Introduction Power System Protection

Power System
Protection
Overview
Electrical Energy
Systems
Types of Protection
Power System Protection
Relays
Introduction
Evolution of Relays
Lecture 1
Circuit
Breaker Jameel Ahmad
What is a circuit
breaker?
Summary Department of Electrical Engineering

UMT
Spring 2017
What is System
Protection?
System protection is the art and science of detecting
problems with power system components and isolating
these components.
Problems on the power system include:

1. Short circuits
2. Abnormal conditions
3. Equipment failures
NERC defines the protection system as:

Current Approved Definition:
Protective relays, associated communication systems, voltage and current
sensing devices, station batteries and DC control circuitry.
Purpose of System Protection
Protect the public

Improve system stability
Minimize damage to equipment
Protect against overloads
Employ relay techs and engineers
What Components (Equipment) Do We Protect?
Generators
Transformers, Reactors
Lines
Buses
Capacitors
Some Basics
Protective relays monitor the current and/or

voltage of the power system to detect
problems with the power system. Currents
and voltages to relays are supplied via CTs
and PTs.
Some Basics
Current Transformer (CT)

A device which transforms the current on the power system from
large primary values to safe secondary values. The secondary
current will be proportional (as per the ratio) to the primary current.
Some Basics
Potential Transformer (PT)

A device which transforms the voltage
on the power system from primary
values to safe secondary values, in a
ratio proportional to the primary value.
I. Generator Protection
A. Construction & Theory of Operation
Three Gorges Dam in China
Largest in the world
(22,000MW, 26 Generators)
What can go wrong?
A. Stator Winding Problems

1. Winding-winding short
2. Stator ground
What can go wrong?
A. Stator Winding Problems

Generator Protection
Rotor
Transformer Protection
XFMR PROTECTION
Power transformers are expensive, and are a long lead-time item
(1 year or longer) so protection must be effective
Construction
Construction
Construction
Transformer size and rating
MVA: the capacity of the transformer in terms of million

volt-amps. Size can range from less than 1 MVA to 500
MVA and higher.
Transformer rating (MVA) is determined in part by the

amount of cooling employed. MVA rating increases with
more cooling. OA, FOA (stage 1), FOA (stage 2)
What can go wrong?
Winding-to-winding faults
Winding-to-ground faults
Bushing faults
Protection Methods
Fuse
Overcurrent
Differential
High Side Fuse

Transformer Damage Curve

LINE PROTECTION
Transmission Line
Protection
Transmission lines can vary in length from several hundred feet to several
hundred miles, and in voltage (line-to-line) from 46KV to 750KV.
Construction can be simple, such as a single wood pole with insulators

atop a crossarm, with little spacing between the conductors and from
the conductors to ground. At the other end of the scale are metal
lattice structures with bundled conductors (2 or more conductors per
phase) with large spacing between conductors and between
conductors and ground.
Transmission Line
Protection
Transmission Line
Protection
Transmission Line
Protection
Ice Storm
What Can Go Wrong?

FAULTS (Short Circuits)
Some causes of faults:

Trees
Lightning
Animals (birds, squirrels, snakes)
Weather (wind, snow, ice)
Natural Disasters (earthquakes,
floods)
Faulty equipment (switches,
insulators, clamps, etc.)
Transmission Line
Protection
Transmission Line
Protection
Transmission Line Protection
Faults
Faults come uninvited and seldom go away voluntarily.
Fault Types:
Single line-to-ground
Line-to-line
Three Phase
Line-to-line-to-ground
How Do We Protect Transmission Lines?
A. Overcurrent
B. Directional Overcurrent
C. Distance (Impedance)
D. Pilot
1. DCB (Directional Comparison Blocking
2. POTT (Permissive Overreaching Transfer Trip)
E. Line Current Differential
Overcurrent Protection
Non-Directional
Relay responds to overcurrent condition
Instantaneous (IOC) device #50

No intentional time delay
Time Overcurrent (TOC) device #51

Various curve types, including inverse, very
inverse, extremely inverse
Overcurrent Line Protection

AC Schematic
Time Overcurrent Curves
Directional Overcurrent
Protection
Relay responds to overcurrent condition in the
forward direction only (device #67, 67N,
67NT)
Will not respond to reverse faults
Compares the current in the line versus a

known reference that will always be the
same (such as a voltage or polarizing current
source)
Directional Overcurrent Example

