19.

MOTIVATION
Teaching notes

Learning outcomes of session

The session will cover:
The process of motivation
Types of motivation
Motivation theories
Motivation and money
Motivation strategies

Key concepts and terms

In addition, definitions will be provided of the following concepts and terms:
Content (needs) motivation theoryMaslows hierarchy of needs
Discretionary behaviour/effortMcClellands need theory
Equity theory Motivation
ERG theoryProcess or cognitive theory (motivation)
Expectancy motivation theory Quality of working life
Extrinsic motivation Reinforcement theory
Goal motivation theorySocial learning theory
Herzbergs two-factor theory of motivationTheory X
Instrumentality Theory Y
Instrumentality motivation theoryValency-instrumentality-expectancy theory
Intrinsic motivation

Contents
These notes contain:
An outline of the session
Definitions of key concepts and terms
Questions and discussion points
A bibliography
Session outline
The process of motivation
Motivation is goal-directed behaviour.
People are motivated when they expect that a course of action is likely to
lead to the attainment of a goal and a valued reward one that satisfies their
needs and wants.
Types of motivation
The two basic types are:
1. Intrinsic motivation the self-generated factors that influence peoples
behaviour, which may arise from the work itself.
2. Extrinsic motivation this occurs when things are done to or for people to
motivate them.
Motivation theories
Motivation theories are classified as:
reinforcement theory;
instrumentality;
content (needs) theory;
process theory;
Herzbergs two-factors model.
Reinforcement theory
As experience is gained in taking action to satisfy needs, people perceive that
certain actions help to achieve their goals, while others are less successful.
Instrumentality
The belief that if we do one thing it will lead to another. It assumes that people
will be motivated to work if rewards and penalties are tied directly to their
performance; thus the awards are contingent upon effective performance.
Content (needs) theory
The theory focuses on the content of motivation in the shape of needs. Its basis
is the belief that an unsatisfied need creates tension and a state of
disequilibrium. To restore the balance a goal is identified that will satisfy the
need, and a behaviour pathway is selected that will lead to the achievement of
the goal and the satisfaction of the need. All behaviour is therefore motivated by
unsatisfied needs. Needs theory has been developed by Maslow, Alderfer and
McClelland:
Maslows hierarchy of needs there are five major need categories that
apply to people in general, starting from the fundamental physiological needs
and leading through a hierarchy of safety, social and esteem needs to the need
for self-fulfilment, the highest need of all. When a lower need is satisfied the next
highest becomes dominant and the individuals attention is turned to satisfying
this higher need. The need for self-fulfilment, however, can never be satisfied.
Maslow`s needs hierarchy has an intuitive appeal and has been very popular. But
it has not been verified by empirical research such as that conducted by Wahba
and Bridwell (1979), and it has been criticized for its apparent rigidity different
people may have different priorities and it is difficult to accept that needs
progress steadily up the hierarchy.
Alderfer (1972) devised his ERG theory of human needs, which has three
categories: existence needs, relatedness needs and growth needs.
McClelland (1961) identified three needs as being most important for
managers: achievement, affiliation and power.
Process theory
Process theory is concerned with the psychological processes or forces that
affect motivation, as well as basic needs. The main process theories are:
Expectancy theory motivation will be high when people know what they
have to do to get a reward, expect that they will be able to get the reward and
expect that the reward will be worthwhile.
Goal theory motivation and performance are higher when individuals are
set specific goals, when goals are difficult but accepted, and when there is
feedback on performance.
Equity theory this refers to the perceptions people have about how they
are being treated as compared with others. Better motivation is achieved when
people are dealt with equitably, ie treated fairly in comparison with another
group of people (a reference group) or a relevant other person.
These three process theories are generally regarded as the most significant.
Expectancy theory is particularly important in reward management.
Herzbergs two-factor model
The two factors in Herzbergs model are:
1. Te satisfiers that motivate individuals to superior performance and effort.
2. The dissatisfiers or hygiene factors that prevent job dissatisfaction, while
having little effect on positive job attitudes.

Herzberg pointed out that while financial incentives may motivate in the short
term, the effect quickly wears off. This theory has been attacked because it is
said to be based on inadequate research. But the concepts of hygiene factors
and the transient effect of rewards persist.
Motivation and money
Money is a powerful motivating force because it is linked directly or indirectly to
the satisfaction of many needs. Money may in itself have no intrinsic meaning,
but it acquires significant motivating power because it comes to symbolize so
many intangible goals.
Motivation strategies
Motivation strategies aim to create a working environment and to develop
policies and practices that will provide for higher levels of performance from
employees. They include the development of total reward systems and
performance management processes, the design of intrinsically motivating jobs
and leadership development programmes.
Summary of motivation theories

Category Type Theorist Summary of theory Implications

(s)
Instrumentalit Taylorism Taylor If we do one thing it leads Basis of crude
y (1911) to another. People will be attempts to motivate
motivated to work if people by incentives.
rewards and punishments Often used as the
are directly related to implied rationale for
their performance. performance-related
pay, although this is
seldom an effective
motivator.
Reinforcemen The Hull As experience is gained Provide feedback that
t motivatio (1951) in satisfying needs, positively reinforces
n people perceive that effective behaviour.
process certain actions help to
achieve goals while
others are unsuccessful.
The successful actions
are repeated when a
similar need arises.
Needs Hierarch Maslow A hierarchy of five needs Focuses attention on
(content) y of (1954) exist: physiological, the various needs that
theory needs safety, social, esteem, motivate people and
self-fulfilment. Needs at a the notion that a
higher level only emerge satisfied need is no
when a lower need is longer a motivator.
satisfied. The concept of a
hierarchy has no
practical significance.
ERG Alderfer Three fundamental A simpler and more
theory (1972) needs: existence, convincing approach
relatedness and growth. to Maslows on the
motivation provided
by needs.
 Manageri McClellan Managers have three Draws attention to the
al needs d (1975) fundamental needs: needs of managers
theory achievement, affiliation and the important
and power. concept of
achievement
motivation.
Process/cogni Expectan Vroom Effort (motivation) The key theory
tive theory cy theory (1964), depends on the likelihood informing approaches
Porter that rewards will follow to rewards, ie that
and effort and that the reward there must be a link
Lawler is worthwhile. between effort and
(1968) reward (line of sight),
the reward should be
achievable and it
should be worthwhile.
Goal Latham Motivation will improve if Provides the rationale
theory and people have demanding for performance
Locke but agreed goals and management, goal
(1979) receive feedback. setting and feedback.
Equity Adams People are better Need to have
theory (1965) motivated if treated equitable reward and
equitably. employment
practices.
Social Bandura Emphasizes the Influences
learning importance of internal performance
(1977)
theory psychological factors, management and
especially expectancies learning and
about the value of goals development
and the individual's practices.
ability to reach them.
Category Type Theorist Summary of theory Implications
(s)
Theory X and General McGregor Theory X is the traditional Emphasizes the
theory Y approach (1960) view that people must be importance of
es to coerced into performing; commitment, rewards
motivatio theory Y is the view that and integrating
n people will exercise self- individual and
direction and self- organizational needs.
direction in the service of
objectives to which they
are committed.
Definitions of key concepts and terms
Content (needs) motivation theory A theory based on the content of motivation
in the shape of needs. It states that an unsatisfied need creates tension and a
state of disequilibrium. To restore the balance a goal is identified that will satisfy
the need, and a behaviour pathway is selected that will lead to the achievement
of the goal and the satisfaction of the need.
Discretionary behaviour/effort The discretion or choice people at work can
exercise about the way they do their job and the amount of effort, care,
innovation and productive behaviour they display.
Equity theory This refers to the perceptions people have about how they are
being treated as compared with others. To be dealt with equitably is to be treated
fairly in comparison with another group of people (a reference group) or a
relevant other person.
ERG theory Alderfers theory of human needs (1972), which postulated three
primary categories: existence, relatedness and growth.
Expectancy motivation theory The theory that motivation will be high when
