MECHANICAL

MECHANICAL
PRINCIPLES
PRINCIPLES
ENGINE

- FOUR STROKE CYCLE

- COMBUSTION
- ENGINE COMPONENTS
- ENGINE BLOCK
- PISTONS, PISTON RINGS
- CRANK SHAFT
- CAMSHAFT
- VALVES
- INTAKE MANIFOLD
- EXHAUST MANIFOLD
FOUR STROKE CYCLE
A four stroke cycle means that
the piston in each cylinder must
travel the length of the cylinder
four times (2 up strokes and 2
down strokes) to complete one
cycle for that cylinder.
Because the engine has 4
cylinders, each piston in the cylinder
will be moving in a different stroke. It
takes 720 degrees of crankshaft
rotation (2 full revolutions) to complete
one four stroke cycle for each cylinder.
FOUR STROKE CYCLE

o INTAKE STROKE - High Pressure Attempts to Equalize Low

Pressure.

o COMPRESSION STROKE - Volume of Gas Decreases,

Temperature and Pressure Increase.

o POWER STROKE - Pressure and Temperature Increase,

Volume Increases.

o EXHAUST STROKE - High Pressure Gas Attempts to Equalize

Low Pressure Exhaust System.
INTAKE
The piston is being pulled downward by the
crankshaft resulting in a low pressure area
in the cylinder and the intake manifold.
The pressure in the cylinder is lower
than atmospheric. The air/-fuel mix is "pushed"
into the cylinder as the higher atmospheric
pressure attempts to equalize the lower
pressure area in the cylinder. The air/fuel
mix enters the cylinder past the opening
intake valve, and continues to enter the
cylinder until the intake valve reaches full closure.
INTAKE

As the piston nears BDC on the intake stroke, the amount of

air/fuel mix coming into the cylinder decreases rapidly. Due to
the weight and movement (inertia-molecular attraction) of the
mix it will continue to enter the cylinder until the intake valve
closes.
COMPRESSION

After the piston reaches BDC on the intake

stroke, it begins to move upward. This is
the beginning of the compression stroke.
As the stroke begins the intake and
exhaust valve is closed, thus sealing the
cylinder. As the piston travels upward the
air/fuel mix is compressed and by the time
the piston reaches TDC, the air/ fuel mix
has been compressed to approx. 1/8th of
its original volume.
COMPRESSION

This compression causes the molecules of the air/fuel mix to

move around in the combustion chamber.

The more upward in the cylinder the piston moves, the

higher the pressure in the chamber, and the faster the
molecules move. This causes the molecules to "bump" into
each other and the walls of the chamber, raising the
temperature inside the chamber. As the piston nears TDC,
the spark is introduced to the combustion chamber. This
causes the air/fuel mix to begin to burn, and to expand in the
chamber.
POWER

As the piston passes TDC and

begins to travel downward on the
power stroke, the burning gases
exert great pressure on the walls of
the chamber and the head of the
piston. This increase in pressure
drives the piston downward, thus
driving the crankshaft and the other
pistons.
POWER

NOTE :
It is during this stroke that the reciprocal (up-down) motion of
the piston is converted to the rotary (circular) motion of the
crankshaft that is used to drive the vehicle. As the piston
nears BDC the exhaust valve begins to open and the high
pressure, burned gases start to exit the cylinder.
EXHAUST

The piston begins to travel upward in the cylinder

on the exhaust stroke. The exhaust valve fully
opens, then begins to close during the stroke.
Pressure within the cylinder when the exhaust
valve opens causes the exhaust gases to rush
out of the cylinder past the valve and into the
exhaust system. The upward movement of the
piston, along with the effects of valve overlap
causes the rest of the burned gases to exit the
cylinder.
VALVE OVERLAP
Valve overlap is the amount of time
between the end of the exhaust overlap
stroke and the beginning of the intake
stroke when both valves are open
simultaneously. The amount
of overlap is critical as any
increase or decrease will adversely
affect emissions and engine
performance, especially idle
quality. The purposes of valve
overlap are
1) to improve volumetric efficiency
VALVE OVERLAP

2) to help scavenge burned exhaust gases from the cylinder.

