling

technique in which researcher relies on his or her own judgment when choosing members of
population to participate in the study.

Purposive sampling is a non-probability sampling method and it occurs when elements selected
for the sample are chosen by the judgment of the researcher. Researchers often believe that they
can obtain a representative sample by using a sound judgment, which will result in saving time
and money.[1]

TV reporters stopping certain individuals on the street in order to ask their opinions about certain
political changes constitutes the most popular example of this sampling method. However, it is
important to specify that the TV reporter has to apply certain judgment when deciding who to
stop on the street to ask questions; otherwise it would be the case of random sampling technique.

Alternatively, purposive sampling method may prove to be effective when only limited numbers
of people can serve as primary data sources due to the nature of research design and aims and
objectives. For example, for a research analysing affects of personal tragedy such as family
bereavement on performance of senior level managers the researcher may use his/her own
judgment in order to choose senior level managers who could particulate in in-depth interviews.

In purposive sampling personal judgment needs to be used to choose cases that help answer
research questions or achieve research objectives.
According to the type of cases, purposive sampling can be divided into the following six
categories[1]:

1. Typical case. Explains cases that are average and normal.

2. Extreme or deviant case. Deriving samples from cases that are perceived
as unusual or rare such as exploring the reasons for corporate failure by
interviewing executives that have been fired by shareholders.

3. Critical case sampling focuses on specific cases that are dramatic or very
important.

4. Heterogeneous or maximum variation sampling relies on researchers

judgment to select participants with diverse characteristics. This is done to
ensure the presence of maximum variability within the primary data.

5. Homogeneous sampling focuses on focuses on one particular subgroup in

which all the sample members are similar, such as a particular occupation or
level in an organizations hierarchy[2]

6. Theoretical sampling is a special case of purposive sampling that is based

on an inductive method of Grounded Theory.

Application of Purposive Sampling (Judgment Sampling): an Example

Suppose, your dissertation topic has been approved as the following:

A study into the impact of tax scandal on the brand image of Starbucks Coffee in the UK

If you decide to apply questionnaire primary data collection method with use of purposive
sampling, you can go out to Oxford Street and stop what seems like a reasonable cross-section of
people in the street to survey.

Another example. Your research objective is to determine the patterns of use of social media by
global IT consulting companies based in the US. Rather than applying random sampling and
choosing subjects who may not be available, you can use purposive sampling to choose IT
companies whose availability and attitude are compatible with the study.

Advantages of Purposive Sampling (Judgment Sampling)

1. Purposive sampling is one of the most cost-effective and time-effective

sampling methods available

2. Purposive sampling may be the only appropriate method available if there are
only limited number of primary data sources who can contribute to the study
 3. This sampling technique can be effective in exploring anthropological
situations where the discovery of meaning can benefit from an intuitive
approach

Disadvantages of Purposive Sampling (Judgment Sampling)

1. Vulnerability to errors in judgment by researcher

2. Low level of reliability and high levels of bias.

3. Inability to generalize research findings

Because of these disadvantages purposive sampling (judgment sampling) method is not very
popular in business studies, and the majority of dissertation supervisors usually do advice
selecting alternative sampling methods with higher levels of reliability and low bias such
as quota, cluster, and systematic sampling methods

My e-book, The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Dissertation in Business Studies: a step by step
approach contains a detailed, yet simple explanation of sampling methods. The e-book explains
all stages of the research process starting from the selection of the research area to writing
personal reflection. Important elements of dissertations such as research philosophy, research
approach, research design, methods of data collection and data analysis are explained in this e-
book in simple words.

John Dudovskiy
[1] Black, K. (2010) Business Statistics: Contemporary Decision Making 6 th edition, John
Wiley & Sons

[2] Saunders, M., Lewis, P. & Thornhill, A. (2012) Research Methods for Business Students
6th edition, Pearson Education Limited

[3] Saunders, M., Lewis, P. & Thornhill, A. (2012) Research Methods for Business Students
6th edition, Pearson Education Limited p.288

Average Family Income in 2015 is Estimated

at 22 Thousand Pesos Monthly (Results from
the 2015 Family Income and Expenditure
Survey)
Reference Number:
2016-154

Release Date:
Monday, October 24, 2016

The survey results showed that the average annual family income of Filipino families was
approximately 267 thousand pesos. In comparison, the average annual family expenditure for
the same year was 215 thousand pesos. Hence, Filipino families has savings of 52 thousand
pesos in a year, on average.

Adjusting for the inflation for the two reference years using the 2006 prices, the average annual
family income in 2015 would be valued at 189 thousand pesos, while the average annual family
expenditure would be valued at 152 thousand pesos (Table 1).