Distance Protection
A distance relay measures the impedance of a line using

the voltage applied to the relay and the current
applied to the relay.
When a fault occurs on a line, the current rises

significantly and the voltage collapses significantly.
The distance relay (also known as impedance relay)

determines the impedance by Z = V/I. If the
impedance is within the reach setting of the relay, it
will operate.
Distance Protection
Electromechanical distance relays use torque to restrain or operate
KD, GCY, etc. Device #21
Microprocessor distance relays use equations to restrain or operate
SEL, ABB, GE, Areva, etc. Device #11

Distance Relay
CT and PT
Connections
Pilot Relaying Scheme
A protection scheme which employs communications to send a

signal from one station to another to allow high speed tripping
(permission) or to prevent high speed tripping (blocking).
Pilot protection allows over-reaching zones of protection to

ensure full protection of the line as well as high speed tripping.
Directional Comparison Blocking (DCB)
A communications based protection scheme where high speed

over-reaching tripping is allowed unless a block signal is
received.
Permissive over-reaching transfer trip (POTT)
A communications based protection scheme where high speed

over-reaching tripping is allowed only if a permissive signal is
received
BLOCKING SCHEME
OPERATING PRINCIPLE
BLOCKING SCHEME OPERATING PRINCIPLE
STATION B
STATION A
Relay
Relay
BLOCKING SCHEME
OPERATING PRINCIPLE
Relay
External Fault
DO NOT
TRIP!!!
Relay
Internal Fault
No block signal is sent
Relay
PERMISSIVE SCHEME
OPERATING PRINCIPLE
Permissive Scheme
STATION B
STATION A
Relay
Relay
Permissive scheme internal fault
Relay
Relay
STATION A STATION B
Relay
Relay
STATION B
STATION A

You Can Go Ahead
You Can Go Ahead
and Trip If You Want
To!
To!
Relay
Relay
STATION A
STATION B
High Speed Tripping Takes Place at Station A and B

Permissive scheme external fault
Relay
Relay
STATION B
STATION A
Permissive scheme external fault
Relay
Relay
STATION A STATION B
You Can Go Ahead

Permissive scheme external fault To!
Relay
Relay
STATION A STATION B
No High Speed Tripping Takes Place Because the Fault

Is Reverse to the Relay at Station B.
BLOCKING VS. PERMISSIVE
Blocking
Increased dependability because if the carrier fails, the protection will trip
anyway.
Decreased security because if the carrier fails, the protection will trip for an
out of section fault.
Permissive
Increased security because if the communication fails, the protection will not
trip high speed.
Decreased dependability because if the comm fails, the protection will not
trip high speed for an in section fault.
LINE DIFFERENTIAL
No fault or external fault, current at each end is balanced

The current going into the line is going out at other end
Line differential
Internal fault, relay trip is processed

Bus Protection
Bus Differential:
Current into bus must equal current out of bus
Bus Protection
Bus Fault
Bus Protection
Single bus with XFMR

Bus Protection
Double bus,
breaker-and-a-
half
Bus Protection Double bus,
double breaker
Capacitor Protection
Purpose of capacitors:
Shunt capacitors raise the voltage on a bus or line to a higher

level, thus helping keep the voltage at desired level
Series capacitors cancel out the inductive reactance of a line,

thus making the line appear shorter increasing load flow on the
line.
Capacitors connected in parallel add

