BIO 102 FIRST LAB LE

I. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ON ANIMAL FORM

Dorsal: back or upper side (posterior in humans)
Ventral: under side (anterior in humans)
Lateral: sides, right and left
Anterior, cephalic/cranial: head end of animal (superior in humans)
Posterior/caudal: tail end (inferior in humans)
Adverbs ending with d = in the direction of
o Craniad: toward the head
o Caudad: toward the tail
Central: part of system nearest middle of animal
Peripheral: part nearest the surface
Proximal: near main mass of body (ex. Thigh)
Distal: away from main mass of body (ex. Toes)
Superficial: on/near surface
Deep: distance below surface
Superior: above
Inferior: below

Planes and axes

Median plane
: vertical longitudinal plane passing from head to tail through center from dorsal to ventral surfaces
: divide body from right and left
Sagittal plane/section
: vertical longitudinal plane; median plane/any plane parallel to it
: parasagittal sagittal planes other than the median plane
Horizontal/frontal plane
: any horizontal longitudinal section ; at right angles to median plane, parallel to dorsal and ventral surfaces
Transverse/cross plane/section
: cut vertically, at right angles to sagittal and horizontal planes
Longitudinal/anteroposterior axis
: line in median sagittal plane extending from head to tail
Sagittal/dorsoventral axis
: line in median sagittal plane extending from dorsal to ventral surfaces
Transverse/mediolateral axis
: any line in transverse plane running from side to side

Symmetry
- Spherical, radial, biradial, bilateral
- Bilateral symmetry
: arranged symmetrically with reference to 3 axes longitudinal, transverse, sagittal
: median sagittal plane only plane of symmetry; divide animal to right and left halves which are mirror images
Unpaired structures: structures of vertebrates cut in half by msp
Paired structures: placed symmetrically on each side of the plane, equidistant from it
Digestive tract only system not symmetrical

Metamerism/Segmentation
: regular repetition of body parts along anteroposterior axis
- Metamere/segment/somite: each division
- External and internal segmentation: segment marked externally
 - Internal metamerism: not marked externally
- Nereis: more primitive wringed worm; closely approach the ideal (series of identical segments)
- Homonomous: segmentation of animal body into nearly like segments
Heteronomous: various segments differ from each other to a greater/less extent
- Homonomous segmentation: various segments are more/less independent and capable of performing all necessary functions
Heteronomous segmentation: body regions specialize in the performance of different functions
: derived from homonomous via loss of segments, fusion of adjacent segments, enlargement/reduction of
segments, loss of organs, structural changes
- Segmented group of animals annelids, arthropods, chordates
o Metamerism in chordates began in hemichordates
o Gonads show serial repetition (pseudometamerism)
o Climax in Amphioxus and retrogressed among vertebrates
o No chordate was externally segmented
o Musculate
- Adult vertebrate are internally and heteronomously segmented

Cephalization: localization of nervous structures and functions in the head with accompanying dominance in the head
- Heteronomy appears first in the head
o anterior end retains the least, posterior end most resemblance to original homonomous condition
- higher the degree of cephalization, greater is number of segments composing the head

Vertebrate characteristics
- bilateral symmetry
- internal and markedly heteronomous segmentation
- high degree of cephalization

Homology: intrinsic similarity indicative of common evolutionary origin

- structures may seem unlike superficially
- CRITERIA:
o Similarity of anatomical construction
o Similar topographical relations to the animal body
o Similar course of embryonic development
o Similarity/identity of specific physiological function
- Ex.: wing of bird, flipper of seal, foreleg of cat
o Similar arrangement of bones and muscles
o Same positional relation to the body
o Develop in same way from similar primordium
o Work physiologically by the same mechanism
o
Analogy: similarity of general function/superficial appearance not associated with similarity of intrinsic anatomical construction/of
embryonic origin and development
- Ex. Fish and snakes scales protective purposes
- Differ in precise functional mechanism
o Insect leg and cat leg: walking but different mechanism
- Convergence or parallelism: analogous structures present striking similarity of appearance
o Associated with living in common environment
- Divergence: animals closely related by descent differ in general appearance after long sojourn in different environments

