Nuclear Physics A231 (1974) 462-476; @ North-Holland Publishing Co.

, Amsterdam
Not to be reproduced by photoprint or microfilm without written permission from the publisher

A CASCADE-EVAPORATION MODEL
FOR PHOTONUCLEAR REACTIONS
V. S. BARASHENKOV, F. G. GEREGHIt, A. S. ILJINOV,
G. G. JONSSONtt and V. D. TONEEV
Joint Institute for Nuclear Research,
Dubna, USSR

Received 25 March 1974

(Revised 7 June 1974)

Abstract: Detailed and systematic Monte Carlo calculations have been performed for different char-
acteristics of inelastic photonuclear reactions for an energy range of T, % 50 MeV-1 GeV
in the framework of the intranuclear cascade model taking into account the competition be-
tween particle evaporation and fission of excited residual nuclei. The calculated results agree
well with experimental data. On the basis of the data listed it is possible to extrapolate the
corresponding characteristics for intermediate energies and nuclei.

1. Introduction

A number of comprehensive studies have shown that inelastic interactions of

pions and nucleons with nuclei at energies higher than a few dozen MeV mainly oc-
cur via intranuclear cascades followed by evaporation or fission of the excited resid-
ual nucleus (see the literature cited in refs. -)). The calculated results for the main
characteristics of these interactions are listed in detailed tables and plots which
allow to obtain data for intermediate parameters by mere interpolation.
Nuclear reactions induced by high energy y-rays are explored poorly both theo-
retically and experimentally. In order to describe these reactions, a cascade model
has been proposed in refs. 5- ). The calculated results turned out to be in good
agreement with experiment. The present paper is an extension of the previous study
and summarizes the results of detailed and systematic calculations of photonuclear
reactions for different nuclei ranging from aluminium to uranium in the wide energy
range of photon energies, Ty = 50 MeV - 1.3 GeV. Light nuclei with mass numbers
A c 27 are excluded because the excitation energy of residual nuclei in this case is,
as a rule, too high to permit the application of the evaporation model ). The bound
on the maximum energy is inessential due to the fact that we have restricted ourselves
to the consideration of y-N interactions inside the nucleus, involving production of
only one or a pair of pions.
The first section of the paper deals with a brief description of the model and the
technique of calculation while the following section gives a comparison of the cal-
t Institute of Applied Physics of the Moldavian Academy of Sciences, Kishinev, USSR.
tt Department of Nuclear Physics, Lund University, Lund, Sweden.
462
 CASCADE-EVAPORATION MODEL 463

culated results with experimental ones. The calculated values of the most important
mean characteristics of inelastic interactions of monochromatic y-rays are accumu-
lated in sect. 4. Since at present some installations are already in operation in a num-
ber of laboratories, which are capable of producing the beams of monochromatic
y-rays, the theoretical data seem to be very useful to make comparisons as well as
various estimates and predictions. The necessary data for intermediate energy values
and other nuclei can be obtained using interpolation. The results for bremsstrahlung
photons are derived by means of the appropriate integration.

2. Model and technique of calculation

The character of a photonuclear interaction is determined by the photon de Broglie
wavelength 3. In the energy range Ty x 50-I 50 MeV (below the pion production thresh-
old), in which 3 is comparable to the internucleonic distance in the nucleus, absorp-
tion of a photon by a neutron-proton pair is the main process. At higher energies,
when R becomes rather small, the incident photon, as a rule, interacts with an individ-
ual intranuclear nucleon.
Since we consider the region of TY >k 50 MeV, we have to take into account both
photon absorption by a quasideuteron pair and photopion production+. The free
path length of a photon in the nucleus and the relative probability for these processes
are defined by the appropriate cross sections of the interaction.
For photon absorption we use the photonuclear reaction cross section ) calculated
according to the quasi-deuteron model and expressed in terms of the cross section
per nucleon
CiA= &?(l - Zj&, ,
where o, is the cross section for deuteron photodisintegration, taken from ref. lo),
and A and 2 are the mass and charge numbers of the nucleus in question, respectively.
In accordance with the experimental data r* ), the constant K x 10.
The experimentally determined cross sections for elementary y-N collisionstt
(refs. x3*1)) are taken as cross sections of the photon interaction with an intranuclear
nucleon. In the same references the cross sections of partial channels are given as
follows:
Y+P --+ p-tn, (1)
4 n+x+, (2)
y+p -+ p+rr++?r-, (3)
-+ p+n+7co, (4)
-+ nfn++7c. (5)
t The Compton effect on the intranuclear nucleon can be neglected because of its small cross sec-
tion as compared to the cross sections of other reactionsa).
tt Only the principal papers are mentioned; see also references in these papers. This note applies
also to other references, from which the experimental characteristics of elementary collisions are taken.
464 V. S. BARASHENKOV et al.