Families were grouped and ranked into per capita income deciles. The richest decile represents
families belonging to the highest ten percent in terms of per capita income, while the poorest
decile represents families in the lowest ten percent. From 2012 to 2015, average annual family
income in all deciles increased, the average ranged from 86 thousand pesos for the first income
decile (lowest 10 percent) to 786 thousand pesos for the tenth income decile (highest 10 percent)
in 2015. The average annual family income of the tenth decile in 2015 was about 9 times that of
the first decile, while it was 10 times that of the first decile in 2012 (Table 2a).
All regions showed increases in the average annual family income at 2015 prices. Families in
the National Capital Region (NCR), had the highest average annual family income for both years
at 425 thousand pesos in 2015 and 379 thousand pesos in 2012. Meanwhile, families in Davao
Region, had the highest increase of 53 thousand pesos in 2015 (Table 3a).

The Gini coefficient, which is a measure of income inequality within a population, was estimated
at 0.4439 for year 2015. This figure is slightly lower than the 2012 ratio of 0.4605, which may
indicate some improvement in the income distribution among families. (Table 4). A Gini
coefficient ranges from 0 to 1, with 0 indicating perfect income equality among families, while a
value of 1 indicates absolute income inequality.

In 2015, about 41.9 percent of the total annual family expenditures was spent on food. For
families in the bottom 30 percent income group, the percentage was much higher at 59.7percent,
while for families in the upper 70 percent income group, it was 38.8 percent (Table 5).

The 2015 Family Income and Expenditure Survey (FIES) is a nationwide survey of households
undertaken every three years. It is the main source of data on family income and expenditure.

(Sgd) LISA GRACE S. BERSALES, Ph.D.

National Statistician and Civil Registrar General

TECHNICAL NOTES

The 2015 Family Income and Expenditure Survey (FIES) is a nationwide survey of households
undertaken every three years. It is the main source of data on family income and expenditure,
which include among others, levels of consumption by item of expenditure as well as sources of
income in cash and in kind. The results of FIES provide information on the levels of living and
disparities in income of Filipino families, as well as their spending patterns.

The 2015 FIES is a sample survey designed to provide income and expenditure data that are
representative of the country and its 17 regions. It used four replicates of the 2003 Master
Sample (MS) created for household surveys on the basis of the 2000 Census of Population and
Housing. The 2003 MS has been designed to produce the sample size needed for large surveys,
like the FIES. To facilitate subsampling, the 2003 MS has been designed to readily produce four
replicate samples from the full set of sampled PSUs.

Starting 2012 FIES, the survey adopted the 2009 Philippine Classification of Individual
Consumption According to Purpose (PCOICOP). The 2009 PCOICOP is the first standard
classification of individual consumption expenditure in the country.
The 2015 FIES enumeration was conducted twice the first visit was done in July 2015 with the
first semester January to June as the reference period; the second visit was made in January 2016
with the second semester of 2015, that is, July to December 2015 as reference period. The same
set of questions is asked for both visits.

The number of families for the 2015 FIES was estimated using the household population
projections-based on the household population counts from the 2010 Census of Population and
Housing (CPH).

The set of samples selected for the 2015 FIES is only one of the possible sets of samples of equal
size that have been selected from the same population using the same sampling design.
Estimates derived from each of these sets of samples would differ from one another. Sampling
error is a measure of the variability of the estimates among all possible sets of samples. It is
usually measures in terms of the standard errors for a particular statistic.

The standard error can be used to calculate confidence intervals within which the true value for
the population can reasonably be assumed to fall. For example, for any given statistic calculated
from a sample survey, the value of that statistic will fall within a range of plus or minus two
times the standard error of that statistic in 95 percent of all possible samples of the same size and
design.

The Public Interest Theory of regulation explains, in general terms, that regulation
seeks the protection and benefit of the public at large. This paper argues that
possibly the Public Interest Theory does not exist as such for reasons that will be
discussed later. In addition, the paper contends that the Stigler's and Posner's
characterisation of the Public Interest Theory has similarities with the welfare
economics rationale for regulation. Nevertheless, the similarities do not prove or
deny a connection between both the concepts of public interest and the welfare
economics rationale for regulation.

Public interest theory

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Public interest theory is an economic theory first developed by Arthur Cecil Pigou[1] that holds
that regulation is supplied in response to the demand of the public for the correction of inefficient
or inequitable market practices. Regulation is assumed initially to benefit society as a whole
rather than particular vested interests.[2] The regulatory body is considered to represent the
interest of the society in which it operates rather than the private interests of the regulators.[3]

Assumptions
This theory assumes that markets are extremely fragile and apt to operate very inefficiently (or
inequitably) if left alone.[citation needed] The government is assumed to be a neutral arbiter.