II. THE PHYLUM CHORDATA

Chordate characteristics:
- Gill slits piercing wall of pharynx; for food-catching
 - Notochord present in embryo or adult
o Rod lying dorsal to the intestine, extending from anterior to posterior end
o For skeletal support
o In vertebrates, replaced by skull and vertebral column
- Hollow central nervous system with single continuous cavity and at dorsal side of body
o Ventral & solid for invertebrates

Vertebrate characteristics
- Bilateral symmetry
- Internal heteronomous segmentation
- Cephalization
- Skin separable from rest of body wall
- Muscle layer of body wall metameric
- Internal skeleton, vertebral column, ribs
- Vertebral column highly metameric
- Head with 3 pairs of sense organs eyes, ears, nose
- Digestive tract giving rise to 2 digestive glands, liver & pancreas
- CNS brain & spinal cord
- Heart ventral in body
- Circulatory system closed
- Well-developed coelom

CLASSIFICATION OF CHORDATES
Subphylum Superclass Class Subclass Superorder Order Genus
1. Urochordata
(tunicates)
- no
Pandocia
notochord
and tail in
adult
2. Cephalochor
data head;
Branchiosto
all 4
ma
characteristi
(Amphioxus)
cs
manifested
3. Craniata
- Chordates with Agnatha Myxine
C. Myxini O. Myxiniformes
endoskeleton of - jawless (hagfish)
cartilage/bone
C. O.
Petromyzon
Cephalaspidomorp Petromyzontiform
(lamprey)
hi es
Elasmobranchi
i
Gnathostomat C. Chondrichthyes - with spiracle Rhizopriono
O.
a - cartilaginous & exposed gill don
Carchariniformes
- with jaw fishes slits (dog shark)
- sharks,
skates & rays
 - skeleton
cartilaginous;
membrane
bones lacking
- w/ spiral
valve and
conus
arteriosus
- pelvic fins of
males with
claspers
Dasyatis,
Dipturus
O. Rajiformes tengu
(skates and
rays)
Holocephali
- Without
spiracle
- mostly naked
skin
Chimaera
- gill slits
(rat fish)
concealed
- w/ spiral
valve, conus
arteriosus &
claspers
Crossopterygii
- paired fins w/
rounded basal
C. Sarcopterygii lobe Latimeria
- lobe-fined fishes - 2 dorsal fins, (coelacanth)
jaw suspension
hyostylic
- w/ spiracle
Dipnoi
- true-lunged
fishes
Protopterus,
- paired fins w/
Neoceradot
elongated
us,
jointed axis
Lepidosiren
- jaw suspension
autostylic
- w/o spiracle
C. Actinopterygii Chrondrostei
- ray-finned fishes - partly carti &
O. Polypterus
- paired fins w/o ost, w/
Polypetriformes (false-
axis/basal lobes spiracle
- pectoral fins w/ lunged fish,
- fin rays attached - endoskeleton
basal lobes bichir)
directly to girdle largely
- 1 dorsal fin cartilaginous
- no internal - w/ spiral
openings of nasal valve & conus
sacs arteriosus
- w/o cloaca - w/ ganoid
- jaw suspension scales
hyostylic
O.
Acipenseriformes Acipenser
- fins not lobed (sturgeon),
- w/ long Polyodon
snout/rostrum (paddlefish,
- scales more/less spoonbill)
degenerate
Neopterygii
(Holostei)
- Completely
bony/ossified O.
- scales ganoid Lepisosteiformes
to cycloid - thick ganoid Lepisosteus
- pelvic fins scales (gar pike)
abdominal - tail of shortened
- Spiracle heterocercal type
wanting
- Spiral valve
vestigial
O. Amiiformes
- thin cycloid Amia
scales (bowfin)
- homocercal tail
Division
teleostei
(typical bony
fish) Tilapia,
- skeleton Chanos
ossified chanos
- vertebral (Bangus),
centra snake head,
complete pine cone
- scales thin, fish, box
cycloid fish/cow fish
- tail
homocercal
- no spiracle
O.
C. Amphibia
Caudata/Urodela
- cold-blooded
(newts &
- lungs for Necturus
salamanders)
respiratory organs (mud puppy)
- with tails
- heart w/
- w/ or w/o
undivided ventricle
external gills
 - w/ 2 pairs of
limbs
O. Anura
(frogs & toads) Rana (frogs)
- w/o tails smooth
- naked, tailless skin; Bufo
- w/o external gills (toads)
- w/ 2 pairs of horny
limbs
C. Reptilia
- cold-blooded O. Chelonia
tetrapods, naked, - trunk short &
scaly broad
Anapsida
- w/ lungs - limb girdles Chelone
- No temporal
- skeleton ossified inside armor (turtles)
fossai
w/ typical - jaws w/o teeth,
vertebrae incased in horny
- heart w/ sinus shields
venosus
O.
Rhynchocephalia
Lepidosauria - teeth
- 1 pair t.f. immediately arise
Sphenodon
- skin w/ horny from jaw
scales - long-tailed lizard
like with weak
limbs
O. Squamata
(lizards and
Varanus
snakes)
(monitor
- teeth grow in
lizard),
sockets
Gecko,
- long tailed with
Draco,
horny scales
snakes,
- abdominal ribs
lizards
wanting/rudiment
ary
O. Crocodilla
- large
aquatic/amphibio
Archosauria us w/ bony plates
- 2 pair t.f. underneath horny
Crocodilus,
- birds stem skins
Alligator
from this - teeth in sockets
subclass - ribs double-
headed
- heart w/ 2
ventricles
Neornithes Gallus
C. Aves - tail feathers (chicken),
arranged in Anas (duck),
- warm-blooded fanlike Boteo boteo
oviparous w/ manner (preying
feathers around tail bird), turkey,
- heart w/ 2 stump king fisher
ventricles - all present
- no sinus venosus birds
Carinates: birds
that can fly via
bone carina