The cross sections of y-n interactions are derived from considerations of isotopic
invariance, which does not contradict the available, albeit rather fragmentary, ex-
perimental data I39i4).
We neglect processes involving production of three and more pions. For energies
T higher than the threshold of three pion production, the cross sections of reactions
(3)-(5) are assumed to be equal to the difference between the total inelastic cross
section of the y-N interaction and the cross sections of two-body reactions (l)-(2).
This assumption limits the model applicability to an energy range of Ty 5 1.3 GeV.
Extension to higher energies does not, in principle, involve any difficulties.
The kinematics of two-body reactions (l)-(2) and photon absorption by a pair
of nucleons is completely defined by a given direction of emission of one of secondary
particles. In this case, similarly to the procedure followed for n-N and N-N interac-
tions in ref. I*), the cosine of the angle of emission of secondary particles can be rep-
resented in the c.m. system as a function of a random number, distributed uniformly
in the interval [0, 1]

where N = M = 3,
M

a, = c
k=O
ank Tyk,
while the coefficients a,, are determined from a comparison with experimental data
(see tables 1 and 2). Such an approach simplifies the calculation considerably and
reduces the computer time required I).
As to the distribution of the secondary particles over the azimuthal angle cp, it can
be regarded to be isotropic.
The analysis of experimental data has shown that channel (3) of three-body reac-
tions proceeds mainly through the decay of the isobar
y+p + N*+++n-
L p+n+, (8)
whereas the production cross sections of other isotopic isobar components (3,s)
are negligibly small 14).
To simulate reaction (8), we shall employ the resonance Lindenbaum-Sternheimer
model ). In accordance with this model, the mass of the isobar m* is derived from
the distribution
dW
- N P(E, m*)o*(m*),
dm*
where E is the total energy of the system, F is the two-body phase space of the isobar
and R- meson, and a* is the isobar production cross section which can be assumed to
be equal to the cross section for n+-p scattering.
 CASCADE-EVAPORATION MODEL 465

TABLE 1
Coefficients ati for two-body y-p interactions)

n\k 0 1 2 3

Y-FP -+ p-l-no Ty < 0.5 GeV

0 40693 (0) -36799(-t-l) 14556(+2) -12621(+2)
1 -41404($1) 59610(-t-2) -1755O(f3) 14964(f3)
2 14OW+2) --16269(-I-3) 45839(-t-3) -38118(+3)
3 -17265(+2) 18873(-+3) -53390(-+3) 45141(+3)

y-+-p + n+-n+ T, =c 0.5 GeV

48173(O) -44804(+- 1) 16306(-t-2) -15968(+2)
57726(+ 1) -38582(+2) 11046(i-3) -80140(+2)
--13745(+2) 11159(-i-3) -33045(+-3) 24616(+3)
27125(+2) -24305(43) 72270(+ 3) -60753(+3)

Y-i-P -+ PfZO T, 2 0.5 GeV

0 -47554(O) 51620(+1) -81117(+1) 35187(+1)
1 22641(+1) -99236(-t 1) 19315(+2) -91783(+1)
2 -12528(+2) 55623(-t-2) -84255(+2) 34950(f2)
3 24647(+2) -10462(+3) 13908(+3) -51243(+2)

y-4-p -+ n+n+ 0.5 5 T, 2 1.0 GeV

0 -51646(+1) 21871(+2) -27993(+-2) 11587(+2)
1 -60776(+-l) 56915(-t-2) -94670(+2) 45998(+2)
2 78989(+2) -40159(-i-3) 56928(+3) -24566(+3)
3 -10705(+3) 51215(+3) -69621(+3) 28452(+3)

Y-I-P -+ n+=+ Tr> l.OGeV

0 -53067(+2) 1475O(iT -13436(+3) 40253(+2)
1 57612(+3) -16638(-l-4) 15780(-t-4) -48860(+3)
2 -15438(+4) 45923(-t4) -44463(+4) 14001(f4)
3 16455(+4) -49949(+4) 49022( f4) -15606(+4)

) The order of the normalized number is given in brackets. e.g., 40693(O) = 0.40693 x loo,
-36799(-f-l) = -0.36799 x lo, etc.