people know what they have to do to get a reward, expect that they will be able
to get the reward and expect that the reward will be worthwhile.
Extrinsic motivation This occurs when things are done to or for people to
motivate them.
Goal motivation theory As developed by Latham and Locke (1979), this states
that motivation and performance are higher when individuals are set specific
goals, when goals are difficult but accepted, and when there is feedback on
performance.
Herzbergs two-factor theory of motivation The motivation factors in
Herzberg`s model are the satisfiers or motivators, because they are seen to be
effective in motivating the individual to superior performance and effort, and the
dissatisfiers (the hygiene factors), which essentially describe the environment
and serve primarily to prevent job dissatisfaction, while having little effect on
positive job attitudes.
Instrumentality The concept that if one thing is done it will lead to another.
Instrumentality motivation theory People will be motivated to work if rewards
and penalties are tied directly to their performance.
Intrinsic motivation The self-generated factors that influence peoples
behaviour that may arise from the work itself.
Maslows hierarchy of needs There are five major need categories starting from
the fundamental physiological needs and leading through a hierarchy of safety,
social and esteem needs to the need for self-fulfilment, the highest need of all.
When a lower need is satisfied the next highest becomes dominant and the
individuals attention is turned to satisfying this higher need.
McClellands need theory Three needs are most important: achievement,
affiliation and power.
Motivation The strength and direction of behaviour and the factors that
influence people to behave in certain ways.
Process or cognitive theory (motivation) This explains motivation as a function
of psychological processes or forces as well as of basic needs.
Quality of working life The feelings of satisfaction and happiness arising from
the work itself and the way people are treated at work.
Reinforcement theory The belief that changes in behaviour take place as a
result of an individuals response to events or stimuli and the ensuing
consequences (rewards or punishments).
Social learning theory As a motivation theory, social learning theory (Bandura,
1977) recognizes the significance of the basic behavioural concept of
reinforcement as a determinant of future behaviour but also emphasizes the
importance of internal psychological factors, especially expectancies about the
value of goals and the individual's ability to reach them. In learning theory, social
learning theory expresses the belief that effective learning requires social
interaction. Social learning theory has also influenced behaviour modelling
processes.
Theory X McGregors (1960) description of the traditional view that the average
human dislikes work and wishes to avoid responsibility and that, therefore, most
people must be coerced, controlled, directed, threatened with punishment to get
them to put forward adequate effort towards organizational objectives.
Theory Y McGregors (1960) theory of integration which, in contrast to theory X,
emphasizes the importance of recognizing the needs of both the organization
and the individual and creating conditions that will reconcile these needs so that
members of the organization can work together for its success and share in its
rewards.
Valency-instrumentality-expectancy theory Formulated by Vroom (1964) to
explain the process of motivation where valency stands for value, instrumentality
is the belief that if we do one thing it will lead to another, and expectancy is the
probability that action or effort will lead to an outcome. Forms the basis of
expectancy theory.
Questions and discussion points
1. What is motivation?
2. What are the main types of motivation?
3. Which motivation theories are most relevant to HRM?
4. What impact does money in the shape of financial rewards have on
motivation?
Bibliography
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Experimental Psychology, Academic Press, New York
Alderfer, C (1972) Existence, Relatedness and Growth, The Free Press, New York
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Arnold, J, Robertson, I T and Cooper, C L (1991) Work Psychology, Pitman, London
Bandura, A (1977) Social Learning Theory, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ
Bandura, A (1986) Social Boundaries of Thought and Action, Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ
Deci, E L and Ryan, R M (1985) Intrinsic Motivation and Self-determination in
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Hull, C (1951) Essentials of Behavior, Yale University Press, New Haven, CT
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McClelland, D C (1961) The Achieving Society, Van Nostrand, New York
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