The public interest view holds that governments regulate banks to facilitate the efficient
functioning of banks by ameliorating market failures, for the benefit of broader civil society. In
banking, the public interest would be served if the banking system allocated resources in a
socially efficient manner (i.e. maximizing output and minimizing variance[4] ) and performed
well other functions of finance.[5]

Criticisms
Public interest theory is usually contrasted with public choice theory that is more cynical about
government behaviour and motives, and sees regulation as being socially inefficient. Moreover
according to Stigler [6] regulation can be captured by incumbent firms to protect the market from
the entry of competitors. Critics believe this will only occur when the public demands a better a
locative efficiency.[citation needed]

References
Pigou, A. C. (1932) The Economics of Welfare. London: Macmillan and Co.
Deegan, C., Unerman, J. (2011) Financial Accounting Theory. Maidenhead: McGraw-
Hill Education.
Richard A. Posner, Theories of Economic Regulation, The Bell Journal of Economics and
Management Science, Vol. 5, No. 2 (Autumn, 1974), pp. 335-358
Misham, E. J. (1969) Welfare Economics: An assessment (Amsterdam and London:
North Holland publishing company.
Levine (1997) notes that these other functions consist of facilitating payments, mobilising
and pooling savings from disparate savers, allocating capital, monitoring firms and managers,
and providing tools for the management and trading of a variety of risk.
Stigler, G.J. 1972. "The Theory of Economic Regulation". Bell Journal of Economics and
Management Science 11: 3-21.

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Must-know: All the basic road markings in PH and what each one means
by Niky TamayoApr 29, 2016

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Reading road markings is an important skill for new drivers, yet it's one that even veteran
drivers seem to lack. Perhaps it's because our road signage and markings seem to be in a
perpetual state of flux, and even the authorities painting them often seem puzzled by where they
should actually go.

When you find lane markings directing you into a telephone pole planted in the middle of the
road, it's probably best to use your better judgment instead. Even so, it can't hurt to familiarize
yourself with these basic lane markings, because they might save your life.
1. Solid white shoulder line. This denotes the edge of the roadway. Any asphalt or concrete
surface beyond this line should not be used during the normal operation of your vehicle.
2. Diagonal white lines. An area filled with diagonal white lines and bordered by solid white
lines is not considered part of the roadway, and vehicles are expected to stay off unless there is
an emergency. These areas are often used to ease the flow of traffic where roads diverge or
intersect.

3. Broken white center line or lane divider. This denotes the center of a two-lane road, or
marks the division between lanes on multi-lane roads. It is a reminder to stay in your lane.
Straddling the line is illegal and punishable under the law. As the line is broken, however, this
means it is legal to cross it when overtaking or changing lanes. Bear in mind that vehicles
continuing in a straight line within their lane automatically have right of way, so wait your turn.
4. Solid white center line. This is often used to divide traffic on a two-way multi-lane road. As
this is a solid line, you are discouraged from overtaking over it unless the way is absolutely clear.
5. Solid white double center line. You are forbidden from overtaking over this line, but you
may make left turns over it, provided the way is clear. Remember, however, that oncoming traffic
still automatically has right of way.

6. Solid yellow double center line. As we noted a while back, this line indicates that it is unsafe
to overtake at any time. It is often found around blind curves or in areas where fast-moving two-
way traffic meets on an undivided road.
7. Mixed center line/solid yellow with broken yellow or white line. This indicates that only
one side can overtake--the side with the broken line. This is often found entering curves where
the view is obstructed coming from one direction, but is clear from the opposite side.
8. Solid white lane divider. These are often found near intersections, and are reminders to stay
in lane. As a practice, if you're turning at an intersection, it's best to get into the turning lane 50m
before the intersection, while the lane divider is still broken.
9. Directional arrows. When combined with solid white lane dividers, they indicate which
directions you are allowed to go within a lane. If the arrow points forward only, you cannot make
a turn from that lane. If it points forward and to the side, you can either go straight or turn. If it
points only to the side, you must turn within that lane. Ignoring these arrows might just get you a
ticket, or worse, get you into an accident.
10. Broken blue lane divider. This indicates the motorbike lane along major thoroughfares. The
broken line indicates that you can move into and out of it, but the lane is preferentially for
motorbikes.
11. Solid yellow lane divider. This indicates the bus lane on EDSA, but can also be used to
indicate bicycle lanes in some areas. Bicycle lanes may also be indicated by solid white lines on
the side of the road.
12. Broken yellow lane divider. This indicates areas where you can merge into the bus lane in
preparation for turning off EDSA.
13. Mixed double lane divider/solid yellow with broken yellow or white line. This indicates
that traffic on the solid yellow side cannot cross lanes, while traffic on the other side may do so if
the way is clear. This is often used where smaller arteries merge into main roads or where feeder
roads merge onto the highway.
14. Rumble strips. These tightly spaced horizontal white lines not only give your car's
suspension a bit of a workout, they also indicate hazards ahead, such as dangerous curves or
merging traffic.
15. Solid white horizontal line. This indicates where you must stop at a stoplight or stop sign.
16. Zebra crossing. This indicates a pedestrian crossing zone. Stopping over this at a red light is
a traffic violation, so make sure to pay attention to those light timers!

17. The yellow box. This box indicates the part of the intersection that must--by law--be kept
open at all times. Even if you have a green light, if the traffic is stopped on the other side ahead,
it's best to wait until there's enough space for you to clear the yellow box. Even in the absence of
a light, the yellow box must be kept clear.

Memorize these road markings and you will be more law-abiding than 90% of drivers on
Philippine roads, guaranteed. And hopefully safer as well.

Illustrations by Niky Tamayo