TABLE 2
Coefficients amufor photon absorption by a nucleon pair (see footnote to table 1)

n\k 0 I 2 3

y+d -+n+p T, -=c0.455 GeVa)

0 65288(O) -43964(Jrl) 14889(+2) -15658(+2)
1 38977(O) 34309(+2) -14380(+3) 1716O(f3)
2 84078(O) -73692(+2) 312;27(+3) -37212(+3)
3 18893(O) 84308(+2) -35014(+3) 41299(+3)

) At high energies Ty the isotropic distribution of secondary particles over emission angtes is
assumed (in the c.m. system).
466 V. S. BARASHENKOV et al.

TABLE 3
Coefficients Q for y-p reaction (5) involving isobar production (see footnote to table 1)

k 2 3
\
n

yfp + N*+ + +n- 0.45 < T, < 0.985 GeV

-10306(+1) 79586(+ 1) - 14797(+2) 82309(+1)
32849(+2) --12572(+3) 16590(+3) -67871(+2)
-75052(+2) 25604(+3) -27991(+3) 85762(+2)
60255(+2) -16547(+3) 11333(+3) 59727(+1)

~+p -+ N*+++n- T, 2 0.985 GeV

-23722(+3) 65800(G) -60653(+3) 18604(+3)
96890(+3) -26941(+4) 24983(+4) -76933(+3)
-16219(+4) 45480(+4) -42498(+4) 13166(+4)
13637(+4) -38469(+4) 36136(+4) -11243(+4)

The c.m. emission angle of the isobar is approximated using eqs. (6) and (7) with
the coefficients a,k listed in table 3; isotropy of the decay of the isobar in its c.m.
system is assumed.
In order to calculate the kinematics of the non-resonant part of reaction (3) and
two remaining three-body channels (4) and (5), we make use of the statistical model.
The total energies of the two particles in the c.m. system are determined from the
distribution

d& - (E-E, --%)E, WE,

1 2

and that of the third particle from the law of conservation of energy. The law of
conservation of momentum is taken into account in the same manner as in the model
of inelastic X-N and N-N collisions I*).
The remaining details of the intranuclear cascade calculation are practically the
same as those of the cascade calculation for pion- and nucleon-nuclear collisions and
are described in refs. I 5Pis).
For each excited residual nucleus formed as a result of the cascade stage of the
photonuclear interaction, we have calculated the process of deexcitation by particle
emission (e.g., neutrons, protons, d, t, 3He, 4He) 21P). For heavy nuclei, the com-
petition between particle evaporation and fission was taken into account. The evap-
oration and fission calculations were also performed using the Monte Carlo method.
Unless otherwise specified, in all cases we assume the level density parameters of
the emitting and fissioning nuclei, to be equal to a, = af = &A MeV-.
It is noteworthy that in most experiments one deals not with monochromatic
y-rays, but rather with the bremsstrahlung spectrum with the maximum energy Ty;
therefore the energy Tyof the primary photon should be selected according to the
distribution, f(T,)- T?-', in the region 50 MeV 5 Ty s Ty.
All the indicated errors in theoretical data are purely statistical.
 CASCADE-EVAPORATION MODEL 467

3. Comparison with experiment

The nuclear reaction is primarily characterized by cross sections of its different
channels. Fig. 1 shows to what extent the production probability for photostars with
different prong numbers agrees with experimental data, The calculation was carried
out for the nucleus 5Ti, which in interactions with y-rays can be considered to be an

fl*=

ml

Fig. 1. Yield of photostars with n* charged partides, produced by bremsstrahlung photons with a
maximum energy Tym (in relative units). Curves refer to calculation, experimental points are taken
from refs. *3-z7).