Capacitors connected in series sum like they are in parallel

Capacitors are connected in series and parallel combination
to obtain the desired total capacitance for the bank
Introduction
Power System
Protection
1 Overview
Overview Electrical Energy Systems
Electrical Energy
Systems
Types of Protection
Types of Protection
Relays
Introduction
Evolution of Relays
2 Relays
Circuit Introduction
Breaker
What is a circuit
Evolution of Relays
breaker?
Summary
3 Circuit Breaker
What is a circuit breaker?
4 Summary
Introduction
Power System
Protection
1 Overview
Electrical Energy
Systems
Types of Protection
Types of Protection
Relays
Introduction
Evolution of Relays
2 Relays
Breaker
What is a circuit
Evolution of Relays
breaker?
Summary
3 Circuit Breaker
4 Summary
Introduction
Power System
Protection
Overview
Electrical Energy
Systems
Types of Protection
Electrical Energy is
Relays Generated at few kV and stepped up.
Introduction
Evolution of Relays
Transmitted through AC and HVDC lines.
Circuit
Breaker
What is a circuit
Stepped down and distributed at load centers.
breaker?
Its natural mode of synchronous operation knits the system
Summary
together.
Introduction
Power System
Protection
Overview
Electrical Energy
Systems
Types of Protection Why do we need protection?
Relays Electrical apparatus operates at various voltage levels and
Introduction
Evolution of Relays may be enclosed or placed in open. Under abnormal
Circuit operating conditions protection is necessary for
Breaker
What is a circuit
breaker? Safety of electrical equipments.
Summary Safety of human personnel.
Introduction
Power System
Protection
1 Overview
Electrical Energy
Systems
Types of Protection
Types of Protection
Relays
Introduction
Evolution of Relays
2 Relays
Breaker
What is a circuit
Evolution of Relays
breaker?
Summary
3 Circuit Breaker
4 Summary
Introduction
Power System
Protection
Types of Protection
Overview
Electrical Energy Apparatus Protection
Systems
Types of Protection
Relays
Introduction
Evolution of Relays
Circuit
Breaker
What is a circuit
breaker?
System Protection
Summary
Introduction
Power System
Protection
Types of Protection
Overview
Systems
Types of Protection Transmission Line Protection
Relays Transformer Protection
Introduction
Evolution of Relays Generator Protection
Circuit Motor Protection
Breaker
What is a circuit
Busbar Protection
breaker?
System Protection
Summary
Introduction
Power System
Protection
Types of Protection
Overview
Systems
Types of Protection Transmission Line Protection
Relays Transformer Protection
Introduction
Evolution of Relays Generator Protection
Circuit Motor Protection
Breaker
What is a circuit
Busbar Protection
breaker?
System Protection
Summary
Out-of-Step Protection
Under-frequency Relays
Islanding Systems
Rate of Change of Frequency Relays
Introduction
Power System
Protection
1 Overview
Electrical Energy
Systems
Types of Protection
Types of Protection
Relays
Introduction
Evolution of Relays
2 Relays
Breaker
What is a circuit
Evolution of Relays
breaker?
Summary
3 Circuit Breaker
4 Summary
Introduction
Power System
Protection
What is a Relay?
A relay is a logical element which process the inputs (mostly
voltages and currents) from the system and issues a trip
Overview
Electrical Energy
Systems
decision if a fault within its jurisdiction is detected. Inputs to
Types of Protection a relay are
Relays
Introduction Current from a current transformer.
Evolution of Relays
Circuit
Voltage from a voltage transformer.
Breaker
What is a circuit
breaker?
Summary
Introduction
Power System
Protection
Overview
Electrical Energy
Systems
Types of Protection
Relays
Introduction
Evolution of Relays
Circuit
Breaker
What is a circuit
breaker?
Summary
Introduction
Power System
Protection
1 Overview
Electrical Energy
Systems
Types of Protection
Types of Protection
Relays
Introduction
Evolution of Relays
2 Relays
Breaker
What is a circuit
Evolution of Relays
breaker?
Summary
3 Circuit Breaker
4 Summary
Introduction
Power System
Protection
Overview
Electrical Energy
Systems
Types of Protection
Evolution of Relays
Relays If we zoom into a relay, we can see three different types of
Introduction
Evolution of Relays realization:
Circuit
Breaker
Electromechanical Relays.
What is a circuit
breaker? Solid State Relays.
Summary
Numerical Relays.
Introduction
Power System
Protection
Electromechanical Relays
Overview
Electrical Energy
Systems
Types of Protection
Relays First generation of

Introduction
Evolution of Relays
relays.
Circuit Uses the principle of
Breaker
What is a circuit
breaker?
electromechanical
Summary
energy conversion.
Immune to
electromagnetic
interference and rugged.
Introduction
Power System
Protection
Solid State Relays