Valve overlap improves volumetric efficiency by opening the
intake valve early enough to begin introducing a new fuel charge
to the cylinder before the down stroke of the piston. This allows
the cylinder a slightly larger charge than could be attained by
opening the valve at the beginning of the intake stroke.

Scavenging of the cylinder is improved because the incoming

fuel charge helps to push out any remaining burned gases. This
action also helps to cool the exhaust valve.
COMBUSTION CHAMBER
The combustion chamber of the DOHC engine is referred to as
having a "pent roof" shape. This is different than a "wedge" or
"hemispherical" shaped chamber. The spark plug is positioned
in the center of the combustion chamber, in line with and along
the length of the block.
SOHC DOHC
NORMAL COMBUSTION
The combustions process in the automotive engine
combustion chamber goes through 3 stages,
sometimes termed as formation (nucleus of flame),
hatching out and propagation. As soon as the spark
occurs, a small ball of flame develops in the gap.
This ball is the first stage, or nucleus of the flame. It
enlarges with relative slowness and, during its
growth, there is no measurable pressure created by Spark Occurs
the heat. As the nucleus enlarges, it develops into
the hatching out stage. The nucleus is torn apart, so
that it sends "fingers" of flame into the mixture in the
combustion chamber.

Nucleus Stage
NORMAL COMBUSTION
This causes enough heat to slightly raise the
temperature and pressure throughout the entire
A/F mix. During the 3rd stage propagation, the
burning of the fuel begins to have the greatest
effect. The flame "front" sweeps across the
chamber rapidly causing heat and a rise in
pressure. This third stage is what causes the Hatching Out Stage
piston to move down.
With normal combustion, the burning is
progressive, and increases gradually during the
first two stages. But, during the propagation
stage the flame is very strong.
Propagation Stage
ABNORMAL COMBUSTION

Although there are a number of different types of abnormal combustion that

could be discussed, two that most relate to the automotive internal
combustion engine are Pre-ignition and Detonation.
Common causes of pre-ignition include :
1. Hot carbon deposits
2. Valves operating at higher than operating temperature
3. Defects in the cooling system causing hot spots in the cylinder
4. Spark plugs running too hot
5. Sharp edges in the combustion chamber
6. Detonation
PRE-IGNITION

Ignition of the fuel charge before the normal

ignition spark occurs.
With pre-ignition the combustion process is
started too early. If the process is
completed before the regular spark occurs
there may be no identifying noise. If regular
Pre-ignition Occurs
spark occurs soon after the pre-ignition
combustion has begun, a pinging noise
results from the collision of the two flame
fronts.

Spark Occurs
PRE-IGNITION

Pre-ignition can cause detonation and

vice-versa. These two types of
abnormal combustion are closely linked,
can be caused by many of the same Flame Travel
problems and it is often hard to tell one
from the other.

Flame Front Meet Knock

ENGINE BLOCK

The engine block serves as a rigid

metal foundation for all parts of the
engine. It contains the cylinders,
the cooling system "water jacket",
and supports the crankshaft
mounting points, the oil pump, and
distributor mounts. The cylinder
head(s) and accessories are
usually bolted to it. The block also
forms the upper part of the
crankcase.
PISTONS

The piston is a plug driven up and down

by the crankshaft residing in the cylinder.
The movement of the piston provides
the action in the cylinder. It is used to
draw, compress, drive and push.
The piston alternately drives, and is
driven by the crankshaft. It changes
directions at high speeds, subjected to
intense heat and friction and receives
tremendous pressure from the
combustion process.
PISTON RINGS

The piston rings must seal in

compression, transfer heat, clean the
cylinder walls, withstand high
pressures, and have a long wear rate.
Most piston designs incorporate three
rings for two purposes. Usually the two
rings toward the top of the piston are
compression rings. The third and
lowest of the rings is actually a
combination of parts making up the oil
control ring.
PISTON RINGS