---___

Fig. 2. Cross section for photoneutron production with T, < 15 MeV on different nuclei. Shaded
areas indicate an experimental uncertaintyz8). Solid and dashed curves refer to the calculation using
the level density parameters a equal to $A MeV- i and =&A MeV-, re,spectively.
468 V. S. BARASHENKOV ef al.

average nucleus of the Ilford G-5 photoemulsion (interactions with hydrogen are
neglected). The calculated and experimental values are very close to each other, the
theory representing the relative yield of stars with different prong numbers correctly.

Fig. 3. Cross sections for the reaction 1271@~,ypxn) as a function of the number of emitted nucleons,
dA, at T, = 0.3 and 1 GeV. Curves refer to the calculation. Marks 0, 0, A, A, 0, and x denote
the results of measurements for isotopes of I, Sn, In, Te, Sb, and Ag, respectivelyz9* 30). Double
marks correspond to results for only one of the pair of isomers. The isotopic mass number A is plotted
along the upper axis.

125 t20 115 i20 St5 A

Fig. 4. Crosssections (mb) forthereaction 97Au(y,xn) as afunctionofthenumberofemittednucleons

dA at T, = 0.3,0.4 and 1 GeV. Experimental points taken from refs. 30*31) correspond to the average
cross sections at 0.3 and 1 GeV. Solid curves refer to calculations including fission (statistical errors
of the calculation are indicated). Dashed and dot-dashed curves show the results without including
fission. The isotopic mass number is plotted along the upper axis.
 CASCADE-EVAPORATION MODEL 469

a02 a1

Fig. 5. Proton energy spectrum (in relative
units) for photostats with prong number rz* > 1,
produced by bremsstrahlung photons with a
maximum energy Tym. Histograms refer to cal-
culation, experimental points are taken from
refs. 23*24).
Fig. 6. Angular distributions (in relative units)
of protons from photostars with prong number
n* > 1, produced by bremsstrahlung photons
with an energy T, = 1.15 GeV. Histogram
refers to calculation, experimental points are
taken from ref. *a).

In fig. 2 another important characteristic, the cross section for photoneutron pro-
duction induced by monoenergetic photons, is compared with the experimental one.
The good agreement between the absolute values of the calculated and experimental
data indicates a rather precise simulation of both the cascade and evaporation stages
of the process since among particles with energies T, < 15 MeV, evaporated neutrons
are predominant. Some discrepancies in the region of large Ty and light nuclei can
be explained by the unknown detector efficiency for neutrons with energies T,, > 5
MeV [ref. )I. The smoother dependence of experimental cross sections upon energy,
as compared with theoretical ones, is apparently explained by the fact that they used
some smoothing procedure for differentiating the experimental data obtained to
get the cross section at a fixed value of Ty.
The cascade-evaporation model represents the cross sections of the yield of in-
dividual isotopes (see figs. 3 and 4) in a poorer way than other characteristics. In
this instance one can only speak of an approximate agreement with experiment,
although the experimemal accuracy is not very high either. This indicates the neces-
sity for the model of excited nucleus decay to be improved, in particular, to include
the shell effects on the level density of the residual nucleus. (Similar conclusions have
been drawn for nucleon-nuclear interactions in ref. ).)
In calculating the isotopic yield in the y+ 197A~ reaction (fig. 4) the contribution
due to fission was taken into account. One can see from table 4 that this contribution,
however, appears to be rather small, only a few millibarns, because the residual nu-
clei are not very heavy in this case. Although there is a wide scatter in experimental
values (especially at Ty = 1 GeV), the theoretical and experimental cross sections
shown in table 4 are close.
470 V. S. BARASHENKOV et al.