Ratites: birds that

cannot fly
Placentalia/Eu
theria
- viviparous
C. Mammalia O. Insectivora
mammals w/
- warm blooded - small
allantoic
- teeth in sockets nocturnal/burrowi
placenta
- w/ muscular ng mammals w/ Sunctus
- w/o
diaphragm plantigrade (shrew)
marsupium
- young nourished clawed feet &
- mostly 3
by milk secreted by often elongated
molars on
mammary glands snout
each side
- 1 vagina
- no cloaca
O. Pholidota
- head, body & tail
covered w/
imbricated horny Manis
scales (pangolin)
- teeth absent
- very long tongue
- scaly anteaters
O. Chiroptera
- flying mammals
w/ wing
membranes
supported by
Rousetuus
elongated
(bats)
metacarpals &
fingers
- thumb & hind
feet w/ claws
- w/ clavicles
O. Primates
-
terrestrial/arbore
al hairy mammals Humans
w/ 5 digits w/ flat
nails
- w/ clavicles
 - lemurs,
monkeys, apes,
man
O. Rodentia
- clawed
plantigrade feet
- w/ 1 pair of
upper incisors
- canines lacking Mus (mice),
- squirrels, Rattus (rat)
marmots,
beavers, rats,
mice, guinea pigs,
agoutis,
porcupines
O. Carnivora
- canine teeth
prominent
Felis (cat),
- well-developed
Canis (dog)
auditory region
- clavicles
reduced/absent

SP. Urochordata: tunicates/sea squirts

SP. Cephalochordata
SP. Craniata
A. Fish and fishlike animals
- cold-blooded aquatic vertebrate
- fins as locomotory organs
- gills as respiratory organ
- with 1 atrium and 1 ventricle
- embryos w/o membrane

a. C. Agnatha: fishlike animal w/o jaws & no/poorly developed fins

i. O. Myxiniformes (hagfishes)
: nasohypophyseal aperture terminal, canal opening to pharynx, branchial basket vestigial
ii. O. Petromyzontiformes (lampreys)
: nasohypophyseal aperture dorsal, leading to blind sac; branchial basket present

b. C. Chondrichthyes: cartilaginous fishes

: w/jaws & paired fins; skeleton wholly/largely cartilaginous; hyoid gill slits reduced; w/o lungs/air bladder