Overview These relays were developed with the advent of transistors,
Electrical Energy
Systems operational amplifiers etc. Their functionality is through
Types of Protection
Relays
various operations like comparators etc. Their advantages
Introduction
Evolution of Relays
are
Circuit More flexible.
Breaker
What is a circuit
breaker?
Self checking facility.
Summary Less power consumption and low burden.
Improved dynamic perfomance characteristics.
High seismic withstand capacity.
Reduced panel space.
Introduction
Power System
Protection
Numerical Relays
Operation of a numerical relay involves analog to digital
conversion of voltage and currents obtained from VT and
Overview
Electrical Energy
Systems
CTs. These samples are fed to the microprocessor or DSP
Types of Protection where the protection algorithms process these signals and
Relays
Introduction
necessary decisions are taken.
Evolution of Relays
Circuit
Breaker
What is a circuit
breaker?
Summary
Introduction
Power System
Protection
Overview
Electrical Energy
Systems
Types of Protection Its advantages are
Relays
Introduction Maximum flexibility.
Evolution of Relays
Circuit
Provides multiple functionality.
Breaker
What is a circuit Self checking and communication facility.
breaker?
Summary It can be made adaptive.

Introduction
Power System
Protection
1 Overview
Electrical Energy
Systems
Types of Protection
Types of Protection
Relays
Introduction
Evolution of Relays
2 Relays
Breaker
What is a circuit
Evolution of Relays
breaker?
Summary
3 Circuit Breaker
4 Summary
Introduction
Power System
Protection
Overview What is a Circuit Breaker?

Electrical Energy
Systems A circuit breaker is basically a switch to interrupt the flow of
Types of Protection
Relays
current.
Introduction
Evolution of Relays It opens on relay command.
Circuit
Breaker
It has to handle large voltages and currents.
What is a circuit
breaker? The inductive nature of power system results in arcing
Summary between the terminals of a CB.
CBs are categorized based on the interrupting medium
used.
Introduction
Power System
Protection
Overview
Electrical Energy
Systems
Types of Protection
Summary
Relays
Introduction Necessity of a protection system.
Evolution of Relays
Circuit Types of Protection.

Breaker
What is a circuit
breaker?
Three generations of relays.
Summary Role of circuit breakers.
Module 1 : Fundamentals of Power System Protection
Lecture 1 : Introduction
Objectives
In this lecture:
We will provide an overview of electrical energy systems.
Make a case for protection systems.
Describe necessity of apparatus and system protection.
Define a relay element.
Discuss evolution of relays from electromechanical to numerical relay.
Describe functioning of a circuit breaker.
1.1 Overview of Electrical Energy Systems

Electrical energy systems consists of various equipments connected together. Typically, power is
generated at lower voltages (a few kV) (3-phase ac voltage source) which is stepped up by a transformer
and fed into a transmission grid. Thermal power should be generated at pit heads and hydro power at
reservoirs. A transmission grid is a meshed network of high voltage lines and transformers. It can have
multiple voltage levels like 400 kV, 220 kV, etc. The power is delivered to load centers which may be far
off (even thousands of km's apart).
Fig 1.1 shows the western region grid of

India. It can be seen that large amount of
generation is concentrated in the eastern end
while large load centers are concentrated in
the western end. The power is transferred
through the ac network and HVDC lines. At
load centers, voltage levels are stepped
down by step down transformers in multiple
stages and finally power is delivered to the
end user by a distribution system which is
mostly radial (no loops) in nature.
A unique feature of electrical energy systems

is its natural mode of synchronous operation.
It implies that during steady state the
electrical frequency is same all through the
system irrespective of the geographical
location. This closely knits the system
together.
We can perceive all generators acting in tandem like the ballet dancers in a dance.
1.1 Overview of Electrical Energy Systems