TABLE 4
Photofission cross sections (mb)

T, = 0.3 GeV T,, = 1 GeV

Nucleus theory experiment ) theory experiment)

lg7Au 2.17;0.04 1.44I_tO.10~) 2.08 iO.08 1.44fO.lOf)

2.1 l&-0.0@) 1.7 i0.F)
1.19f0.06e)
1.15*0.1)
207Pb 3.46zhO.16 3.8 10.3) 3.3OztO.16 3.8 kO.3)
3.7310.17b) 5.0 &0.2-q
3.3 io.le)
3.4 S0.3)
238U
91.2&4.6 SOS) 24.641.3 4oq
38.6&1.7b) 65b) 0h.k)
67f7) 67rt7)
90)
115k)

) Although the values listed are cross sections averaged over a rather wide range of d T,, in the
region of interest they provide a good enough estimate.
) The calculated value for T, = 0.6 GeV is given for comparison.
) Ref. 30). d, Ref. 33). ) Ref. 34). r) Ref. 35). ) Ref. 36). *) Ref. 37). ) Ref. 38). J) Ref. 39).
k, Ref. 40).

The energy and angular ~stributions of secondary particles are also in good agree-
ment with experimental data. Figs. 5 and 6 illustrate this agreement by giving an
example of some data on the interaction of y-rays with photoemulsion. (Although
the theoretical curves are calculated for the nucleus Ru, their shaRe slightly
changes as one moves to nuclei with other A-values.)
Thus, in the energy region of Ty $ 1.3 GeV considered, the cascade-evaporation
model for photonuclear reactions, including the competition between particle evap-
oration and fission in the case of heavy nuclei, describes well all the experimental
data available on inelastic interactions of bremsstrahlung photons and the small
amount of experimental results obtained using monochromatic y-rays. This allows
one to treat the cascade-evaporation model as a basis for making various estimates
and predictions. This model has made it possible to calculate the different charac-
teristics of photonuclear reactions as a function of the mass number of the target
nucleus and of the y-ray energy. The most important of these results are listed in the
section to follow.

4. calculated characteristics of photonuel~~ processes

Fig. 7 shows the energy dependence of the mean number of cascade nucleons (all
the data listed below apply to monochromatic y-rays). The nucleon production
multiplicity increases rapidly with increasing Ty and the more rapidly, the heavier
the target nucleus.
 CASCADE-EVAPORATION MODEL 471

The dependence of the proton and neutron multiplicity on the nucleus mass
number is shown in more detail in fig. 8. The difference in the dependences Z,(A) and
E,(A), as well as the intersection of curves dA for various nuclei, displayed in fig. 7,

Fig. 7. Mean number of cascade nucleons dA and neutrons ii , ejected from the nuclei by photons
with an energy T,.

Fig. 8. Mean number of cascade protons and neutrons as a function of the target nucleus mass
number for three values of photon energy.

ii
0.4
1.5

0.3
LO
a2

0.5
M

0 a5 10 0 0

Fig. 9. Energy dependence of the mean pion production multiplicity in an inelastic photonuclear reac-
tion. W, = g,o+g,+ fizz- is the total number of pions.
472 V. S. BARASHENKOV et al.

Fig. 10. Mean pion production multiplicity as a function of the target nucleus mass number for three
energies Tr. A, = finO+ri, + j-r?,-,

Fig. 11. Average excitation energies E*(GeV), momentum P(GeV/c) and angular momentum B
(in 6 units) for nuclei produced following the cascade stage in the Al, Ru and U target nuclei.

-
%-?-T
t
--___I -_-_ ____

Al

Fig. 12. Average values of the angular momentum and momentum of the residual nucleus as a func-
tion of excitation energy. Solid, dashed and dot-dashed curves refer to photon energies Tr = 0.3,0.6
and 1 GeV, respectively.
 CASCADE-EVAPORATION MODEL 473

Fig. 13. Average values of the longitudinal component of the momentum and of the transverse compo-
nent of the angular momentum for the residual nucleus as a function of its excitation energy. All nota-
tions are the same as in fig, 12.

Fig. 14. Relationship between the average values of the momentum transverse component and the
residual nucleus excitation energy at TY= 0.3 and 1 GeV. Calculated results are practically indepen-
dent of the target nucleus mass.

Fig. 15. Average charge and mass number lost by the target nucleus as a function of the nuclear
mass, for three energies T,. Points refer to calculated results for specific nuclei; smooth curves are
drawn by eye through the calculated values.
474 V. S. BARASKENKOV et al.

are explained by the fact that the proton cut-off energy+ T,.,. increases with the target
nucleus charge whereas that for neutrons, T,,,., is constant. Another cause of the
stronger dependence of neutron yield upon the mass number A as compared with
that for protons is a considerable excess of neutrons in heavy nuclei.
Figs. 9 and 10 show the mean pion production multiplicity as a function of the
mass number A and energy T,,. In contrast to the case of hadron-nuclear interactions
(see ref. 4i)), one cannot succeed in describing it, by a function of the type E, =
a(T,,)Ab over the entire range of Ty and A values considered. If one restricts oneself
to the region of moderate values of T, and A (say to Ty > 300 MeV), the dependence
on the mass number of the target nucleus can be represented in the form ii, N A-0nfg.
It is noteworthy that, first, the absolute value of the b-coeflicient is greatly different
from the corresponding value for hadron-nuclear collisions where b = -0.03, and,
second, a strong dependence of the b-coefficient upon the isotopic state of the pion
emitted is observed in photonuclear reactions (see fig. 10).
The average characteristics of the residual nucleus produced following the cas-
cade stage, the excitation energy E*, momentum P and angular momentum M, as a
function of energy T,, are given in fig. 11. The variations of these values with excita-
tion energy E* are shown in figs. 12-14, where the calculated values are related to the
maximum values of the excitation energy E&,, momentum P,,,,, = T,/c and angular
momentum Iw,,, = P,,,,,R (R is the nuclear radius, at which the density of nuclear
matter decreases by a factor of 100 compared with that in the centre of the nucleus).
Figs. 12-14 show that the ratio P,,fP,,,,, increases and tends to unity at E* -+ E$,.
As a result, the value of P,/P,,, has a maximum at E* w iE& and vanishes at
E* =. E& On the contrary, the ratio !i?,/kf_, does not reach its maximum value at
E + E&, because at PII = Pm,, the complete absorption, as a rule, occurs only at
small values of the impact parameter of the incident photon; in this case M < JW,_tt.
It should be noted that the ratios UP,,, and ~~~=~~, as well as the appropriate
values of their longitudinal and transverse components slightly depend on the target
nucleus mass and remain practically unchanged over a wide range of the A-values.
Fig. 15 shows the variations of the charge and mass of the target nucleus as a
result of the inelastic interaction with the photon. The total number of nucleons lost
by the nucleus in the process of intranuclear cascade and during the decay of the
excited residual nucleus increases sharply as one progresses to heavy nuclei. The
main contribution to the change of the nuclear charge dz in the energy region of
interest is made by protons. The value of dz decreases in the region of heavy nuclei
in which the nuclear charge Z increases and the Coulomb barrier preventing the
emission of charged particles from the nucleus becomes higher. This effect is the

t As is shown by a comparison of the cascade calcuiations with experiment, one should assume the
absorption of all the nucleons in the nucleus, whose energy exceeds the potential well depth by
some quantity T,.,., which is a theoretical parameter I).
tt In ref. 41), no maximum in the corresponding calculated characteristics of hadron-nuclear in-
teractions was observed due to the insuRicient statistical accuracy of calculation.
 CASCADE-EVAPORATION MODEL 475

stronger, the lower the photon energy T,, and, hence, the lower the energy of second-
ary particles.
It should also be kept in mind that the process of decay of excited residual nuclei
is affected by shell corrections; this leads to irregularities in the dependences of the
AZ and dA values upon the mass number A. The curves in fig. 15 are drawn through
the calculated points in such a way as to reflect the averaged, smooth part of this
dependence.
Since the decay of excited residual nuclei is a function of only their excitation ener-
gies, mass, and charge, and intra-nuclear cascades initiated by a photon, pion or
nucleon differ only in the first collision, inelastic interactions with well developed
intranuclear cascades then possess similar average characteristics independent of the
type of original particle. In a number of cases it is possible to establish an approximate
quantitative relationship between these characteristics, but this relationship is of
rather particular meaning.

5. Conclusion
The data described give a full enough idea of the mechanism of inelastic interac-
tions of high energy y-rays with nuclei. A further modification of the model requires
that the shell effects and the contribution due to non-equilibrium (precompound)
processes of decay of highly excited residual nuclei be taken into account more exactly.

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