III. ESSENTIAL FEATS OF LOWER TYPES Proboscis: elongated conical

P. Hemichordata structure at the anterior end; for
: semi chordata; prechordate burrowing
: w/ post-anal tail, pharyngeal slits, stomochord, Collar: band encircling the body;
collar nerve cord intake of water, contain dorsal &
Balanoglossus - acorn worm ventral nerve cords
: elongated wormlike animal 5/6 inches in Trunk: locomotion
length
EXTERNAL
 o Branchiogenital region:
first part of the trunk;
contains the gonads
Genital ridges:
bulge formed by
the gonads
o Hepatic region: bears the
hepatic caeca (with
digestive function; no
evidence to equate with
vertebrate liver)
o Abdominal region: contain
intestine and anus
SP. Urochordata tunicates
EXTERNAL
Siphons: operated by circular &
longitudinal muscles
o Oral or incurrent siphon:
anterior end of animal;
entrance of water
o Atrial or excurrent siphon:
posterior end; exit of water
Tunic/test: outer covering of animal;
thick, tough, sometimes gelatinous
membrane
: secreted by underlying epithelium &
attached to inclosed body only at the
siphons
: support & protection
INTERNAL
Mantle: beneath the test; soft body wall
consisting of outer epithelium & inner
connective tissue
: incloses & adheres to the viscera
Pharynx: led by oral siphon
: passage of water and food
Atrium: cavity between pharynx and
mantle
: carry out feeding current to atrial
siphon; collecting chamber of water
SP. Cephalochordata Branchiostoma (Amphioxus)
EXTERNAL
Oral hood: encloses a cavity; entrance & storage
of food
Vestibule: mouth is located; collecting chamber
of water
Metapleural folds/lateral fins: extending
posteriorly from oral hood; encloses the gill slits
Atriopore: exit of water & gametes
Caudal fin: slightly wider portion of fin, surrounds
pointed posterior end; locomotion
Dorsal fin: along dorsal side; locomotion
Anus: left of midventral line near the posterior
end; behind point where fin ends
: exit of waste
Muscle segments/myotomes: V-shaped; extend
nearly to the anterior tip, diminishing in size
above the oral hood
: locomotor muscles; about 60
Myosepta: connective tissue partitions that
separate myotomes from each other
Gonads or sex glands*
INTERNAL
Fin rays: skeletal support of fins
Wheel organ : posterior part of oral hood; with
patches of ciliated epithelium arranged in finger-
like projections from a horseshoe-shaped base
: direct food particles toward the mouth
Hatscheks groove: sensory organs
Hatscheks pit: hollow swelling;
Velum: vertical membrane; as mouth
Velar tentacles: projections; prevent undesirable
objects from entering the digestive cavity,
chemoreceptors
Pharynx: wide tube extending nearly half the
body length; passage of water and food
o Peripharyngeal bands*: anterior end of
pharynx and nearly parallel to the
velum
: connects the epi- and hypobranchial
grooves
o Gill bars/branchial bars: side walls of the
pharynx; separates gill slits
o Gill slits/pharyngeal clefts: filter-feeding
Atrium: large cavity surrounding the pharynx;
receives water
Water propelled by cilia on gill bars enters
pharynx by way of mouth passes through the
gill slits into the atrium exits by the atriopore
Feed on diatoms, desmids and other microscopic
organisms cirri folded over entrance to the oral hood
small particles carried by main ciliary current into pharynx,
where they are trapped in sheets of mucus secreted by
endostyle inner faces of gill bars epipharyngeal groove
esophagus
Notochord: yellowish rod dorsal to the digestive
tube