They may occupy different angular positions, but all machines rotate at the same electrical speed. This
close knitting implies an embedded interaction of generators through the transmission network which is
governed by the differential and algebraic equations of the apparatus and interconnects. This aspect is
referred to as the system behavior. This system has to be protected from abnormalities which is the task
of protection system.
1.2 Why do we need Protection?
Electrical power system operates at various voltage levels from 415 V to 400 kV or even more. Electrical
apparatus used may be enclosed (e.g., motors) or placed in open (e.g., transmission lines). All such
equipment undergo abnormalities in their life time due to various reasons. For example, a worn out
bearing may cause overloading of a motor. A tree falling or touching an overhead line may cause a fault.
A lightning strike (classified as an act of God!) can cause insulation failure. Pollution may result in
degradation in performance of insulators which may lead to breakdown. Under frequency or over
frequency of a generator may result in mechanical damage to it's turbine requiring tripping of an
alternator. Even otherwise, low frequency operation will reduce the life of a turbine and hence it should be
avoided.
It is necessary to avoid these abnormal operating regions for safety of the equipment. Even more
important is safety of the human personnel which may be endangered due to exposure to live parts under
fault or abnormal operating conditions. Small current of the order of 50 mA is sufficient to be fatal!
Whenever human security is sacrificed or there exists possibility of equipment damage, it is necessary to
isolate and de-energize the equipment. Designing electrical equipment from safety perspective is also a
crucial design issue which will not be addressed here. To conclude, every electrical equipment has to be
monitored to protect it and provide human safety under abnormal operating conditions. This job is
assigned to electrical protection systems. It encompasses apparatus protection and system protection.
1.3 Types of Protection
Protection systems can be classified into apparatus protection and system protection.
1.3.1 Apparatus Protection
Apparatus protection deals with detection of a fault in the apparatus and consequent protection.
Apparatus protection can be further classified into following:
Transmission Line Protection and feeder protection
Motor Protection
Busbar Protection
1.3.2 System Protection

System protection deals with detection of proximity of system to unstable operating region and
consequent control actions to restore stable operating point and/or prevent damage to equipments.
Loss of system stability can lead to partial or complete system blackouts. Under-frequency relays, out-
of-step protection, islanding systems, rate of change of frequency relays, reverse power flow relays,
voltage surge relays etc are used for system protection. Wide Area Measurement (WAM) systems are
also being deployed for system protection. Control actions associated with system protection may be
classified into preventive or emergency control actions.
1.3.2.1Analogy with Functioning of a Human being
A human being is a complex system that performs through various apparatus like legs, hands, eyes,
ears, heart, bones, blood vessels etc. The heart is analogous to an electrical generator and stomach to
the boiler. The eating process provides raw material to generate calories. The power generated is
pumped by heart through a complex network of blood vessels. The primary transmission is through
arteries and veins. Furthermore, distribution is through fine capillaries. The system operator is the brain
which works on inputs of eyes, ears, skin etc. Diagnosing abnormality in any of these organs and taking
remedial measures can be thought of as job of "apparatus protection". However, does this cover the
complete gambit of anomalies? Are fever, infection etc, a specific apparatus problem? Why does it
cause overall deterioration in functioning of the human being?
The answer lies in the fact that the system which encompasses body has also abstraction like the mind.
Overall health is not just an aggregation of apparatus. It is something much more complex. It involves
complex process and associated dynamics (biological, chemical, mechanical etc.) and control. Thus,
protecting a system is not just apparatus protection but something much more. Since we cannot define
this "much more" clearly, it is complex and challenging. Monitoring of system behavior, taking corrective
measures to maintain synchronous operation and protecting the power system apparatus from harmful
operating states is referred as system protection.
1.4 What is a Relay?
Formally, a relay is a logical element
which processes the inputs (mostly
voltages and currents) from the
system/apparatus and issues a trip
decision if a fault within the relay's
jurisdiction is detected. A conceptual
diagram of relay is shown in fig 1.2.
In fig 1.3, a relay R 1 is used to

protect the transmission line under
fault F1 . An identical system is
connected at the other end of the
transmission line relay R 3 to open
circuit from the other ends as well.
To monitor the health of the apparatus, relay senses current through a current transformer (CT), voltage
through a voltage transformer (VT). VT is also known as Potential Transformer (PT).
The relay element analyzes these
inputs and decides whether (a) there
is a abnormality or a fault and (b) if
yes, whether it is within jurisdiction
of the relay. The jurisdiction of relay
R 1 is restricted to bus B where the
transmission line terminates. If the
fault is in it's jurisdiction, relay sends
a tripping signal to circuit
breaker(CB) which opens the circuit.
A real life analogy of the jurisdiction
of the relay can be thought by
considering transmission lines as
highways on which traffic
(current/power) flows.
If there is an obstruction to the regular flow due to fault F1 or F2 , the traffic police (relay R 1 ) can sense
both F1 and F2 obstructions because of resulting abnormality in traffic (power flow). If the obstruction is
on road AB, it is in the jurisdiction of traffic police at R1; else if it is at F2 , it is in the jurisdiction of R 2 . R 1
should act for fault F2 , if and only if, R 2 fails to act. We say that relay R 1 backs up relay R 2 . Standard
way to obtain backup action is to use time discrimination i.e., delay operation of relay R 1 in case of doubt
to provide R 2 first chance to clear the fault.
1.5 Evolution of Relays
If we zoom into a relay, we see three different types of realizations:
Electromechanical Relays
Solid State Relays
Numerical Relays
1.5.1 Electromechanical Relays

When the principle of electromechanical energy
conversion is used for decision making, the relay is
referred as an electromechanical relay. These relays
represent the first generation of relays. Let us consider a
simple example of an over current relay, which issues a
trip signal if current in the apparatus is above a
reference value. By proper geometrical placement of
current carrying conductor in the magnetic field, Lorentz
force is produced in the operating coil.
This force is used to create the operating torque. If

constant 'B' is used (for example by a permanent
magnet), then the instantaneous torque produced is
proportional to instantaneous value of the current. Since
the instantaneous current is sinusoidal, the
instantaneous torque is also sinusoidal which has a zero
average value. Thus, no net deflection of operating coil is
perceived.
On the other hand, if the B is also made proportional to

the instantaneous value of the current, then the
instantaneous torque will be proportional to square of
the instantaneous current (non-negative quantity). The
average torque will be proportional to square of the rms
current. Movement of the relay contact caused by the
operating torque may be restrained by a spring in the
overcurrent relay. If the spring has a spring constant 'k',
then the deflection is proportional to the operating
torque (in this case proportional to ). When the
deflection exceeds a preset value, the relay contacts
closes and a trip decision is issued. Electromechanical
relays are known for their ruggedness and immunity to
Electromagnetic Interference (EMI).

1.5.2Solid State Relays
With the advent of transistors, operational amplifiers etc, solid state relays were developed. They realize
the functionality through various operations like comparators etc. They provide more flexibility and have
less power consumption than their electromechanical counterpart. A major advantage with the solid state
relays is their ability to provide self checking facility i.e. the relays can monitor their own health and raise
a flag or alarm if its own component fails. Some of the advantages of solid state relays are low burden,
improved dynamic performance characteristics, high seismic withstand capacity and reduced panel space.
Relay burden refers to the amount of volt amperes (VA) consumed by the relay. Higher is this value,
more is the corresponding loading on the current and voltage sensors i.e. current transformers (CT) and
voltage transformers (VT) which energizes these relays. Higher loading of the sensors lead to deterioration
in their performance. A performance of CT or VT is gauged by the quality of the replication of the
corresponding primary waveform signal. Higher burden leads to problem of CT saturation and inaccuracies
in measurements. Thus it is desirable to keep CT/VT burdens as low as possible.
These relays have been now superseded by the microprocessor based relays or numerical relays.
1.5.3Numerical Relays
The block diagram of a numerical
relay is shown in fig 1.5.
It involves analog to digital (A/D)