The compression rings must keep the pressures of combustion

from passing into the crankcase and must create a seal against
the cylinder walls for the cylinder to become a low-pressure
area during the intake stroke. The rings are designed to allow
the forces of compression and combustion to come in behind
them and force them out against the walls of the cylinder. The
rings not only have to seal at the cylinder walls, but also in the
ring-groove/ring-land area.
CONNECTING ROD
The connecting rod connects the piston
to the crankshaft. It is subjected to very
high tensile, compression and bending
stresses and carries the bearings for
the piston pin and the crank pin. Upper
side of connecting rod is called small
end which is connected to piston by
piston pin. Lower side of connecting
rod is named big end which is
connected to crank pin. The length of
the connecting rod is determined by
the piston stroke and the crank pin
radius.
CRANKSHAFT

The crankshaft is the point at which the reciprocating motion of

the piston and rod is changed to the rotary motion needed to
power the driveline of the vehicle.
The crankshaft revolves in bearings called the "main" bearings.
These bearings are housed in the main bearing bores of the
engine block and are manufactured under very close tolerances
to withstand extreme loads.
CRANKSHAFT

Crank Pin

Crankshaft
Position
Sensing
Wheel
Balance Weights
CAMSHAFT
The second rotating shaft in the engine is the camshaft and its function is to
operate the valve train. Cam shape or contour is the major factor in the
operating characteristics of the engine.

SOHC
CAMSHAFT

DOHC
Exhaust Cam

No 1 No 2 No 3 No 4
Intake Cam
CAMSHAFT

NOTE :
Camshafts are also used to drive other engine components
such as the oil pump and fuel pump. Pushrod engines have the
cam located in the block, and operate the valves through lifters,
pushrods, rocker arms, etc. Overhead cam engines have the
cam in the cylinder head. This eliminates the lifters and
pushrods, and there is less lost motion in the valve train.
Because the valve follows the cam more closely, the valves can
operate faster, and the engine can operate with less valve
overlap. This allows a high-speed engine to idle more smoothly.
CAMSHAFT
Nose

Opening Ramp Closing Ramp

The function of the cam is to
open and close the valves.
The closing force for the

e n rt
op sta
valves is applied by the Valve

to lve
closes
valve springs which are also

Va
responsible for maintaining clearance
contact between the cam
and the valves.

Base Circle
CAMSHAFT

Cam lobe shape has more control over engine performance

than any other single engine part. The shape of the lobe
determines when the valves open, how far they open, and how
long they are open. This determines the amount of valve
overlap. The cam controls the amount of air that comes into the
engine, and that goes out. Any change in the shape of a cam
lobe results in a change in engine performance.
VALVES

In most automotive engines there are two valves per cylinder : an

intake valve and an exhaust valve. The intake valve is the larger of
the two. When the intake valve is opened, the only force driving the
mix into the cylinder is atmospheric pressure. The exhaust valve can
be smaller because the motion of the piston combined with the high
pressures in the cylinder forces the burned mix out.
The valve used today is the beveled poppet valve. Its cone shaped
seating surface makes it self-centering when it closes. This closes
the valve tightly to seal in the combustion gases, and helps to
transfer heat from the valve face, to the seat, to the cooling system.
Temperatures at which a valve operates are extremely high.
VALVES

One of the most common causes for a burned valve is poor cooling
system performance at the seat or guide area.