 : extending the body length and running nearly
to the extreme anterior tip
: axial support; protect & support the dorsal
nerve cord
Neural tube/ central nervous system: row of
black spots w/c It bears
: functions as CNS; coordinates the activity of all
parts of the lancelet
Black spot/eyes: respond to light; photoreceptors
Brain vesicles: represent a brain; main section of
the CNS
Pigment spot: rudimentary eye
CROSS- SECTION THROUGH THE PHARYNGEAL REGION
Epidermis: outer covering of the body composed
of single layer of columnar epithelial cells;
covering/protection
Dorsal fin ray: supports the dorsal fin
Fin ray: supports the fin
Metapleural folds: encloses gill slits
Myotomes: for locomotion
Neural tube
Neurocoel: cavity in neural tube
Atrium
Pharynx
o Gill bars
o Gill slits
Epibranchial groove: secretes mucus
Hypobranchial groove/endostyle: secrete mucus
Midgut caecum: liver; oval, hollow structure lined
by tall epithelium; right side of the pharynx
Gonads: reproduction
o Ovaries: cells with large nuclei
o Testes: streaky appearance
Nephridia: excretion
C. Agnatha Petromyzon (lamprey)
EXTERNAL
Dorsal fins
Tail fin/ caudal fin
Fin rays: supports fins
Buccal funnel: passage of food & water
Papillae/ lip tentacles: sensory function; reinforce
suction
Horny teeth: promotes attachment to host
Tongue: feeding
Mouth: feeding
Nasohypophyseal opening: leads to olfactory sac;
as nostrils
Eyes: true eyes; without eyelids
Gill slits: respiration; 7 PAIRS
Cloacal pit*: contain anal opening in front &
urogenital papilla behind; shared exit of urine,
feces & gametes
SAGITTAL SECTION OF ANTERIOR END
Buccal cavity: passage of water & food
Esophagus: leads to intestine
Pharynx: wall pierced by 7 oval openings;
respiration & feeding
Velum*: at entrance of buccal cavity into
pharynx; filter
Gill slits: 7 opening in the wall of pharynx;
respiration
Gill pouches: w/ gills on their walls &
communicate w/ exterior through external gill
slits; respiration
Gill lamellae: attachments to walls of pouches
Notochord: broad, brown rod dorsal to the
esophagus; chief axial skeleton of animal
Branchial basket*: support the gills
Neural canal: central nervous system; contain
spinal cord & brain
Nasohypophyseal canal: passage, opens to
olfactory sac
Olfactory sac: enables smell
Nasopharyngeal sac: facilitates olfaction
Myxinoid
: more primitive than lampreys
: more slender & eel-like
: lacks buccal funnels of lampreys, instead has ventral mouth
opening bordered by 2 pairs of tentacles
: eyes wanting
: 6-14 pairs of round gill slits
: external gill slits lacking
IV. EXTERNAL ANATOMY AND ADAPTIVE
RADIATION IN GNATHOSTOMES
C. Chondrichthyes
Rhizoprionodon (Dogfish/dog shark): cartilaginous
skeleton & exposed gill slits
: body fusiform and pointed at each end little
resistance to the water
: trunk & tail with fins for locomotion
: body clothed with minute scales that bear tiny spine
: lateral line: detect water vibrations
EXTERNAL
Head: triangular & somewhat flattened. Holds
most of sensory organs (olfactory organs, eyes,
ears) & nervous organs
o Rostrum: pointed extremity; overcome
water resistance in swimming
 o Teeth: diagonal rows; feeding o Spiracle: first gill slit; bearing valve; with
o Nostrils: pair of openings on ventral side parallel ridges as rudimentary gill; entry
of rostrum; respiration of water (respiratory)
o internal ear no external ear o Nostrils
Gill slits: communicate w/ cavity of pharynx o Nasofrontal process: covers oronasal
o First gill slit/spiracle behind each eye groove