conversion of analog voltage and
currents obtained from secondary of
CTs and VTs. These current and
voltage samples are fed to the
microprocessor or Digital Signal
Processors (DSPs) where the
protection algorithms or programs
process the signals and decide
whether a fault exists in the
apparatus under consideration or
not. In case, a fault is diagnosed, a
trip decision is issued. Numerical
relays provide maximum flexibility
in defining relaying logic.
1.5.3Numerical Relays
The hardware comprising of numerical relay can be made scalable i.e., the maximum number of v and i
input signals can be scaled up easily. A generic hardware board can be developed to provide multiple
functionality. Changing the relaying functionality is achieved by simply changing the relaying program or
software. Also, various relaying functionalities can be multiplexed in a single relay. It has all the
advantages of solid state relays like self checking etc. Enabled with communication facility, it can be
treated as an Intelligent Electronic Device (IED) which can perform both control and protection
functionality. Also, a relay which can communicate can be made adaptive i.e. it can adjust to changing
apparatus or system conditions. For example, a differential protection scheme can adapt to transformer
tap changes. An overcurrent relay can adapt to different loading conditions. Numerical relays are both
"the present and the future". Hence, in this course, our presentation is biased towards numerical relaying.
This also gives an algorithmic flavour to the course.
1.6 What is a Circuit Breaker?
A Circuit Breaker (CB) is basically a switch used to interrupt the flow of current. It opens on relay
command. The relay command initiates mechanical separation of the contacts. It is a complex element
because it has to handle large voltages (few to hundreds of kV's) and currents (in kA's). Interrupting
capacity of the circuit breaker is therefore expressed in MVA.
Power systems under fault behave more like inductive circuits. X/R ratio of lines is usually much greater
than unity. For 400 kV lines, it can be higher than 10 and it increases with voltage rating. From the
fundamentals of circuit analysis, we know that current in an inductive circuit (with finite resistance) cannot
change instantaneously. The abrupt change in current, if it happens due to switch opening, will result in
infinite di/dt and hence will induce infinite voltage. Even with finite di/dt, the induced voltages will be
quite high. The high induced voltage developed across the CB will ionize the dielectric between its
terminals. This results in arcing. When the current in CB goes through the natural zero, the arc can be
extinguished (quenched). However, if the interrupting medium has not regained its dielectric properties
then the arc can be restruck. The arcing currents reduce with passage of time and after a few cycles the
current is finally interrupted.
Usually CB opening time lies in the 2-6 cycles range. CBs are categorized by the interrupting medium
used. Minimum oil, air blast, vacuum arc and SF 6 CBs are some of the common examples. CB opening
mechanism requires much larger power input than what logical element relay can provide. Hence, when
relay issues a trip command, it closes a switch that energizes the CB opening mechanism powered by a
separate dc source (station battery). The arc struck in a CB produces large amount of heat which also has
to be dissipated.
Review Questions
1. What are the two types of protection?
2. Why is system protection required?

3. What are the functions of a relay and a circuit breaker?
4. Describe various generation of relays.
5. In fig 1.5, why is a resistor connected across CT secondary?

Recap
In this lecture we have learnt the following:
Necessity of a protection system.
Three generations of relays.
Role of Circuit Breaker.
Types of protection i.e. apparatus protection and system protection.

Introduction Power System Protection

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Power System

Summary Department of Electrical Engineering

Problems on the power system include:

NERC defines the protection system as:

Protect the public

Protective relays monitor the current and/or

Current Transformer (CT)

Potential Transformer (PT)

A. Stator Winding Problems

A. Stator Winding Problems

Transformer size and rating

MVA: the capacity of the transformer in terms of million

Transformer rating (MVA) is determined in part by the

What can go wrong?

High Side Fuse

Transformer Damage Curve

Construction can be simple, such as a single wood pole with insulators

What Can Go Wrong?

Some causes of faults:

How Do We Protect Transmission Lines?

Instantaneous (IOC) device #50

Time Overcurrent (TOC) device #51

Overcurrent Line Protection

Will not respond to reverse faults

Compares the current in the line versus a

Directional Overcurrent Example

A distance relay measures the impedance of a line using

When a fault occurs on a line, the current rises

The distance relay (also known as impedance relay)

Microprocessor distance relays use equations to restrain or operate

SEL, ABB, GE, Areva, etc. Device #11

Pilot Relaying Scheme

A protection scheme which employs communications to send a

Pilot protection allows over-reaching zones of protection to

Pilot Relaying Scheme

Directional Comparison Blocking (DCB)

A communications based protection scheme where high speed

Pilot Relaying Scheme

Permissive over-reaching transfer trip (POTT)

A communications based protection scheme where high speed

BLOCKING SCHEME OPERATING PRINCIPLE

BLOCKING SCHEME OPERATING PRINCIPLE

Permissive scheme internal fault

Permissive scheme internal fault

Permissive scheme internal fault

High Speed Tripping Takes Place at Station A and B

Permissive scheme external fault

Permissive scheme external fault

You Can Go Ahead

No High Speed Tripping Takes Place Because the Fault

BLOCKING VS. PERMISSIVE

No fault or external fault, current at each end is balanced

Internal fault, relay trip is processed

Single bus with XFMR

Shunt capacitors raise the voltage on a bus or line to a higher

Series capacitors cancel out the inductive reactance of a line,

Capacitors connected in parallel add

Capacitors connected in series sum like they are in parallel

Relays First generation of

Solid State Relays

Summary It can be made adaptive.

Overview What is a Circuit Breaker?

Circuit Types of Protection.