Lock groove
Intake Exhaust Exhaust
Valve Valve Port
Intake Port
Valve Guide
Spark
Plug
Stem

Intake valve Exhaust valve

Air Fuel
Mixture
VALVES

NOTE :
Cooling of the valve during operation is done in a number of ways. An
intake valve average running temperature will rarely get above 480 to 540
degrees. The exhaust valve commonly operates at 760 degrees C and
higher. The cylinder head is designed to bring coolant very near to the
valve seats and guides. About 75% of valve heat is lost through the seat
and 25% through the guide. The casting of the head also incorporates
"deflectors "in the water passages to circulate the coolant around these hot
spots. Exhaust gases can reach 1650 degrees C.
VALVE GUIDES

The main function of the

guide is to keep the valve
centered over the seat and
secondarily it must transfer
heat from the valve to the Valve Guide

cooling system. Because of

friction and heat, the guide
area is a high wear point.
VALVE SEALS

Valve Stem
Seal
Valve seals are used to keep
engine oil out of the
combustion chamber. They are
attached either to the valve
stem or to the valve guide boss Valve
Stem
in the cylinder head.
Valve
Stem
Seal
VALVE SEALS

They allow the oil in the cylinder head to run off the valve gear
without going down the guide. Failed seals will allow pressure in the
manifold to "suck" oil down the guide and into the cylinder.
There are a number of different designs of valve seals. The "O" ring
simply fits around the valve stem just under the keepers. The
"umbrella" type seal also fits around the stem, but is larger and
"sheds" oil away from the guide more efficiently.
VALVE SPRINGS
Valve springs hold the valves against the seats. One end of the valve
spring is seated against the head. The other end is secured, under
compression to the valve stem by a valve spring retainer and a valve
spring keeper. Problems associated with valve springs include when a
spring becomes weak it can cause the valve to bounce on closure, to
close too slowly, or not close at all. In extreme cases it should be
replaced, otherwise a shim can be placed under it.
Another problem is spring oscillation or surge. When the valve is opened
and closed at high speeds, a vibration can start to set up in the spring's
coils. If severe, the spring will begin to oscillate, or extend and compress
on its own. It can become great enough to open and close the valve.
VALVE SPRINGS

A weak or oscillating spring can contribute to "floating" the valve train. A

number of devices have been used to combat valve spring oscillation.
These are called vibration dampeners. The most used method is the
closed coils. The spring is built so the last coil on each end of the spring
rubs against the second last coils. This gives the spring a variable rate of
tension. It is stronger when compressed than when extended. Another
method is the flat coiled damper inside the spring. The damper looks like
a flat spring with the flat sides facing in and out. The damper rubs against
the inside coils of the valve spring. It adds some spring tension to the
entire assembly, and causes a turning action in the spring assembly
when the valve is returned to its seat.
VALVE SPRINGS

This helps the valve to "wipe"

the seat clean during Spring
Retainer
operation. Multiple valve
springs are used where large
lifts are required and one Spring
spring cannot control the
valve. Multiple springs have
Valve
their coils wound in opposite Stem
Seal
directions to control valve
spring surge and excessive Valve
Spring
rotation. Seat
INTAKE MANIFOLD

The intake manifold is a series of tubes for carrying the air/fuel mix
from throttle body to the cylinder intake ports. Manifold sizes are a
compromise. They must have a cross section large enough to allow
enough charge to flow for maximum power and small enough to
keep flow velocities high to keep the droplets in suspension.
Manifold heat is necessary to evaporate the fuel droplets efficiently.
The intake charge temperature must be above 38-55 degrees C to
evaporate correctly. This is why intake manifolds have special
runners through which exhaust is passed to heat the manifold.
Exhaust heat is only provided during engine warm-up to prevent the
manifold becoming too hot. Some engines use coolant to warm the
fuel charge.
INTAKE MANIFOLD

Coolant is used where a uniform temperature is needed. In today's

engines there is normally an additional opening in the intake
manifold for E.G.R. purposes.

Manifold
EXHAUST MANIFOLD

The exhaust manifold is designed to collect the high temperature

spent gases from the cylinder head ports and send them to the
outside air. This must be done with the least possible restriction or
back pressure while keeping system noise to a minimum.
EXHAUST MANIFOLD

Exhaust gas temperature will vary according to the power

output of the engine. Severe bends have little effect on the flow
of exhaust gas. A large cross-sectional area must be
maintained in the manifold runners and the exhaust system, as
the gases expand at a very high rate. Small diameter runners
and exhaust pipes will cause too much back pressure.