o Second to sixth gill slits row of 5 o Oronasal groove: connect mouth cavity
elongated slits to nostril
o Respiratory movement of water: enter o 5 pairs of gill slits
to mouth exits to gill slits Cloacal aperture: opening between bases of
Fins pelvic fins
o unpaired/median fins arising from
median line C. Actinopterygii
dorsal fin anterior and Teleosts
posterior; arising from Head
middorsal line Trunk
caudal fin posterior end of Lateral line: detect movement and vibration in
body; heterocercal surrounding water
o paired/lateral fins ventral side of trunk Operculum: covers the gill opening
pectoral fins* anterior pair; Gill arches: support the gills
behind gill slits Gill rakers: for filter-feeding
pelvic fins posterior pair; Dorsal fins
junction of trunk & tail Anal fins
o Claspers: passageway of sperm Pelvic fins
o Ceratotrichia: dermal fin rays; support Urogenital papilla
fins Trunk
Cloacal aperture: exit of products from the Scales: for protection/covering
digestive, excretory & reproductive systems Nostrils
o Urogenital papilla: discharge urine & Gill openings
sperm in cloaca Gills
Trunk: contain internal/visceral organs Branchiostegal membrane: covers the ventral
Tail: locomotion portion of the branchial cavity/gill opening
Dasyatis skate/rays; bottom-dwelling habits Caudal fins
Tough skin with scattered scales with projecting Pectoral fins
spines, consist of basal plate & projecting spine Anal opening
o Females scales over lateral expansions Polyodoon
of trunk & several rows of scales on Rostrum nostrils
median dorsal part of trunk and tail Operculum
o Males lateral expansions devoid of Tail
scales, fewer rows along middle of back Lepisosteus
& tail, enlarged scales in head Ganoid scales
Fins reduced compared to dog shark Nostrils
o Pectoral fins enlarged; form lateral Snout: enhance olfactory
trunk expansions; along sides of head Tail
o Pelvic fins smaller; immediately Amia
posterior to pectoral fins Cycloid scales
o Claspers passageway of sperm Operculum
Head Homocercal tail
o Rostrum pointed Polypterus
o Eyes without lids Ganoid scales
Diphycercal tail
 Acipenser C. Aves
Ganoid scales Birds
Heterocercal tail o Head
o Trunk
C. Sarcopterygii o Contour feathers
Protopterus Flight
Cycloid scales Covert
Diphycercal tail o Hair feather/filoplume
o Wings
C. Amphibia o Remiges
Necturus Primaries
Head Secondaries
Tail Tertiaries
Nostrils/external nares o Neck
External gills o Uropygium
Upperarm, forearm, wrist, hand o Beak
Thigh, shank, ankle, foot o Cere
Trunk o External nares
Tail fin o External ear
Gill slits o Digitd
Gular folds: to attract mates o Clawed hind limbs
o Horny scales
C. Reptilia o Rectrices
Varanus & Draco o Cloacal aperture
o Femoral pores: releases pheromones & o Uropygial gland
keratin C. Mammalia
o Head shield: protection Felis/Canis
o Parietal eye: photoreception o Fur
o Preanal pores: releases pheromones o Facial region
o Head o Lips
o Trunk o External nares
o Horny scales o Thorax
o External nares o Teats/nipples
o Clawed limbs o Perineum
o Neck o Whiskers/vibrissae
o Tail o Cranial region
o External ears o Nose
o Lateral fold o External ear
Chelone o Abdomen
o Lateral bridges: connect carapace & o Clawed limbs
plastron o Anus
o Head Rousettus
o Trunk o Wing membrane
o Tail o Phalanges
o plastron o Spur
o Bony plates o Metacarpals
o Neck o Clawed thumbs/feet
o Shell o Large pinnae
o Horny shields Manis
o Horny breaks o Elongated head
o Carapace o Long tail
 o Imbricated horny scales o External ear
o Snout
o Clawed feet

V. GENERAL FEATS OF CHORDATE DEVELOPMENT

Yolk: food material
a. Amount of yolk
i) Microlecithal onti (Amphioxus, therian animals)
ii) Mesolecithal sakto (many fishes, amphibians, lampreys)
iii) Macrolecithal marami (sharks, monotremes, reptiles, most teleosts, marine lampreys)
iv) Alecithal none (humans)
b) Distribution of yolk
i) Isolecithal evenly distributed (Therian mammals, Amphixous)
ii) Telolecithal w/ polarity, yolk only inone area (nontherian creatures, frog)

BLASTULA STAGE
A. Holoblastic cleavage
: yolk sparse, mitotic furrow pass through zygote from animal to vegetal pole
: blastomere of equal size in microlecithal eggs
: yolk laden cells in vegetal poles divide slower and are larger in mesolecithal cells (unequal)
B. Meroblastic cleavage
: macrolecithal eggs, cell division impeded by presence of yolk
: mitotic furrow slowed down and only portion of cytoplasm in animal pole is cleaved (blastoderm embryo develops)
: eggs with large quantities of yolk, only small germinal disk undergoes cleavage
Discoidal: many fishes, reptiles, birds & monotremes
: extensive yolk at vegetal pole remain undivided by mitotic furrows
: cleavage restricted to a cap of dividing cells at the animal pole
Blastula hollow sphere with wall composed of 2 or 3 layers of cells
Animal hemisphere with majority of protoplasm; wall made of thin, small cells, future dorsal side of embryo
Vegetal hemisphere majority of yolk; walls much thicker and laden with yolk, future ventral side
Blastocoel cavity
Blastoderm disk of cells produced by meroblastic cleavage soon begins to expand over the surface of the yolk

GASTRULA STAGE
Amphioxus type
Invagination: vegetal hemisphere bends inward
Gastrula: embryo with wall two cell layers thick
o Ectoderm: outer layer
o Endoderm: inner layer
o Archenteron: hollow tube of endoderm/ primitive intestine
o Blastopore: opening of archenteron to the exterior
Amphibian type gastrulation modified by presence of inert yolk in vegetal hemisphere
Invagination of endoderm at dorsal lip of blastopore
Expansion of ectoderm ventrally, pushing the endoderm into the interior
Yolk plug: protruding yolk-bearing cells
Side with thinner wall dorsal; thick wall ventral; end with an opening posterior end; opposite end anterior
Wall with 2 layers
o Ectoderm outer and thinner layer
o Endoderm inner layer
o Gastrocoel cavity enclosed by endoderm
o Blastopore opening of archenteron to exterior at the posterior end
Meroblastic egg
Adaptation for providing large stores of food for the embryo; complete development inside egg shell, hatch as replica of
adult

FORMATION OF THIRD GERM LAYER, NEURAL TUBE & NOTOCHORD

Amphioxus
Mesodermal pouches
Mesoderm: walls of the pouches; third germ layer
Somatic/parietal mesoderm: outer wall of the pouches; in contact with ectoderm
Splanchnic mesoderm: inner wall, in contact with endoderm
Coelom: cavity of the pouches; body cavity
Neural tube: formed when ectoderm rises up on either side of middorsal line; primordium of brain and spinal cord
Notochord: primitive axial skeleton
Vertebrates
Meroblastic
o Blood vessels of mesodermal origin
In birds
o Primitive streak thickening of ectoderm; forms medially the notochord and laterally the mesoderm
Concrescence theory: theory that primitive streak represents an elongated blastopore whose sides have
fused together (erroneous)
A rapid, short cut method of mesoderm formation
Represents the formation of roof of the archenteron
Neural tube: future central nervous system
: formed when neural folds rise up in middorsal region of embryo and fuse together
Archenteron: primitive intestine; composed of endoderm
: with thin dorsal wall, thick ventral wall; cells contain yolk and encloses the gastrocoel

HISTORY OF THE MESODERM

- Split into layers: outer/somatic layer and inner/splanchnic layer
- Body cavity/coelom: space between the 2 layers
- Differentiated into 3 regions, each with somatic & splanchnic walls:
o Epimere: dorsal region; lies to each side of neural tube
Mesoblastic somites: segmented epimeres; blocks of epimeres
o Mesomere: middle region; lateral and ventral to epimere
o Hypomere: large ventral region on each side of archenteron
- Yolk sac: sac of blastoderm
- Yolk stalk: connect yolk with embryo
- Cavity of the hypomere tubules of the kidney
Hypomere inner walls dorsal and ventral mesenteries
Cavities of the 2 hypomeres coelom of the adult
Splanchnic mesoderm & endoderm splanchnopleure/intestinal wall (with blood vessels that convey food from yolk sac to
embryo)

FATE OF ECTODERM
- Ectoderm neural tube brain, spinal cord, nerves
- Ectoderm external layer of the skin & its derivatives (hair, nails, etc)
- Ectoderm sensory part of all the sense organs
- Ectoderm lining membrane of nasal, mouth, and anus
- Ectoderm glands and other outgrowths of the nasal and mouth cavities
- Ectoderm glands of the skin
- Ectoderm enamel of the teeth
- Ectoderm lens of the eyes

FATE OF ENDODERM: primitive intestine (inner lining of the adult interstine

- Endoderm epithelial lining of the intestine
- Endoderm epithelial lining & epithelial cells of all of the outgrowths of the intestine
o Gill pouches & gills
o Larynx
o Windpipe
o Lungs
o Tonsils
o Thyroid & thymus glands
o Liver
o Gall bladder
o Bile duct
o Pancreas
o Urinary bladder
o Adjacent parts of the urogenital system

FATE OF MESODERM
Mesenchyme: not a germ layer; primitive kind of connective tissue
: consist of branched cells that form a network
: nearly all from mesoderm; but may arise fr other germ layers too
: when germ layer is about to produce mesenchyme:
Cells become loose
Separate from fellows
Lose their epithelial form
Take on branched irregular shape
Wander away from amoeboid movements to more/less definite regions
Mesothelium: part of mesoderm that do not become mesenchyme; retain epithelial characteristics
FATE OF EPIMERES
- Epimere mass of mesenchyme cells (sclerotome) around notochord vertebral column
- Outer wall of each epimere mesenchyme cells (dermatome) under side of ectoderm dermis
- Mesothelium myotome/muscle segments (divided by myoseptum) voluntary muscles of the body

FATE OF MESOMERE
- Mesomere kidneys, reproductive organs, and their ducts (terminal portions may have ectodermal or endodermal
linings)

FATE OF HYPOMERE
- Cavity of hypomere coelom of adult
- Splanchnic walls of hypomeres mesenchyme smooth muscle & connective tissue coats of the digestive tract
- Splanchnic walls of hypomeres mesenchyme smooth muscle, connective tissue, cartilage of all the derivatives
of the digestive tract (see above)
- Hypomere lining of all the coelomic cavities, serosa of the viscera, all of the mesenteries
- Splanchnic mesoderm of hypomere hearts
- Hypomere voluntary muscles of gill slits

PRODUCTS OF MESENCHYME
- Mesenchyme All of connective tissue of the body (cartilage and bone)
- Mesenchyme all of involuntary/smooth muscles
- Mesenchyme blood cells, blood vessels, lymph vessels, lymph glands
 - Mesenchyme voluntary muscles of the appendages

Chordamesoderm notochord
VI. THE COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF THE SKIN AND ENDOSKELEON
Skeleton: hardened portions of the bodies of animals
: vertebrate external and internal; cellular; composed of either hardened cell/cells and intracellular pdts
: 2 distinct kinds of skeleton in vertebrates:
Exoskeleton: fr. Skin; covering & protective layer on outside of the body
Endoskeleton: fr inner wall of epimere; support & framework; attachment of voluntary muscles
1) STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN
a) FROG SKIN
i) Epidermis: composed of epithelial cells; derived fr ectoderm of the embryo
: stratified epithelium; proliferation from original single layer
Stratum corneum
Stratum germinativum
ii) Dermis/corium: composed of CT & formed fr mesenchyme of dermatome
: