CHAPTER 8
Mediterranean Society under
the Greeks and the Romans
or a man wh<l pcrhaps ncvcr
existcd, Honrcr has bce n
profoundly influential figure. Ac-
cording to tradition, Homer coni-
poscd thc t\r,o great cpic poems
ancicnt Grccce, the llisd and thc
Odyssey.In fact, siholars now
-know
that bards recitcd both
pocms for generations before
Homcr, and some belicvc that
Homcr was simply a convenient
name for the otherwise anony-
mous scribes who committed the
Iliad. and the Odysscy to writing.
Whethcr Homer ever really lived
or not, thc cpics attributed to him
deeply inffuenccd the devclop-
mcnt of dassical Grcek thought
and literature .The llia.d offcred a
Greek perspective on a campaign
waged by a band of Greck
warriors against the city of Troy in
Anatolia during the twelfth cen-
tury B.c-c. The Odysey recounted
the experiences of the Greek hero
Opposrr Ptcr.: Thc theeter at Delpbi.
Odysscus as he sailed homc after
a thc Trojan War. The ru'o work
describcd scores of difHcultics
faccd by Grcek warriors, including
of batdes, monstcrs, and conflicts
among themselves., Betrveen them,
the nvo epics preserved a rich col-
lection of storics that literary fig-
urcs mined for morc than a
millcnnium.
The Iliod and the Odyssry also
testi$r to the {requency and nor-
mality of travel, communication,
and intcraction in thc Meditcr-
ranean basin during thc sccond
and first millennia s.c.u. Both
works portray Grecks as expert
and fearless scarncn, almost as
comforable aboard their ships as
on land, who did not hesitate to
venture into the waters of what
Flomer called the *wine-dark sea.,
Homer lovingly described the
sleek galleys in which Greek war-
riors raced across the uaters, and
 I32 PART2 I THE FORMATION OF CII.SSICAL SOCIETIES,
he cven had Odysseus construct a seiling ship single-
handedly when he found himself shipwrecked on an
island inhabited only by a goddess.The lliod.andthe
Odyseymake it clear that maritime links touched peo-
plcs throughout the Mediterranean basin in Homer,s
timc and, further, that Greeks were among the most
promincnt seafarers of the age.
Thc maritime links established by the Greeks lived
on long aftcr the decline of classical Greek society. In-
deed, the Romans took advantage of those links and
used thcm to build a powerfirl society that dominatid
the whole Mediter-
ranean basin by the
first century c.r. By
that time, Roman cit-
izcns found thcmselves living in a cosmopolitan world
in which Rornan administrators oversaw affairs from
Anatolia and Palestine in the east tb Spain and Mo-
rocco in *re wcst.
|ust as Homer's epics recall the world of the
Grceks, thc story of Paul of Tarsus reflects the cosmo-
polianiiorld of the Roinans. Born in the first century
c.r., Paul was a devout Jew from Anatolia who ac-
cepted thc Christian teachings of |esus of Nazareth.
Paul was a principal figure in the development of
Ctristianity to an independent religious faith, largely
bccausc of his zealous missionary efforts to attract
conycrts from outside as well as within the Jewish
community. While promoting his adopted faith in
]crusalcm about 55 c.E., however, paul was attacked
by a crowd ofhis enemies who believed his views werc
a dreat to Iudaism. The disturbance was so sevcre t}tat
Roman authorities intcrvened to restore order.
Under normal circumstances, Roman authoriti es
would havc dclivered Paul to the leaders of his own
ethnic comrnunity, where he would bc dcalt with ac-
cording to custom. But knowing that Jewish leaders
would probably execure him, paul assertcd his rights
as a Roman citizen to appeal his case in Romc. paul
had ncvcr becn to Rome, but this Anatolian travcl-
ing in Palestinc callcd on thc laws of thc impcrial cen--
tcr to dctermine his fatc. Paul traveled across thc
Meditcrranean to Rome, bur his appcal did not suc-
cccd- Tradition holds that hc was exccuted by impc-
rial authoritics our of conccrn that Christianity was a
thrcat to the peacc and stabiliry of thc cmpirc.
Undcr*both tbc Grccks and thc Romans, thc
Mcditcrrancan bilin bccamC iiiuch morc tightlyintc-
gratcd than bcfore as both socictics org"rrir.d .o*-
mcrcial cxchangc and sponsored interaction throughout
thc rcgion. In fact, undcr Grcck and thcn Roman
5OO B.C.E. TO 5OO C.E.
supervision, the Mediterranean served not as a barrier ki
but, rather, as a highway. Moreover, this highway car- d
ried more than soldiers, citizens, and goods: it also car-
ried ideas. Indeed, Greek philosophy-which generated Kno
a remarkable body of moral thought and philosophical fr
reflection-shaped the cultural foundations of th.
Pi
Roman republic and empire, as educated Roman w
thinkers drew inspiration from their neighbors to the h'
east. Later, this highway carried the Christian religion lo
to all corners of the Roman empire.
Yet Greek and Roman societies also differed sub- ci
stantially both in and in outlook. Early in B.
the classical cra, thc Greeks lived in independent, au-
,cr
tonomous city-setes. Only aftcr the latc third century G
B.c.E. did they play prominent rolcs in the large, cen- eI
tralized empire established by their neighbors to the g
north in Macedon. LIntil then, thc Grecks had intc- B.
grated the societies.and economies of distant lands - .m.
mainly through energctic commercial activity over the
Mediterranean sea lanes. In contrast to the dreeks, the
Romans built an extensive, centralized land empire. At
its high point the Roman empire domirrated thi en#
Mediterranean basin and parts ofsouthwestAsia as well
as north Africa and much of continental Europe and
Britain. In addition, wtrercas Greek authorities did not
sponsor an evangclical religion, Christianity eventually
became the official religion of the Roman empirq
which allowcd the new religion to spread much more
effectively than beftirc.
Ennlv Drvelopnaerur
oF CREEK SocIrrY .Eu
ltw,
?u.lng the third millcnnium B.c.E., the peoplcs of Suict
the Balkan region and the Grcek peninsula increas-
.
ingly met and mingled with pcoplcs from different sca
socictics who traveled and traded in the Mcditer- ma
ranean basin. As a result, carly inhabitants of the sol
Grcek peninsula built thcir societics undcr the influ- Pcl
ence of Mesopotamians, Egyptians, phocnicians, and i, tcc
othcrs activc in thc region. Bcginning in the ninth agr
ccntury B.C.E., thc Grecks organizcd a series of city- Mr
statcs, which servcd as thc political contcxt for thc tan
dcvclopmcnt of classical Greck socicty. l{.
Par
Minoan and Mycenaean Societies
During thc latc third millcnnium B.c.E., a sophisti-
catcd society arosc on the island of Crctc. Scholarc
refcr to it as Minoan socicty, aftcr Minos, a legendary
 (:llAl'l F.R tl I rllll)11'[':RRANFrq,N soCIETl' UNt)tit( l'H1.. (it(h.F.Ks ANI) I'H]. R()uAss 133

t)itrncr king of ancicnr (lrctc. Ilcnvccn 2000 rnd 1700 n.c.r:., cstablishcd scrrlcnrcnrs in Anatolil, Sicilt,, and s()uth-
rY car- tlrc inhabitants ()f Crcrc built a scrics of hvish palaces crn Italy,. About I200 n.<:.1. thc Itlvccnacans cnragcd
$()cilr- throughout.thc island, ntost notrrtrll,thc cnor_ in a conflict uith tlrc citv t,l''ltov
Knosos rrrous Chaos in thc
rccltcd conrplc.t at ffurossos dccoratctl rvith vivid in Anatolia. 'l'his 'l'rojan *ar, r..hicir
,phical tit'scocs clcpicting .i\.linoans ar s'ork ancl play. Thcsc Homcr rccallctl fionr a Circck ocr, Eestrn
(rf thc prlaccs \l'crc thc ncn.c ccntcrs of Minoan s<xicty: thcy Mcdttrtencen
spcctivc in his //ia4 c.rincidctl r'irh
i.otttlttt rvcrc rcsidcrrccs olrurlcn, and thcY als<l scn,cd ls storc- invasions of tirrcign rnarincrs in thr }tr.ccnacan
t() thc houscs s'lrcrc oflcials collcctcd taxcs irr kintl fiom honteland. Indccd, tiolu l100 to 80t) n.r .!... chaos
,'ligion kx'al cultivators. rcigncd throur:'h()ur tlrc crstcrn Alcditcrrancln rc-
Bctrvccn 2200 ancl 1450 R.c.r:., Crcrc u,as a prin- gion. Invasious rrncl civil clisturbarrccs mldc it irrrpor-
tl sr.tb- cipll center <lf N{cditcrrancan c()nrnrcrcc. I}1, 2200 siblc t<l nrlintrrin strrlrlc g()vcrnnlcnts ()r cvcn
.:rrlv in l].(t.H.. Crctans \!,crc travcling ab<lard aclvlncccl sailing productivc aqrictrlttrrrrl socictics. Nlvccnacan prlaccs
rlt, iltl- craft of Phoe nician clcsign. Minoan ships s:rilcd t<t fell into rrrin, rhc 1'ropul:rrion slrarylv dcclinctl. an.l
crlturv (ircccc, Anatolia, Pl'rocnicia, and Egvprt, rvhcrc ttrcy peoplc abandoncd nr()st scttlcnrcnts.
a, ccn- cxclrangcd Crctan rvinc, olivi oil, ancl u,ool for
t() thc [rains, tcxtilcs, and nranufhcturcd goclds. Aftcr 1600
The World of the Polis
I intc- B.c.t. Crerans cstablishcd colonies on Cvprus and
lands rnanv islands in the Acgcan Sea. In the absence of a ccntrllizcd srate-<x crnpire- l<xal in-
Ycr the Aftcr 1700 s.t:.r.. Minoan sociery expericnccd a se- stitutions took tlrc lcatl in rcst<lring political ordcr in
ks, the rics of earthquakes, r'olcanic eruptions, and tidal waves. Greece after thc dcclinc ol Myccnrcan scx-icrr.. Thc
'irc. At Decline of Benveen 1600 and 1450 s.c.u,., Cre- most importanr institution u'as thc ciq'-state , or polis
' entire tans embarked on a new round of Over time, manr, <>frhcsc poleis (the piunl oi polis) be -
Minoan Society
as well palace building to replace structures - came lively commercial cenrers.lThcy took on an in-
;'re and destroyed by those natural catasuophes: they built lux- creasingly urban character and extendcd *rcir authorin
lid not urious complexes u,ith indoor plumbing and drainage over surrounding regions. By about 800 s.c.t. manr.
ntuillx systems and even furnished some of thern rvith flush poleis had become bustling city-states that functioned
mpire, toilets. After 1450 B.c.E., however, the lvealth of Mi_ as the principal cenrers of Greek society. Thc most im-
r more noan society attracted a series ofinvaders, and by lI00 portant of the poleis rvere Sparta and Athens, r*,hose
B.c.E. Crete had fallen under foreign domination. yet contrasting constitutions help to illustratc thc r-arien.ol
Minoan traditions deeply influenced the inhabitants of political styles in classical Greect.
nearby Greece. Sparta was situated in a fertilc region of the Greek
Beginning about 2200 s.c.E. migratory Indo_ peninsula, ivhose lands rhe Spartans exploited b1'forc-
European peoples filtered inro rhe Greek peninsula. ing neighboring peoples to perform agricultural
they had begun.to trade labor. These ltelots, or servants of the Sparran tParta
Mycenoean ::c'E'merchants and visit
ples of Society
-t1,t199
u,ith Minoan Crere, state , were not slaves, but neither u.erc ther- tiee to
rcreas- where they learned about writing and large- leave the land. Their role in societv was to kccp Spartl
:ferent scale construction. A_fter l4S0 s.c.s. they also built supplied with fbod. By the sixth centun B-c.E., rhe
:diter- massive stone fortresses and palaces throughout the helots probably outnumbered the Sparran cidzens br-
of the southern part of the Greek peninsula, known as the more than ten to one) rvhich meant that the Spartans
: influ- Peloponnesus. Because the fortified sites offered pro_ constandy had to guard against rebellion. 3s a result.
rs, and tection, they soon attracted settlers, who built small the Spartans devoted most of their rsources to main-
ninth agricultural communities. Their society is known as taining a powerful and disciplined militaq,machine.
rf city- Mvcenaean, after Mt,cenae, one of their most impor_ In theor,v, Spartan citizens u'ere equal in status.
br the tant setdements. To discourage the development of economic and so-
From 1500 to Il00 B.c.E.) the Mycenaeans ex_ cial distinctions, Sparrans obsen'ed an
panded their influence beyond peninsular Greece. extraordinarily austere lifesryle . They s?artun socirry
They largely overpowered Minoan sociery and they did not wear jeu,elry or elaborate clorhes. nor di,l
took over the Cretan palaces. The Mycenaeans also they pamper themselves,with luxuries or accumulatc
phisti- private wealth on a large scale . It is for good reason.
:holars Minoan (mih-NOH-uhn)
endary Mycenaean ( nreye-suh-NEE-uhn ) polis (POH-lihs)
 r34 PARI2 I THE FORMATION OF
CI.ASSICAL SOCIETIES,
5OO r.C.r. TO 5OO C.E.

Ap.
I t@n$dcty atta,
f raoo"".ou"ty hclp

no
adu
lear
voic

rich
Athcni
Map &f M.Fr ciry-statcs, or poleis, of ctassical Grcccc cenl
bcrwccn gO0 and *
inland' Ho*-ig;p'o*i.itv . Wef(
;Hi:J,:l,"ffiJ.[ilated to or distancc from thc sca
havc shapcd thc cconomic
and sociar
weal
tocr:
inA,
thcn, that our adicctiv e spurtanrefcrs (
charactcriznd bv simoticiry to a lifcstylc their husbands. Onlv at abour Hc,
r."*"i,.r, lustcrity. agc thirty did men lcavc
Distincrbn irong tr,. ""i the ba*acks sei.p" h;;;;"]o*;;ii.ir
prowcss, dixiplinc, and
nr
T..il;$;"il.r..
tr.y,-,-"i_,,'*rrf
uy
i*il&:,.
"nd
fl trg,4 sp**liil,i'ria'i",, wives Solot a.
Atlnnir
Spartan cducational system
iIi
ch thc or ts ascctic rigor .nu.r,
agc. All
culrivatcd from an carly by the fourth
tan instirutions ncvcrthel.r,
*;"il;.;
E., Spar-
Dcmocr
Spartans, mcn and.r",rnr"n,
. ,ig- ,ij.I*.n. largcr societyrs commiunent
."n,inuJi,i'LR..,,t.
o.r-o_urrcgin*.of physicaitraining.d;;;,;isparran mcnr
to military values.
ctuzcns lcft rhcir homcs at Whcreas Sparta sough.r zcn \
agc scvcn and wcnt to to imposclraJiv _ili,.rv
in military livc Athcnians rctieved r".i"t Duri
berracks. i.*iJrliilourirr,_
mili ta,y s'.J.;;ilA if,:r":::?,.t:l ht"t**:
,T:rrr,
mg a govcrnment bascd
ples. Indccd, Athenians
on dcrnocrad;;ril;. rcfor
mcnt. sparun womct opcned At*cns salari
.ish;..;;;.ffi :L1l.I;.#hf H;:*f; officcs to all citizcns *d ,or.rrrrn.ri
cat participation in ctassicat
#;J;;8il;#:fporiti_ not c
cr;;.:. d;;; T
was by
dem<
-.^
rF-''
 (:l{AP'l'I:Rlt | I\'lEl)tl 11l(lL\Nl:AN s()(:lEl-\ uNl)t:,Rl'ttt1 (iRt:I]Ls ANI)Tl{}:
A painted cup produced in Sparta abour 550 a.c.r. depicts huntcrs
attacking a boar. Spartans regardcd hunting as an cxercise tiat
helped to sharpen fighting skills and aggrcssive insrincts.
no means open to all residents, however: only free
adult males from Athens played a role in public affairs,
leaving foreigners, slaves, and women with no direct
voice in government. _ _
During the seventh century B.C.E., the gap between
rich and poor around Athens widened considerably as
increased irade brought prosperity ro
Athenion Socien
wcalthy landowners. By the early sixth
century r.c.r., a large class of undcrprivileged people
were unhappy enough to wage war against their
wealthy neighbors. To alrrt civil war, an Athenian aris-
tocrat named Solon devised a solution to class conflict
in Attica, *re region around Athens.
Solon forged a compromise between the classes.
He allowed aristocrats to keep their lands, but he
leave
Solon ond cancelled debts, forbade debt slaverS and
vives
Athenion liberated those already enslaved for debt.
nuch Detnocracy Solon also provided representation for the
ipar- common classes in the Athenian govern-
t the ment by opening the councils of the polis to any ciri-
zen rvealthy enough to devote time to public affairs.
titary During the late sixth and fifth cenruries B.c.E., these
rlish- reforms went even further as Athenian leaders paid
Athens salaries to officeholders so financial hardship would
not exclude anyone from service.
oliti- These reforms graduaily uansformed Athens into a
as by democratic state . The high tide ofAthenian democrary
R()t\l.{Ns 135
canlc undcr thc lcatlcrslrip of thc statcsntan Pcriclcs,
s'lro bccamc thc nrosr popular Athcnian lca&r from
461 n.<:.e. urrtil his cicath in 429 n.c.u. Undcr
Pcr*lct
thc lcatlcruhip of Pcriclcs, Athcru bccamc tlrc
nr()st sophisticatcd ()t
thc polcis, with :r vi-
brant conrmrtnin, ()t'
scicntists,- philosol'rhc n;,
[x)cts, dmn)atists, artists, rnd archirc.cts.
Gnrecr AND THE LARcER Wonlo
As thc polcis prcs1'rcrcd, Grceks bccame incrcasinglv
pronrincnt in thc largcr rvorld of the Meditcrrancan
basin. Thcy cstablishcd colonies along the shorcs ofthe
Mediterranean Sca ancl the Black Sea, and thcy traded
throughout thc rcgion. Evenrually, rhcir politkal and
economic intercsrs brought thcm into conflict with the
cxpanding Persian cmpire. After a centur)'of intermit-
tent war, in the fourth
century B.C.E. Alexan-
der of Macedon top-
pled the Achaemenid
empire and built an empire stretching from ladia to
Egypt and Greece. His conquests crcated a veft zone
of trade and communication that cncoqraged cnrnmer-
cial and cultural exchange on an unprccedenrcd scalc.
Creek Colonization
To relieve population pressurcs in the rocky Grcek
peninsula, Greeks began to establish colonies in other
parts of the Mediterranean basin. Between drc mid-
eighth and the late sixth centurics n.c.r., they founded
more than four hundred coloirics along thc slrores of
the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea.
The Greeks established their first colonies in the
central Med.iterranean during thc earty cighth ccnmry
B.C.E. The most popular sites were
Sicily and sourhern I,"rv, p"r**r"rrv Gtd ^_-. Qtsnies
the region around modern Naples, which was itself
originally a Greek colony called Neapolis (*nerv
polis"). These colonies provided merchants not only
u'ith fertile fields that vielded large agricukural sur-
pluses but also with convenient access to thc copper,
zinc, tin, and iron ores of central Italy.
During the eighth and seventh cenruries B.c.E.,
Greeks ventured into the Black Sea in large numbers
and established colonies all along its shores. These
 I

136 PART 2 I THE FORMAUON OF CI.{SSICAL SOCIETIES,

5OO B.C.E. TO 5OO
C.r

finar
once
isted
tribu
t
confl
I The Pelo
I
i
w,,
i Conte
B.C.E.
nians
victor
flics c
as intr
power

The
the (
'
Map82 lrliorcrEf citics and colonics. Until r
*"**
rnarryCrrtctcolonies.Whatdoes.r,".,.,ggo*iliffi.ffi3basinbetwecn800and50os.c.g.Notcthc."*;m , donw
Durinl
settlerirents
,, Kingr
-; ofTbeMaeedo
oftred m3r;hant1 acccss to rich supplies
*f;H f.hf*'::::i ;*-'
gnp on Anatolia. the
;*"'gota' bccame increasinely
Greek cities on the
Ionian coast
,,
..r.1;.;;
-d ***;;. ilffT il1i1,i,:i:*,#.[u
his hol.
""a ssi a volted against perlirn s"o.oT...r. they re _
rule and expclled the larger ;
Unlikc thcir countcrparts menid administrato.:t Achae_
in .f*i.Jp..ria, China, Ir rrpp;;:-;;;eir felow
proved
and Irrc4 the Grcercs
die;;Jd Grcels and comme.,.r.al
p_r;cT, ,*r.i rrirrans senr
Warhat
riat stae. rnstcad" cotonies
and chartcd rlrir-ovn
*ti.a;il;il#
".l"ollr.o,_*_
.**.., a fleet of ships
to aid the IoJ* Jrror-,.-'"
Dcspitc Athcnian assi.t*..,
hamper
after a c,
onl,,ti* [oilii;t^":Y
Nevertheless, Greck
col- Ionian rebellion in 4e3 il; reprcssed the under h
r.;.;. fi;*- "'ir',
y.ll, r",.r, r,.
"na.*.r,_-g;d-.*:T.xITffi iliift il,l.x".xi?
lands and pcopb. H.l.:T3lfl ,nf - Philr
Froln.thc
cotonies ficilitatcd
.*ly.ighft;;-n;ry B.c.E., $i"::
rner r rntcrfbrence.
?ff X p, n ; n, w.
n launchir

the Grcet poteis. At ffi;;;;;ons

tradc b.nu""ri r.l"rgh g... rly ou tnum bered,
t th" pe .J"rr Alcxander
*.
o_. J.nJ,IiJIffin and the Athenians routed
of Mecedou
Grcek tanguase as wclj spread
a1d th"n _"r.-h-J' C".n,l
"Jrrr"y*".
tf,. U"ttf .
oons throughout thc "r..uriu."i "iio"il..n *.*_
er.ai,"**._-ii#]iil* :t_y:.*n:n in old son,

ffiffifiIl"i,,crrccts or..n
:ji{,"r.fi
cure a
;f{[ I:Tn l*:;,lt xni :i* r*i
definitive
^,*,ens thc Grc,
vadc tht
vicro
*T i ;.;*,, il:.; l# ;'*;:,i;;,.il1flu: stratcgis
mish intcrmiftcntlv well-cqu
Conflict with persia w
During thc fifth ccntr
v", ii.'i.'.,#,;llH*,,'ffi ::T:il his hthcr
among the Grcek oolcis con n i c t and Ana:
o-:d, ;; *ni ;;:ilr*" i an alliancc b.mecn
themffir. il.:"usc
. was held Svri.
conflict with thc pcrsi ;.,},:::f,[i [.Xt th^c Dcrian
tt,. pot.i, t n;;r^,J
crtscouraget'gy.,
whicfi ;;;;;j; rbc-Dctiatt uollcd r\'
furthcr p..rian aJo,,*,"i.r sian honr
i:ffi :ji:i*u,*T"rl#:iii.ri,I:$; Greccc. Becausc of its
supcrior flcct, Athcns
ltaguc
Achacmc
rhcr."d;;;il;,i,:: cc, bcncfidng grcatly
bccamc in 330 n.,
from thc C[lpCror r
 (ltlAP'fLR tt I Illll)l'l'l'.RILAnNh-{n- S(XllFl'[1- tlNI)lrl{'l t Ill (;Rt;tiKS
ANI)'t'Hti R(}ntAtis 137

l
finrrncill c<lntributions of othcr polcis. Horvcvcr,
orrcc it s'as clclr thar tlrc l)crsiarr thrcat rro l<lngcr cx-
istcd, thc othcr p<llcis rcscrrtcd hl'ing ro nrakc con-
tritrutiorrs thar sccnrcd ro bcnclit ()nh, thc Athcnians.
Llltinratcl)', thc tcrrsions r"rultc.l in a bittcr civil
c()rrflict knou'n rs rhc l)cloponncsian War (4.3 l-404
.t.l* pclo,onncsian n.r:.t,.). Polcis dividctl into nr.<t
arnrccl canrps undcr thc lcatlcrship
iio,
of Athcns and Sparta, tlrc principal
contcntlcrc filr hcgcnronv in the (ircck s<lrld. lly 404
By 327 R.(;.r,. Alcxatrdcr had largcr ambiriorx: hc
took his arnrv irrto Irrtlia lrut w,as forr.cd to rcturn homc
u'hcn his tr(x)ps rclirscd to procccd any
,lkrnadcr,s
thrthcr. Bv 32.1 n.(:.1.:. Alcxandcr and his '
c'onqucss
arnry, hacl rcturrrcd to susa in Mcxrpr-
tamia. In Junc of .323 B.c.F.., howcvcr, aftcr an cx-
tcndcd rountl of l.rrrsdng and drinking, hc suddcnlv fLll
ill and dicd ar rhc rgc of thirty-thrr.e. Thus, although
Alcxandcr pr<>r'ctl to ['rc a brilliant conquror, hc did
not livc long cnouuh to devclop a systcm ofadminis-

,:l Ir.c.h. thc Sgr:rrtans and rlrcir allics had filrcctl rhc Athc-
rri:rns to r,rnconclitit>nll strrrcndcr. Hou,cvcr, Sparta's
lictorv s()()n gcncratcd ncu, jcalousics, antl ncu, con-
tration filr his vlsr rc:rlnr.

tlicts quickh'trrokc our bcru'cen thc polcis. i\.lcan*.hilc,
ls intcrnal strugglcs rvc:rkcncd thc polcis, a tilrnridablc
p()\\'cr took shapc in drc north.
The Macedonians and
The Hellenistic Empires
Whcn Alcxandcr clicd, his gcne rals divided rhc cm-
pirc into thrcc largc states. Antigonus trxrk Grcecc
and Maccdon, u,lriclr his Antigonid succcssors ruted
until replaccd bv the Romans in the sccond ccnrur\-

.l
the Coming of Empire B.c.E. Ptolemy took Egypt, u,hich thc Ptolemaic dr.-
nasty ruled until the
LIntil thc fburth ccnrurv B.c.E., the kingdont of Mace-
Roman conquest of
don rvas a fronder state north of peninsular Greece.
Eglpt in 3I s.c.e. Se-
ofthe During the reign of King Philip II (359-336 B.c.E.),
leucus took the largest
The Kinqdom ' however,
unified
Macedon became a powerful,
state with an impressive military
portion, the former Achaemenid cmpirc strctching
of Maceion from Bactria to Anatolia, which his s.uccessors ruled
machine. When philip had consolidated
until the Parthians displaced them during thc second
l coast his hold on Macedon, he turned his attention to rwo
century B.c.E.
rey re- larger prizes: Greece and the persian empire. Greece
Historians refer to the age ofAlcxandcr and his suc-
relatively easy to conquer: the peloponnesian
' ,- \chae
- g_1""_.d
fellow War had poisoned the poleis against one another, which
cessors as the Hellenistic agi-an era whcn Greek cul-
tural traditions expurded their influence
ls sent hampered organized resistance. Thus in 33g r.c.e.,
(Heltas) to mu.h larger world. [n- Tbc xrellenistic
alier a campaigrr oftrvelve years, philip had all of Greece " - Era
deed, the Hellenistic govcrned
cosmopolitan societies"-pi..,
ed the under his control.
and sponsorcd interacrions be-
-er, he Philip intended to use his conquest of Greece as a
tween peoples from Greece to India. Like imperial
launching pad fbr an invasion of persia but rvas pre-
ian Wan states in classical Per-
Abxander vented from doing so by an assassin who sia, China, and India,
)ered, of Maced.on brought him down in 336 s.c.s. The inva_ the Hellenistic empires
battle sion of pe rsia thus fell to his tw,enry-year_
facilitated trade, and
ens in old son, Alexander of Macedon, often called Alexander
they made it possible for belie6, values" and religions ro
uccess the Great. Alexander soon assembled an army to in-
spread over greater distances than el,cr bcfrre.
rld se- vade the Persian empire. Alexander was a brilliant
'more All the Hellenistic empires bencftcd handsomeh-
strategist and an inspired leader, and he inherired a
from the new order through the supcrvision of exten-
o skir- well-equipped and highll'spirited vereran force from
sive trade networks and efficient tax cot-
his father. By 333 B.c.E. Alexander had subjected Ionia
>nflict and Anatolia to his control; rvithin another year he
lection. yet perhaps ,h. *;,hi;;"f ,h. Tbe Pnlemaic
Empire
Hellenistic empires rvas ptolemaic Egypt-
ie was held Syria, Palestine, and Egrpt; bv 33I B.c.E. he con_
Greek and Macedonian overlords did not inrerfere in
trolled Mesopotamia and prepared to invade the per-
n Delian Egyptian socieg,, contenting themselves r*ith the efE-
sian homeland. He took Pasargadae and burned the
Leogae cient organization of agriculture, industrr, and ta-x
Achaemenid palace at Persepolis late in 33I B.c.E., and
acame in 330 B.c.E. Alexander established himself as the new
,m rhe emperor of Persia. Ptolemaic (TAWL_-oh-may-ihk)
 I38 ptRT 2 T}IE FORMATION OF CLq,SSICAT SOCIEfiES, 500 r.c.r.
| To 500 c.E.

used I

thoup
not lc
classit
broug
and cr

THr
Cnr
Thc r

pcnin
south
munir
rcads.
by lar
hcavil

Trad
offi
Altho
n
"n'
lIlaPL3 tsiradarics of Alcxander's former empirc and of thc Hellenishc cmpircs that succccded it about the year 2ZS s.c.s.
Ilotia thc iffirencc in sizc bctween thc three Hellcnistic cmpircs. What would have bccn the cconomic and political advantagcs and
disadrrmgcs of cach|
i \illne.
thc M
6fg".
collcction. Thcy maintained the irrigation networks institute of higher learning where philosophical, liter- Br
and monitorcd the cultivation of crops and the pay- arg and scientific scholars carried on advanced re- Cfatc(
mcnt of urcs. They also established royal monopolies search-and of the equally famous Alexandrian 'Mcrcl
ovcr thc rnost lucrative industries, such as textiles, salt Ubrary which supported the scholarship sponsorcd throul
nnking;and the brcwing of becr. by thc museum and which, by the first century B.c.E., in thc
Much of Eg5rpt's wcakh flowed to thc ptolcmaic boasted a collection of more rhan seven hundred Mcdir
caprtal ofAlexandria. Founded by Alexander at the thousand works. Thcsc
Alrxrr*a- thc molth of thc Nile, Alexandria servcd as It was in the Seleucid realm, howcver, that Grcck Grecl
Ptolemics' administrative headquar- influencc rcachcd its greatest exrent. The principal gods
ters, but it becamc much more than a bureaucratic channels of that influencc werc the numcr- spokc
curtcr. Akrandria's cnormous harbor was ablc to ac- ous citics that Alcxand.r *a *r rr.;;; Tbc sclcwil
ttleti<
commoderc 1,200 ships simultancously, and the ciry founded in thc formcr pcrsian cmpire. Empit
Gr
soon bcenre the most important port in thc Mcditer- Greck and Macedonian coloniss flocked to rhesc citics, ticipa,
nulcan. Ahngsidc Grecks, Maccdonians, and Egyp- rvhcrc rhey created a Meditcrmean-stylc urban socicry
tians livcd rizable comrnunities of Phoenicians, |cws, that lcft is mark on lands as disrant as Bactria urd India.
olr
Arab6, and Babylonians. The ciry was indccd an carly Many Sclcucids became familiar with Greck languagc,
mcgrlopolis, wherc pcoplcs of diffcrcnt cthnic, reli- drcss, litcraturc, philosophy art, and architccturc. Enr-
gious, and cultural traditions conductcd thcir affairs. pcrorAshoka of India himsclf had his cdicts promul-
Undcr t}r Ptolemics, Alcxandria alrc bccamc thc cul- gatcd in Grcck and Aramaic, thc two most commonly
nxal capiel of thc Hcllcnisdc world. It wrs thc sitc of
thc funourddexurdrian".Muscunr-* statc-financcd Sclcuci& LOO-sihds)
*<.: :.-:
( sih-
 CHATTTER8 I[{I.]DITHRRAN}I,NSoCIEIYUNDER'I'III:(iRI'F:KSANT)]],IF:IT().|\IANS I39

uscd languagcs of thc Hcllcnistic cmpires. Indccd, al-

though thc socictics undcr Hcllcnistic domination did
not losc thcir oun cust()nls, thc Hellcnistic cnrpircs, likc
classical statcs in Pcrsia, China, and India, ncvcrthclcss
brought distant lands into intcraction by u'ay of tradc
and cultural cxchangc.

THr Fnurrs oF TRADE:

Gnerx Ecoruorrlv AND SoctETy
Thc mountainous anti rocky terrain ol thc Grcek
peninsula lelded only small harvests of grain, and the
southern Balkan mounrains hindercd travcl and com-
rrs
n'runication. Indeed, until the construction of modcrn
roads, much of Greece was more acccssible by sea than
by land. As a result, early Grcek society depended
heavily on maritime uade.

Trade and the tntegration

of the Mediterranean Basin
Although it produccd litde grain, much of Greece is
ideally suited to the cultivation of olives and grapes.
After the establishment of the poleis, the Greeks dis-
t Trade covered tlat they could profitably concentrate
their ef-forts on the production of olive oil and
wine. Greek merchants traded rttesc products around Harvcsting olivcs. In this painting on a vase, trtrE mcn knoct fnrit
the Mediterranean, returning *ith abundant supplies offthe branches whilc a third climbs the trec toshake drc Srrhs,
of grain and other items as wcll. and another gathers olives from thc ground.
ter- By thq eady eighth cenrury B.c.E., rade had gen-
re- erated considerable prosperity in the Greek world.
'ian Merchants and mariners linked Greek communities
red tlrroughout thc Mediterranean world-not only those strength, and skill. Events induded footracing long
r.E., in the Greek peninsula but also those in Anatolia, the jo-p, boxing, wresding, javelin tossing, and discus
red Meditdrranean islands, and the Black Sea region. throwing. Winners of events received olive rmcaths,
These trade links contributcd ro a sense of a lirger and they became celelrated heroes in their home
eek Greek community. Colonists recogr*ized the same poleis. The ancient Olympic games took ptace cvery
ipal gods as their cousins in the Greek peninsula. They four years for more than a millennium before quietly
spoke Greek dialects, and they maintained commercial disappearing from Greek life . So, although ther- uere
leucid.
relationships with their native communities. not united politically, by the sixrh cenrun"
impire B-c.E.
Greeks from all parts gathered periodically to par- Greek communities had nevertheless established a
ticipate in panhellenic festivals that reinforced their sense of collecrive identiry.
The Olvmoic common bonds. Many of these festivals
Gamei ' fbatured athletic, literary, or musical con-
Family and Society
rge , rests in which individuals sought to win
,,m- glory for their polis. Best known of the panhellenic With the establishment of poleis in the eighth ceorury
rul- festivals were the Olympic games. According to tradi_ B.c.E., the nature of Greek family and socien- came
tion, in 776 e.c.E. Greek communities from all parts
1 of the Me diterranean se nr their be st athletes to the
into focus. Like urban societies in southlvest Asia and
Anatolia, the Greek poleis adopted strictly patriarchal
polis of Olympia to engage in conte srs of speed, family structures. Male family heads ruled their
 140 pART 2 | THE FoRMATIoN ()i ct {ssrcAr
socrEl.IEs, s00 B.c.E. To 500 c.r

houscholds, and fathers even had

,1r. ,;ght to decide
whether or not to keep infants Uo.., Greek law regarded all slaves
..l ri.ir wives. as the private chattel t
property of their owners, and
pa*iarcbl They could not legally kill infants, but tives depended on the
the .o.rdiio.r, of slaves, l'
fuilrty they could abandon newbor::s in. *J;;';;;.."ment of
rnountains or the countryside, where
*1g m.i
:y:I. In general,"".a,
fro*.u.., Jil;i;;.rr;
t,
they special skills fared befter than
would soon die of exposure . orrUt"J ,i"u.r. A slave
named pasion, for example,
Grcck women fell under the authority worked n rir, , porr.,
rhcrs, husbands, or sons.,Upper_class
of rheir fa_
G..ek women
then as a clerk at a prominent "rra
atnenlan Uank during &
the late fifth and early fourth
spent mcr of their time in the family
home and fre - ;;;;r;...r.
nrarely. Pasion gained his freedom,
UIti- o
quently worc veils when they ,renrured
outside. In ,""t manage- o
most of*re poleis, women cotrld not ment of the bank, outfitted five
wanhifs from his "*.
own landed prop_
er1 bur they sometimes operated small businesses pocket, and won a granr ofAthenian.i?r."rfrp. own ri

zuch as *rops and food stals. the only

public position Je
open to Greek women was that of priestess T
of a reli_ THr CulruRAL
pous cuh. Sparta was something of a special case when LIFE
br
cal3 to gender relations: theie *o.i.r oF CLASSICAL GREECE A
it participated
in athlctic contests, wenr abour to*n
bf ih;il;r, tC
and sometimcs even took up arms During the eighth and seventh centuries
to d#na the polis. B.c.E., as ci
Evln in Spqrq howevcr, mcn were family Greek merchanm ventured,hr""gh;;;
and nrcn done determ[ned '
,tat poti.io.
aurhorities,
basin, they became acquainted
J. u.ai,.r_ bt
with the so_ 3l
Utency was comriron I11.T
pnlstrcated cultural,traditions
upper_class Grcek of Mesopotamia and di
women, end a few womcn "morrg
.rrrr.J re-p-utations for lit_ They lcarned astronomS science,
ISyp,. mathemat_
fuplho .cnrytalcnt. Most famous ofthim was the poet ics, medicine, andmagic fr"-,fi;"by]i}ri;,
aswell
Jappno, who was active during as geomers medicing and
around6(X) r.c.e.
the years divination from the
Sappho, probably *ito* from Egyptians- Thcy also ar.* i"rpir"JJ"
an from thc
aristocratk-family, invited yo""g' "
tromc rcr rnsrucdon in music and
*oi.n inro her myths- religious beliefs, ,r,
-"rifi, *l ,.chitectural
literature. Critics stytes of Mesopotamia *d
Egyp;. Ab;;ioo r...r.
chargcdl hcr *ith homosexual activity, *J n., suryiy_ they adapted the phoeni.i";6h;;ii"
ing versc spcal$ ofher strong ptyri.Jr,rraction language. To the phoeniciail;;;r;;;"ts owrl.,*
,rr.i,
ro they
voung wlrmen. Gree k society readily added symbots for vowets and
relationships betwcen men bur
tolerated sexuJ thus ;;;;;;;;
excep-
no*r,.j on female tionalty flexible system fb. ;;;;;ijig
i,r_rn
h.omgsexulity.fu a resulr, Sappho f.ti,rrra., speech in written form.
a moral
cloud,.and only fragment of fr., p"*ylr*i*. -During thc fifth
and_fourth cennints B.c.E.,
tamilies with ex tcn sive la ndholdin ^
Grceks combined rhose rhe
could^nsrocratrc
afforrd to provide girls with
gs borro*.a.."f*rJelements
tbr*J educarion, with their own intellect.r"t interesi,
"
bur in lcs privilcged famities .Il h""J;;;tributed rich cultural tradition tt rt .*.r.i..a
,J'J"uorrr. .
thc wclfarc of the household. in ,r.r."1 to
encc in
."*i.,"r, irnr_
f"_ili.s, men the Mediterran^ean basin and
*;;;
Europe.
pcrformd most of the outside *uort, The most disti.ctive f.","..
,ufrit. women of .i*ri."i 6*.t.rr
rook care of domestic chores and rvove ture was thc effort to construct
rvool
In artisan familics living in th. pot.ir,toi, textiles. of philosophy based purely
a consistent systcm
_.n
\r'omen o,&cn participated in
busincsses and main_ "r,a "" i;;;;;;
raincd stasds or booths in thc mrkc,pt....
Throughout the Grcek rvorld, Rationat Thought and philosophy
in classical
socictics' shvery was a promincnt ", ",i.,
nlcans of mobiliz- Thcpivotal figure in thc development
Sleecrl ing-labor. Slavcs camc fiom scvcral of philosophy
diftbrenr was Socratcs (47C-S9g
Drkgrounds. Somc cntcrcd slavery r.c.r.), ,f,orgn?.i'Athenian
bccausc "
jrivc.n by a powcrful urge to understand
thcr co$.d not pay thcir dcbts. Mrny,r;;. human bc_
soldiers ings in all. thcir complciity.
capturcd in war. A largelumber camc
from thc pco_ commit his thoughilo writing,
S"..",.;;iJ;;
ples u,ith whom thc Grccks tradcd:
,t*. m"rt.t .r but his d.iscil sotates
plc Plato latcr comooscd diallgues
!la1k &a ports sotd seminomadi. S.wtiin, caprurcd ,fr"ffir.r.n,"a
in Russia, and Egyptians proviclcd Ani..iri"r.r. vicws. He ,ugg.stcd that honor
focmtes' was frr morc
rmportant than u,calth, famc, or
othcr rrp..fi.i.l
"r_
 ('ll.\l'lliRS lltlll)l ll:RRAN|ANS(Xlllil-\'ttNl)l'.R l'lllr(iRl:l.lKSANl)]'H11 R()l\tAlis l4l

rttcl trilrr,rtcs. Hc scorrrcd thosc rvlro prctl.rrctl lrulrlic rrcco- S()cratcs' inflrrcncc survived in tlrc u'ork o('his
vcs' htlcs to lx'rs()nal intcgril\'. antl lrc insistcd ()n lllc nccd rrr()st zcal()us tlisciplc, Plato (4.30-3{7 n.t:.t,.), end in
t ()l t() rcflcct on thc purp()scs .rrrtl golls of liti.. "'l'lrc un- Pllto's clisciplc Arisrotlc (384-.122 $.c.h..). In- h, -
t'tato
iscd cxlnrincrl lili' is not spircd bv his nrcnt,,r's rcflcctions, I'hto chbo-
lavc s'orth living." hc rirtcd a svstcntrti. phikrs<lphv of grcat subtlctr'-
.urd hckl, irnplvirrg thlt Hc prcscntcd his thought in a scrics of dilklgucs in
'ing lrtrnr:rrr ['rcirrrls hltl irn s'hich S()cr:rtcs fiqtrrctl irs thc principll spcakcr. As
tlti- otrlig:rtion to strivc krr' 1'r('151111;rl intcgrin', trclravc lron- tirnc prasscd, Plir() sr:ldrrallv fbrmuhtcd his thurghr
r8c- or:rblt' tos'lrr'l ()thcrs, rrrrtl srrrk trlu'rrrtl tlrc corrstrtrc- itrto a svstcntrrtic visiorr of tlrc urrrlel irnd hu.mJr]
)\\'11 tion olrr just socicir'. s()cict)'.
In cllt'rrlrltitrg th()sc vicu's. Socr.rtcs olicrr su[r- 'fhc corrtcrstonc olt l)llto's th<xrglht rvls [ris {heort'
jcctccl trlrlition:rl cthic:rl tc.rchings to critic.rl scnrrinr'. rtt'Fornrs, or Irlc.ts. lt rlisttrrbccl Phto thrt hc coultl
'l'h.rt outrlrtcrl solnc ol- his fi'llorv citizcrrs, s'lr<r not gain satistrrctorv intcllcctual control ()\"cr thc
l'rrotrglrt hirn to trial on clt.trscs that hc c()rnrPtc('l thc u'rlrld. Thc quelitr' of virtuc, firr cxerrrplc, ntcarrt dit--
.\tl'rcnian \'()utlls rvlro ioinctl hint in thc nrrrrkctpllcc tcrcnt things in tiitli'rcnt situations, ls did honcsn',
to disctrss nroral and crirical issucs. A jurv of'Arhcniirn c()uragcr tnlth, incl [rc:tun'. Hotv $'as it lxxsiblc. thcn,
citizcns clecidcd that Socrltcs haci indcccl plssctl thc to undcrstand virttrc ts an abstract qualiw? In sccking
,es tnunds of propricn,rrnti condemncd hinr to clcirrh. In iln ans\\'cr to thit cplcstion, Plrto dcvcl<lpcd his bclicf
tcr-
399 g.t:.t.. Socratcs tlrank ir p()tion of henrltxk slp and that thc rr'r>rld in rvhich u,c live is not thc u'orld od'gcn-
so-
died in thc contpanv of his fiiends. uine realiry, but onlv a prale and impcrfLct reflection of
lnd the world of Fornrs rlr Ielcas. The secrcts of thisr*,orld,
llat-
Plato'argued, wcrc available only to philosophers-
well
those who applied their rational facultics to thc pur-
the
suit of wisdom.
the
Though abstract, Plato's thought had impo,rtant
ural
political and social implications. In his dtalogw Tbe
C.E.
Republic, for example, Plato argued that sincc $dloso
)wn
phers werb in the best position to understand ulrirnate
hey
realiry they would also be the bcst rulers. In cffcct,
iep-
Plato advocated an intellectual aristocracy: the philo-
nan
sophical elite rvould rule, and less intclligentclasses
rvould rvork at functions for which dreir talents best
the
suited them.
ints
During the generation after Plato, Aristodr clab-
tea
orated a systematic philosophy that equaled
,flu- Arisatle
Plato's work in its long-term irrflu.rr... Urr-
)pe.
like Plato, Aristode believed that philosophen could
cul-
rely on their senses to provide accurate informarion
tem
about the world and then depend on rcason ro sort
out its mysteries. Aristotle explored the naturc of re-
ality in subde metaphysical works, and he devircd rig-
orous rules of logic in an effort to construct pon'erful
and compelling arguments. His rvork providcd such
phv a coherent and comprehensive vision of thc rvorld
rian that his later disciples called him *the masrer of those
be- u,ho know."
locrates
The Greek philosophers deeply influenced the de-
velopment of European and Islamic cultural rradirions.
rted Tradition holds that Socrares was not a physically Until the seventeenth century c.E., most European
lore attractive man, but this statue emphasizes his philosophers regarded the Greeks as intellectual au-
I at- sincerity and simpliciw. thorities. Christian and Islantic theologians alike s'ent
L42 PARS 2 I THE FORMATION OF CI-ASSICAL SOCIETIES, 5OO B.C.E. TO
5OO C.E.

rog
tion
todc
othe
pow
In oflis co'rliut d'iolog*cs,The Apology, Pl*to offered an
oac
accotnt of socratel defc{ of hirusetf dting abor
bcfon t ioy of Athcnian citizcns' hisffial
*i
'lper had conpicted.
iary lim nni cond.emud.him to d.eoth, sorntes rcflccted. on and
thc r*tt,t gdcatb ond. rcempbariud. bis commitmerrt
to eirt .c ;ar;;;;;;; wenrth orfame.
ISE Pot
And if rvc reflect in another way we shall sec that
do not put men to death for doing that. For Beca
ye mayxcll hope that death is a good thing. For besides
the other ways in which they arJhappier than an a,
the satc ofdeath is one of trro thiogr, cith"er the we
are, they are immortal, at least if the common Popt
dead meri wholly ceases to be and lo-ses all sensa_ be_
lief be true.
ti3n; or, ac5ording to the corrmon belief, it is a Deities
And you too, judges, must face death with a
clange and a migration of the soul unto another
good courage, and believe this as a truth, sive,
that no
tlr.: AS f death is the absence of all sensation,
like the Cacp of one whosc slq4beo
wil can happen to a good man, eitherin life. * begt,

"r"
*Ui"t.i death. His fornrncs ar:.not ncglcctcd blthc "R.,
gods,
wtric
by any drcans, it will bc a wondeifi{
eai;. For if a and what has come'to i1c. tody t ,rJtio-. Uy thinl
Tl.T tt{i ilggt in wh,id ti6. jl6pt ,o
man
-fd.r" "" for me to ai.
chancc. I am persuadcd that it is Letter th.y
soundly thet he did noif,-v..eq see any dreams,'and now-, and to be releascd from trouble. ral p
had tooryarc wittr it _q+ the, othgr,nighs hdj..d"* hI4lLP{Y-.Y*"+y
. . . And so I biae
ollriiffq,rlrdthenhidio'iathovt_rq;i:,.;r*X; my arcusers, or with fhose
:T
yr" Yij,*!$:*:S".gS, . a". vJ it.,,*'I". *i r,
.

ofth
nights" ip"tltife he ha{ s[epr,better ]ra;.ii'rie"r- of th
antly-gan ff-s nisht I ftink tn", *;J;r"- ;'*^. ncome,
score
- mYr' OnIy to . :.- .
bilrEr
findda'ii:

ffiHHiflW
for e:

nurhxflfiffiffi:ffiffii OPPC
veng,
t
vexed y.ou lgthey dai:nfto you to
;;'6" ;;*
for any.tliqg. othepr$,g,virtuc: ".
il;i-"';;'fr;
thc comm belierbe truc,,il
;;,;i6T:;H:1ffi?#*LS-Xf*"JJH
"na
if Oey-tt i"t myth
dwcll thcrqwhat goodcourd be greater
d*.*,^ "ri*fi; rh"T." Ii;; r"pillrrgrc"6rnot Rcligio'
mv judgcsl would a jourhev not worth * f A;fr;at thcy,h;JJ;;;r thinkins thar vidu:
at thc cnd of it' in thc other world, we
should"be "qg ,ht ;;-gr.". mln when
fact they ar worthless. . comr
releascd from thc self'styled;udges
of this worl!, A"d tf6;;[ do this, rinmpelf varie,
and should find thc true judges iho
in judgmcm bclowt
said to .r sii h*o ;;ir"d our deserts at yourand my sons will
hands. But now speci.
' ' ' ti wJua be an ir,finiie
piness to converse with them, and
hap- ,h. dd;lo-,.rrd *" must go hence r to d"ie, one s
to [r" t1il ;i;;;',;li-"". whcthcrlife spirc,
them, and tocxamine them. Assureayocrc
ttey h;fi;"ebd,;;;-a;j:;ir: oideath "' is bettcr is frenz
' Hop dm &ttta, tndtstanding of pcnonal t--
morality and its ttpards compan etd cor**t vith
Butlhi*, *trd Hindr picps dirrersai in crrlicr tbc hnertriat, polci
cbcptcn? . .

Tlngic )
I' ckch' trrns' T,, Tliel ud Dcatb osw,,a2nd cd. London:
f$ffil Macnriuan, 1886, pp. 2G78. (Tru,,Ltion slightty religi
of pl,
ttre t'
trans
Grcci
dicn.
 (]HAT'TF:R It I I\,tb]I)IT}:RRANFAN SOCIETY UNI)I.]R THT, GRI.:IiKS
Jllt to grcat lcngths ro lrarnronizc thcir rcligious convic-
I
tions rvith thc philosophical vicn's of Plato and Aris-
totlc. Thus, likc philosophical and rcligiotrs figurcs in
othcr classical socictics, Plato and Aristotlc providcd a
pow.crful intcllccttral tranrcu,ork that shapcd thought
about thc u'orld and hunran affairs for nvo millcnnia
and nrorc.
Popular Religiorr and Greek Drama
Becausc most Grccks olthc classical era did rlot have
an advanccd educltion, they turncd to traditions of
popular culturc enrl 1'ropular religion rathcr than phi-
to scck guidance for human behavior.
Deities' -IP:"01,
he Grecks did not rccognizc a single , exclu-
.l
sive, all-pou,erful g<xl. Rather, they believed that in the
)
beginning therc rvas the formless void of chaos out of
r
rvhich cmerged the earth, the,mother and creator of all
,i,
things. Thc earth then generated rhe sky and together
v thel'produced night, da1,, sun, moon, and other natu-
ral phenomena. Struggles between the deities led to
I
bitter heavenly batdes, and ultimately Zeus, grandson
of the earth and sky gods, emerged as paramount ruler
i1
of the divine realm. Zeus's hcavenly court included
, scores of subordinate deities who had various responsi-
.)
bilities: the god Apollo promoted wisdom and justice,
,l for example; the goddess Fortune brought unexpected
opportunities and difficulties; and the Furies wre'aked
v vengeance on those who violated divine law.
e doubted the possibility of certain knowledge . The rnoat
Like religious traditions in other lands; Greek
r
my'ths sought to explain the world and the forces that
K
shape it' They served also as founda-
.t Religioas Cults
,t
- uons for religious cults based on indi-
vidual poleis that contributed to a powerful sense of
t community in classical Greece . These religious cults
varied widcly: many conducted ritual obscrvances in
ll
special places, for example, and some were open to only
one sex. Before the fifth century B.c.E., many cula in-
,
s
spired emotional displays and spirited-sometimes
frenzied----song and dance.
During the fifth cenrury B.c.E., however, as the
poleis strengthened their grip on public and political
life',the religious cults became progres-
Trngic Dratno
sively more tame . Instead of festivals,
religious cults marked the year u,ith the presentation
of plays that examined relations between humans and
the gods or reflected on ethics and morality. That
transformation set the stage for the emergence of
Greek dramatic literarure, rvhich sought to engage au-
diences in subtle reflection on complicated themes.
ANI)'I'I{I] R()I\TANs I{3
Thc grcat uagcdians-Acsch,vlus, Sophoclcs, and Eu-
ripidcs-rvhosc livcs spanncd thc 6fth ccnturv B-c.E.,
cxplorcd the possihilitics and linritrtions of human ac-
tion. Comic clramatists such as Aristr4rhancs elrc dcalt
with scrious issucs of human strivirrg and rcsponsiblc
bchavior by ridiculing the foiblcs of promincnt public
figurcs ancl calling attention t() rlic absurd consc-
quenccs of ill-considercd action.
Hellenistic Philosophy aird Religion
fu thc Hcllenistic cmpires scizctl rhc plirical initiarir c
in the Mediterrancan basin and cclipsccl rhe prolcis, rcs-
idcnts ceased to regard their polis as thc fcrus of indi-
vidual and religious lovdties. Instcad, thev increasinglr'
looked toward cultural and religious rlternadlcs that
ministercd to the needs and intcrcsrs o[indiriduals lir'-
ing in a cosmopolitan socieqr
The most popular Hellenistic philosophcrs-thc
Epicureans, the Skeptics, and the Stoics-addressed
individual needs by searching for per-
sonal tranquiliry and r.,r".l{8ry_:.:: *tr;:ffiX
ans, for example, identified pleasure as
the greatest good. By pleasure thev meant not unbri-
dled hedonism but, rather, a state of quict sadsfaction
that would shield them from the pressures of rhc Hcl-
lenistic world. Skeptics refused to r& strongpositions
on political, moral, and social issues bccause thev
respected and influential of the Hellehistic philoso-
phers, however, were the Stoics. Unlikc ttrc Epicurearu
and the Skeptics, the Stoics did not seek ro uithdras'
from the pressures of the world. Rather, tlrev taught
that individuals had the duty to aid others and lead rir-
tuous lives in harmony with reason and naturc-
Whereas the philosophcrs' doctrines appealcd to cd-
ucated elites, religions of salvation spread across the
trade routes of the Hellenistic emoires and
enjoyed surging populariry in rrlu.nirti RcliSions of
society. Mystery religions promised etemal
fu'ltation
bliss for initiates who observed their rites and lired in
accordance with their docrines. Some of these friths
spread across the trade routes and found fbllos'ers far
from their homelands. The Egyptian cult of Osiris, for
example, became extraordinarily popular bccause it
Aeschylus ( ES-kuh-luhs)
Epicureans (ehp-ih-KYOOR-eeuhns)
Stoics (STOH-ihks)
 I44 PART 2 I THE FORMATION OF CLASSICAL SOCIETIES,
5OO S.C.r. TO 5OO C.E.

promised salvation for those who led honorable

Lives. cupied much of the Italian peninsula, including
the fu_ civil
lulg from Pcnia, Mesopotamia, Anatolia, and Greece ture site of Rome itself. Bronze metallurgy
appeared
alsd attracted discipla tfroughour Ai Hellenistic ASSE
world. about 1800 n.c.s. and iron about 900 s.clr.
Many of the mystery religions involved the worship Ron
Etruscans, a dynamic people, dominated
of^a savior whose death and resurrection would ^_The much The
lead of Italy between the eighth nni, centuries B.c.E.
the way to eternal salvation for devoted followers. ""a arist
The Etruscans probably migrated to
Some philosophers and religious thinkers speculated the
Italy from Anatolia. They settl"ed n rt i" The Etvuscans
that a single, universal god might rule the enti.e urri- face
Tuscany, the region around modern Florence,
verse , and that thls god had a plan for but they offi,
the salvation of soon controlled mu.ch of Italy. They builr
all humankind. Uks the Hellenistic philosophie!,
rhen,
thrivini Po\\
cities and established political ,nd eco.romic
religiors of salvation addressed the interests of individ_ alliances lead
between their settlements. They manufactured
uals searching for scurity in a complex world. high_ rePl
Indeed, quality bronze and iron goods, and they
those interests continued to be ofioncern to peoples worked gild reas
and-silver into jewelry. They built a fleetld
in the Meditcranean basin long after political domi_ tradeJ ac_ pub
tively in the western Mediterranean. During
nance passed frorn the Greek to the Italian peninsula. the late
sixth-century B.c.E., however, the Euuscans
encoun_ sent
tered a series of challenges frorn other peoples,
and
Ronar: Fnou Krrvtroorvr
their society began to decline. Arrfli,
ro REpuBLtc The Etruscans dceply influcnced thc early Portc,
devel-
opment of Rome. Like the Etruscan cities, Plcbcit
Foundgd in thc eighth century B.c.E., the city Rome was
of Rome a monarchy during the early days after
yas,origrnally a snrall city-state ruled by a single king. the
its foundation, and several Roman kings Tbe Kinfldom
I1 509 B.c.E., howwer, the city's aristocrats a.por.Ia Ilr
were EEuscans. The kings ruled Rorn'e of Romc
the king, cnded thc monarchy and instituted of tl
a repub_ through the seventh anJ sixth cenruries r.c.E.,
Iic-a form of govcrnment in which delegates reprc_ they provided the ciry with pavcd ,r...rr,
and rigt
senr the inrcrests ofvarious consdtuencies.
the Roman public sent
buildings, defensive wjls,
irrg. ,.-pt.r. and
republic survived f,or morc than five hundred years, nall
- it was dndcr thc rcpublican constirurion tfi"t R"_.
and Etruscan merchanm drew a largc vol;ne
of ralfic _. cver
to Rorne,9*k partly to the ciryl geographical
came to establish itself as the dominant power ad_ Ven(
in the vantages. Rome enjoyed ."ry
Mediterranean basin. ,-h. M.dit.r_ tov
"...rrlo
rancan by way of the Tiber River, but
rirrc. it was not
on the coasr, it did not run thc risk of invasion
or at_ APP
The Etruscans and Rome tack from the sea. Already during the period
of Etrus_
can dominance, trade roures d"- parts of Italy
According to lcgend, the city of Rome rvas founded plcb
by cgnverged on Rome. When Etruscan "it society
Romulus, wha-alcng with his nvin bro*rer, de_
Rcmus_ clined, Rome was in a suong position
was abandoned as r baby by an evil uncle to plav a morc
near the prominenr role both in Italy and in
the largcr Medi_
Rom*las floodcd Tiber River. Before the infants tcrranean rvorld.
and R.cmus could drovn, a kindly she_rvolf found rhem
and nurrd them to health. Thc boys grov
strong and courageous, The Roman Republic
and in 753 s.c.r. Rom- and lts Constitution
ulus foundcd thc ciry
and esmblished hinrscif When thc R<>mln nobility dcposcd thc
last Erruscan
ling and replaccd him with a ,.puUfic, tt Uuilt th.
Modcm schorars do nor,.,fri:ff:ffi
t"r., but
Roman fortrm at thc hcart of thi ciry_a political
"r,
civic ccnrcr fillcd rvith tcmplcs a.r.l r--'
and
thcy do agrce thar bonds oflndo-European
nrigrants
crossed thg Alps and semlcd throughout public buildings rvhcrc lcadine cidzcns F'stablisbmcnt
the Italian
pcninsula bcginning about 2000 r.clr. tcndcd to govcrnmEnt businiss. They of thc Rcprblh
Ukc thcir dis-
tant cousins in Indie, Grcece, and northcrn also instinrtcd a rcpubtican constitution
Europc, that cntrustcd
th-csc migrrnts btcndcd with thc ncolithic cxecudvc rcsponsibilitics to trvo consuls u,ho
inhabitants uicldcd
oL t!c- rgSion, adoptcd agriculrurc,
and cstablirh"d
tribal fedcrations. Shcephcrden and small farmcrs
tx_ Etruscans 1 ih -'tRUHS-kuhns)
.r"---.".'*

(:l-1.'\l!'l'ER tl I llLI)l'l'b.RlL{N}..\N s()(:tlilt' t'\..l)l,t( lltt.
civil ancl militart, p()\\'cr. C<lnsuls u,crc clcctctl lrv an
asscmbly donrinatccl br. thc s'calthv chsscs, knorvrr in
Romc as thc patricirns, lnd tlrcv scn.cc.l ()nc-\'cilr tcnns.
Thc porvcrfirl Scnltc, s'hosc nrcnthcrs r,'..rc rn()sttv
aristocrats u,itlr cx tcrrsivc pol i tical cxpcric rrcc, ldviscd
sc4ns
thc consuls and rltificd all nrajor dccisiorrs. Whcn
fhccd with criscs, lrclrvcvcr, thc Ronrirns appointctl irn
.'\' official, known irs :r clictator, s'ho u.icltictl irbs<llutc
r8 lxrwer for a tcrrrr olsix nronths. l]t'pr<lviclinu tirr strong
cs lc.rdcrship during rinrcs of cxrraordinirrv clitlictrln', thc
1t- rcpublican c()nstituti()n cnablccl Ronrc to nr:riut:rin :r
td rcirsonat'lly stablc socicn' thnrugl'rout nt()st of rhc rc-
public's histr>rr,.
Because thc consuls and thc Scnatc l.roth rcprc-
sentcd the intcrcsts of thc patricians, tllcrc \\'as c()nstat.rt
tcnsion bcnvccn thc u'calthv cl:rsscs
Conflict betpeen
and thc con'lmon pc<>plc, kn<ln'n as
Patricians and.
Plebeions drc plcbcians. Indeed, during rhc carlv
fifth ccnturv B.{:.E., relations bctrvccn
the classcs bccante so strained that thc plebcians thrcat-
,dom
ened to secede fiom Rome. To nraintain rhc inregiitt,
'.omc
of the Roman state, rhe pauicians grantcd plebeians rhe
d right to elect officials, known as tribunes, rvho rcpre-
ic sented their interess in the Roman governmenr. Origi-
nally plebeians chose rwo tribunes, but the number
eventllally rose to ten. Tribunes had the po\\/cr to inter-
vene in all political mafters, and they possessed the right
to veto measures that they judgid unfair.
Although tensions between the classes never dis-
appeared, during the fourth century n.c.e. plebeians
plcbeians (plih-BEE-uhns)
rcnt
blie
I
I
_-l
(;REl-.Ks ANt)'t'HF. R()t\tANs 145
l'tcclnrc cligitrlc to lrold nlnrost :rll statc tfliccs and
gainctl thc right t<l havc onc of thc consuts somc
tionr thcir r.rnks. Ilt' tlrc c.rrlv tlrird ccnturr', plctrciarr-
clonrinltctl :rsscrntrlics \\r)n thc p()\\'cr to makc dcci-
sions t'rintlinq on rrll <lf Ronrc. 'l'hus, likc fifth-ccnturY
Athcns, rc1'ru['rlicln Ronrc glrldr.rallv br<ladcncd thc
blsc of 1'roliric.rI p:rrticipation.
The Expat-lsion of the Republic
Rcnvccn thc lirrrrth and scc<lncl ccnturics B.(--r-., thc
1'rc<lplc of'lkrnrc transfirnuctl thcir cin' trom a small
.rtrrl vulncrlt)lc cir\'-st:ttc to thc ccntcr of an cnornrous
ctupirc. 'l'lrcr' [',cgln bv consoliclaring thcinpos'cr in
tlrc Italian pcninsula itsclf. Inciccd, lrv the larcr firurth
ccnturv thcv h:rtl cmcrged as thc prcdorninant [xxvcr
in thc Italian pcninsull. Rontan succcss in thc pcnin-
sula rvirs pirth' a tnattcr of militafv pos'cr and partll' a
nlattcr <>f gcncrous policics tou'ard thc peoplcs thcv
conquercd. Instcad of ruling thcnr as vanquishcd sub-
jects, thc R<>nr.rns allorvcd conquercd pcople ro go\'-
ern their internal affairs as long as rhey provided
military support and did not enter into hostile al-
liances. In addition, conquered peoples werc allorved
to trade in Romc, to take Roman spousesr and cven
to gain Roman citizenship. These policies horh pro-
vided Rome rvith essential support and eascd the pain
ofconquest.
With Itdy under its control, Rome begao to play a
major role in the affairs of the larger Meditcrrancan
basin and to expcrience conflicts u,ith other ltleditcr-
ranean po\\'ers. The principal porver in the u-cstcrn
Ruins of thc Roman tbrum,
whcre political kadcrs
conductcd publie atiiirs
during the era ofdre
republic, still sterd toda11
 t# PART2 | THE FOR&IATION OF
CI^A,SSICALSOCIETIES,5O0
B.c.E. TO S00 c.n.

of
tio
ec(
o!\
ow
to

tio;
Citil
po.
l.g
sult
B.C
Ror
ing
. k'rr.. r . -r.i .::,:.2:+i ;t :ij_;
M?84 Tcrritod- of thc Boman rqrublic to ina:
why migtt thc acguisition
133 r'c''. Notice that some of is,territorics wcre quitc distant aom the
oft much *..i.o.y city of Rome. reP
r,"u. thc political sebility of the republicf
"r.ctcd forr

Mcditcrranean during thc fourth Th

and third ccnturies
B.c-E was thc city_sae of Carrhagc, ranean. Benvccn 2lf
l4g r.c.r., Rome fought five
located near mod_ major wars, mosdv inT9
Maccdon *,ia"rirrra, against Iuli
F-rpansion in tt* 13 Tunis. Originaly established-as a these opponen*..L I resutt
of *r.r" and
Midi**rznca, t hoenicr.an- colony, Carthage enjoyed emerged as the preemincnt po*.,
.".Ai.,", Rome
fcri
a straregic location that cnabted
ii to as the western Mediterrancan
i,'tt. .it rr, ., *[
tradS.actively droughouith.
o*.t.
frA.At f.o_ th. by the ;dA;A;,*_ B.C.
wealth gcnerated bv .o*.r.., -I;g.;;;; ond cenrurv B.c.E. sPe r

$s
the dominant polidcal power Spe t
ir, (exclud-
ing Egypt), thc southem p* ";;;Hca
ru.ril" peninsula, Fnona Repueuc
wilr
"rrrr.
and thc westcrn region of gr"irr_.i.f3-[ily ro EMptRE and
as well. mer
Meanwhile, thc three Hellelnistc
._pir.. thar suc_ Imperial expansion brought hclg
ceedcd Alexandcr of Macedon .""d";;J; wealth and
the castern Mcditerranean.
dominatc Rome, but thesc broughtirobl;;;r-;:il power to irrg
as bcne-
fi ts. un qu al dis tri bu ti-on ;i ;;;
Econonric and oolitical compctition
brought thc
e

tcnsions and gavc risc to conflict

;;g;;;",. a .r Gau
Romans inro conflict with "r,
ou."r"poiiti."t ,rra gro\
Carthage first. Betwecn social policics. Meanwhif.,
Tbc prnic Wan 2,64 and .146 n.c.r., th.y fought three
tr,. j

devastating conflicts known

conquered lands efficiently "..J,ila_inir,..
straincd tt. .Jpr.iti., of itsel
as thc the republican constitufr"".
Punic Crr*Igi"i*;. il,.-i"r"tryended
Wars rvith thc
B.c.E. and the first century
orJ"g century il il. man
aftcr Roman fbrces subjcc-tcd c.r., Roiran civil and mil- mac
siegc,-c-onqucrcd
C"riir"g.'r" a long him
and Ur.r.J ,t,.'.'iay?
forccd :,,y..[10:*gradualry.dis-*,r.J*.I"*ti."n.on_
sururron and imposcd a ccntralized
somc fifty th.usandsurvivors ""aThc Ro_ i_p*irf form of rath
into,i;;;
mans thcn :rrrncxed Carthagini.o governmcnr on the city of Cac,
Romc and its .rnpir..
porJ.rrion, in
north AFica rnd lbcria_richln and
vcr, and goltl-rnd uscd thosc SJ"l *ine, sil- lmperial Expansion catc,
"ii, financc
.;";;.;,"
continucd inrpcrial cxpansion. and Domesflc problems tov
Shortly rftcr thc bcginning of laun
the Carthaginian In Ronrc, as in classical China and way
!n$.., Ronrc bccam....U.o#a t";;rfil Grcecc, pafterns
Antigonids with thc ofland distribution causcd serious
and thc Sclcucids l" ,h; ;;*r" pofi-j..f La.o.irf
Mcdircr- rcnsions. Conquercd tanas fcliarglty;;; tc nanas Ld6,
 (ll lAl)'f l:R tl | [{l]l)11'}.RK{NEAN SO(lt}:'t'r LrNl)l.l,R THE GRIiIiKS AND THE RO[L,Ur$ 147

of rvcalthl,clitcs, u,ho organizcd cnorntous planta-

ri<rns kn<xvrt .ts latifundia. Bccausc thcy cnjoycd
cconontics <ll-scrrlc and oftcn cn'rprlot'cd slavc lab<lr,
()\\'r'rcrs <tf latiJitrdia opcratcd ar l()\.er costs than did
()\r'ncrs of snrrllcr holdings, u'h<> ottcn had to scll out
r() thcir u'caltlricr ncighbors.
Drrring thc sccond and first ccnturics B.(:.8,., rch-
tions bcnvccn thc classcs bccamc so straincd that thcy
lcti to violcnt social conflict and civil rvar.
Ctvtl war Ronrarl politicians
and gcncrals jockeycd fbr
p()\\'cr in support of eithcr social rcfirrm or thc privi-
lcgccl prosition of'thc u'calthv clircs, rvith bloodv rc-
sults on both siclcs. By'thc middlc of thc first ccnrur),
R.c.r.., it had bcconrc incrcasinclv clear that thc
Roman rcpublic \\,as not suitablc fbr a large and grou-
ing empire . In rhis chaotic contcxr Gaius ]ulius Cacsar
inauguratcd thc process by rvhich Rome replaccd its
rcprublican constitution.,:s{th a ccntralizcd imperial
tirrnr of govcnln)cnt.

The Foundation of Empire

fivc
)ulius Caesar recognized the need for social reform
inst and favored liberal policies that would ease the suf-
rnle A bust oflulius Cacsar dcpicts a rim conqucror
fering of the poor. During the decade of the 60s
,r,ell a canny political leader.
B.c.E., he played an active role in Roman politics. He
jcc-
spent enormous sums of money sponsoring public
spectacles-such as battles between gladiators and
wild animals-which helped him build a rputation also extended Roman citizenship to pcoples in the im-
and win electioh to posts in the republican govern- peria.l provinces.
ment. This activiry kept him in the public eye and Caesar never had the chance to conrclidate his gov-
helped to publicize his interest in social reform. Dur- errunent, however, because in 44 s.c.r. members ofthe -
to
ing the next decade Caesar led a Roman army ro Roman elite stabbed him to dcath in thc A*$aa*s
le-
Gaul, which he conquered and brought into the still- hopes of reestablishing the republic. Insread,
ass
growing Roman empire. they plunged Rome into thirtecn more )'qlrs of civil
nd
In 49 s.c.r. Caesar turned his army toward Rome conflict. When the struggles *a.a, po\rrcr bclonged to
ter
itself after conservative leade rs in the city sought to Octavian, Caesar's nephew and adoptcd son. In a naval
of maneuver him out of power. By early 46 s.c.r. he had batde at Actium in Greece (31 r.c.e.), Octavian dc-
rry
made himself master of the Roman state and named feated his principal rival, MarkAntony t{ro had joined
ril-
himself dictator-an office that he claimed for life forces with Cleopatra, last of the Ptolemaic rulers of
,n-
rather than for the constitutional six-month term. E$pt. He then moved quickly to consolidate his rule .
of In 27 s.c.e. the Senate bestowcd on him dre tide Au-
Caesar then centralized military and political functions
and brought them under his ou,n control. He confis- gustus, a term with strong religious connotations sug-
cated property from conservatives and distributed it gesting the divine or semi-divine nature of its holder.
to veterans of his armies and other supporters. He Augustus's government wa$ a monarchy disguised
launched large -scale building projects in Rome as a as a republic. F{e preserved uaditional republican of-
way to provide employment for the urban poor. He fices and forms of government and in-
ns cluded members of the Roman elite in 74'*-lusttls's
;al A4r6trrtf,tratton
rus goverruIent whrle at the sarne tune
ls latifundia ( lah-tee-FOON-dya) fundamentally altering the nature of that goverrunent.
 r48 PART 2 I THE FORMATION OF CI.{SSICAL SOCIETIES, 5OO g.C.r.
TO 5OO C.r,.

He accum 'leted vast powers for himself and

ulti_ rope as well as a con_
mately took responsibility for all important
govern_ tinuous belt of posses_ al
mentel functbns. He reorganized the
military system, srons surrounding the of the Roman e,
creating a nry shnding army with gommanders
who Mediterranean and ex- a
o-wed zllegiarc directly to himself.
He also was care_ tending to rich agricultural regions
ful to place individuals loyal to him in i_por,".r. inland, including
Mesopotamia. L
positions.
Brirg his forty-five years of "ii
virtu"lly .r.r_
opposed rulc,Augustus fashioned an Within the boundaries of the Roman Rot,
imperial gov_ empire it_
self,.a long era of peace-fu1o*.,
ernmetrt thatguided Roman affairs for tt.J-ni ro*rrn,
ccnturies.
the next three or "Roman peacer'_fa6ilitated ",a.o_ ''--- r(
Rowan Roa* ri
1om]c and political integration from d
the first to the middle ofih" third
centu.y c.r. Like
their Persian, Chinese, Indian, *a ci
Continuing Expansion and H.fl..irtic coun_
terparts, the Romans integrated al
lntegration of the Empire their empire by le
building networl$ of transportation
and communica_
tion. Indeed, roads linked all parts L
During thc tryo centuries following Augustus,s
rule,
no_* .*_
stritchcd"iat " B
hiqfrway
P*T r-"i?
S:*
conquered distant l;ds ;d;tegrated
a hrger economy and society.
llf:o:.
Kilometers":,1bj:
(1,554 miles) along
more than 2,500
the northeast imperial
n
a, i., frigt,
poin: T9 frontier from the Black Sea to-,h. C(
eri:rg$. *ly sccond cenrury ,t. Roman to the Danube and Rhine rivers. fn.
Nortt S.", parallel ei
empirecmbra d mugh ofBriain *a ".i.,.""ri"."al Eu_ urgent travel and mcssages to proceed
,*a, f.rmitted
n
with remark_
E

1
si
s(

b
tl
S(

L.

tr
I
P
tr

I
,A

c
a

Cot
fut'
t
r
MaP &5 t''itori.t of thc Roman
' \t )- (
anpirc about I l7 c.8- comparc this mrp
in this pcriat domiaotcd thc cntirc with Maps g.3 md g.{. Noticc that I
Mcditcrrancan' and-'<omptcmcntcd thc Romrn cmpirc
by its sy,stcmr ur
of roaos-flctlratcd
roads-frciriratcd conncctions
and placcs &om Briqin to Egypt. conn, among Jroplcs
 (:llAP'rFlR I I Mt:t)I]'b:RRANt'lAN s(xtlt,'t
alrlc sprcctl: 'l'itrcrius, succcssor of Augustus as Ronttn
cntpcr()ri ()ncc travclcd 290 kil<lnrcters (180 nrilcs) in
rrsinglc tliu'ovcr Rontan roads.
As lrnrics sprcad Rontirn influcncc throughout thc
;lutlinu trtctlitcrrrrnclrr, jurists also s'<lrkccl t() construct a ra-
rional body of larv that would applv to all
pirc it- Romatt Intt,
l)c()plcs undcr Rr>rtran rulc. f)uring drc latc
')rtutilfi) rcpublic rntl cspccially during tlrc crrrpirc, thc jurists ar-
,rLrt Roe& riculatcc.l sr:r nchrds of jusricc and grad ual applicd thcm
\,
throughorrt lkrman tcrritory. Thcv establishcd thc prin-
t,. l.ikc
-'c()un-
ciplc th:rt tlctl'udants rverc innoccnt until provcn guiln,,
and tho,cnsurcd that dcfcndants had a right to chal-
'irc b), lcngc thcir rccuscrs bcfbrc a judgc in a courr of lirrr..
:rrrnica- Like transl'rr)rtation and communication ncnvorks,
iln cnl- Rr>man hrv helped to integratc the divcrsc lands that
r 2,500 madc upr rlrc enrpire, and the principles of Roman larv
'npcrial continucd to shape Mediterrancan and European s<xi-
parallel cn'long rftcr tlte ernpire had disappeared.
'nritted
crnark-
Ecoruorvry AND SoctETy lN
THE ROMAN MEDffERRAN.EAN
The rapid expansion of Roman influence and the impo-
sition of Rornan imperial rule brought economic and
social cl'ranges to peoples *roughout the Mediterranean
basin.'Good roails and the pax rl?na.nfi encouraged
trade betu.,een regions. Existing cities benefited hand-
somely from r}te wealth generated by trade, and in the
lands they conquered, the Romans founded new ciries
to serve as links betrveen local regions and the larger
Med.iterranean economy. Meanwhile, like most other
peoples of classical times, rhe Romans built a strictly pa-
triarchal society and made extensive use of slave labor.
Trade and Urbanization
As.the Roman empire became more integrated, agri-
cultural production grew increasingly commercialized
asu,ell as specialized. Because it was possible to import
grain at favorable prices from lands that
Comruercial
routinely produced large surpluses, other
Agricultare
regions could concentrate on the cultiva-
tion of fruits and vegetables or on the production of
rnanuthctured items. Greece, for example, concentrated
on olives and vines, and Italy became a center for the
production of poftery,, glassrvare, and bronze goods.
inplre
Specialized production of agricultural commodiries
rple s
and manufactured goods set the stage for vigorous
trade . Sea lanes linked ports from Syria and palestine to
Y LINI)F.R't'ttF. (iul,l,KS ANI) T'ilt n()lt.{N\ 149
S1'rlin ancl north Aliicrr. Ronran nrilitan'and rraval
[x)\\'cr kcpt thc sc.as lergclv ticc of pin:cs s{} rhrt sizablc
calrq()cs cotrld rtrovc s.rtl.lr' ovcr long
distrrrrccs. Irrtlcccl, r1.,. trl.j.lit.r..,r.rir
Mtd"cffd"ca't
Tradt
['rc'crrrrc csscntiallv a Ronrln lekc, u'hidr
tlrc ltrrnrlns callcd rran' uostrurn 1'oursc-a-).
itlrrch of tlrc lrrofir tionr trlcditcrr.rnran tratlc
to Ronrc, s'hcrc it tirclcd rcnrarkablc ur6en dc-
fl<lrvcr'l
vclopnrcnt. In thc first ccrrturr'(..1..i s(lnrc
tcn tlr()usirnd statucs rrrrtl scvcrr hrrndretl gx* Tbc Ci4'
tlccrrrrrrcr.l tlrc cin'. 'l-lrc l{ornln statc financc,l of Ronrt
thc construction ol'
tcnrplcs. barh houscs,
prtrblic buildings, st:r-
diurns, irnd, pcrhol'rs
nrost inrportant of all, irquctlucts-built sirh concrctc
inventccl bv Rornan enqinccrs-that brought trcsh
$'atcr int() thc cin'fionr rhc ncighkrirg mounr.rins.
In addition to thc spccrircular gro\\th of Ronrc.
urban grou'th and dcvc.k)pnrcnt took placc in cidcs ell
over thc cmpirc. And, ls u,calth c()nccr-
trated irr the cities, urban residents carne Roman Citics
and rbcir
to expect a variery of comfbrts not avall-
At*nctiotts
able in rurai areas. nor,rr,, .i.i., ;ilr'.d
abundant supplies of fiesh warer and claborate se\\age
and plumbing systems. All sizable citics and cten man\-
smgller towns had public barhs and oftcn srimming
pools and gymnasia as rvell. Enormom circures, stadi-
ums, and amphittreaters provided sitesbr thc cntertain-
ment of the urban masses. Entertainment in stadiums
often took forms now,considered cmrse and cruel-
batdes to the death benveen gladiators ox benvcen
humans and wild animals-but urban populations
flocked to such events, u,hich thev looked oc as excit-
ing diversions from dailv rourine. T}r Ronran Colos-
seum, a magnificent marble stadium and sporr arena
opened in 80 c.r., provided seating forabourEln- thou-
sand spectators.
Family and Society in Roman Tirnes
Roman law vested immense authoriw in ma_le heads
of families, knou,n as the pater fami'lias-*farher of
the fhnil,l'." Roman law gave the poterfamfra.'the au-
thorio, to arrange marriages for his children.
determine the rvork or duties thev would Tbe Pater
perform, and punish ,h.;fir;"4;*r:;; Fomitias
had rights also to sell them into slaverv and er-en to
execute them.
pa*r fami I ias ( PAH-tehr f ah-MEE-lvas)
 I5O PART 2 I THE FORMATION OF CT,{SSICAI SOCIETIES,
5OO r.C.r. TO 5OO C.E.

Although the pater fanilias was legally endowed

. Creek Philosophy and
with extraordinary powers, women or,l"ily supervised
domcstic affairs in Rgman households,'and-
by the
Religions of Salvation
time they reached middle age they g.r.r"lly *ietaea
considerablc influence within their families.
During.the .ily a"y, of their history, the Romans rec_
Also, al_ ogruzed many gods and goddess.r, *ho they believed
though Roman law placed strict limits on rhe aUitity
intervened directly in human
"ffhi.r. Irri*.
ofwomen to receive inheritances, clever individuals was the
foundwa5nsto evade the law. During the third
principal god,lord of the heave.rr. *j ' Rorrran
_
Deities
and sec_ Mars was the god of war, Ce.es the
ond senturics B.c.E.
goddess,of grain, Janus the god who
dear orp.operty,# f, f;:h:1T:"ffiT:'j :flX; watched the
tfueshold of individual houses,-and Vesta
worncn supervised the
financial affairs of family busi_ the goddess
of the hearth. In addition to those m4o,
nesscs md urcalthy estates. a.iti.r, most
Roman households hon-ored t,rt.l"iy deities,
Roman rcciety made cxtensive use of slave labor: gods
who looked after the welfare of individlal
by tt. second century c.E., slaves may have repre_ a_m.r.
As the Romans expanded their political
Slopery
*::.d:r much as one_third of tire population and built an empire, they encountercd
influence
- ot rtc t(oman empire. In the countryside they the religious and
cultural traditions of other peoples. Often
workcd moody on lntifandia,under extremely theiadopted
harsh the deitics of other peoples and used tfr.-
conditions, often chained togcther in teams. in foi tfrei, o*r,
fact, purposes. From the Etruscans, for
discoatcnt among ru4 slavcsled to several large_scale example, they
learned of |uno, the moon goddess, and
rcvglts, cspccially durtng the second and firit Miierva, thc
cen_ goddess ofwisdom, as well as certain
turies s-c.r- During the most serious uprising, religious practices,
in 73 such as divination of the future through
B.^c.E-, the cscaped slave Sparacus
ir, ,r-y tfre intcmal organs of ritually
Ixamination of
"rr.-bl.d
of sevcnty thousand rebillious slaves. sa..ifi.ei
The Roman The Romans also drew-decp inspiratio., ""i"; fr._ ,h.
I-y$""lred cight legions, comprising more than Gre:k tradition of rational tt o"ghi *Jpiito.opfry,
forty rhousand wcll-equippcd,
qucll ttc rcrolt.
-veterrri ooopr,,o espccially Stoicism. The Stoics, d-esire : ."-+
.i.
to identift a set of universal Greeh rnflaence -$
In the cities, conditions were much lcss difficult.
standards based on nature
-orJ
Fcmah slarcs cornmonly worked as domesdc 4nd reason appealcd-
servants strongly to Roman intellectuals.-Indeed, &
while rnalcs toiled as servants, laborcrs, thinkers such $
craftsmn, as Marcus Tullius Cicero (106_43
sloekecrs, or busincss agents for their owners.
As in adopted Stoic valucs. His letters *d
,i."i.l readily ii
Greecgslarcswho had an education orpossessed t ."tir., empha_
som. sized ttre individual,s duty to live in
particuhr talcnt had the potential to lead
comfortable naturc and reason. He.ar$ued that "c.o.arrr..
*itt,
livcs. In urban arcas it was also common, the pursuit ofjus_
O""gf, tice was thc individual,s highest public'J,rty, an(
mandatory, for masters to free slaves about "*
the time scorned thos_e who sought to accumulate "rra
n. fer.
thcy rcachcd thirty ycan of age . Until frceJ, wealth or to
howevcr, becomc powerfi,rl ttrough.imm"rd, .Mitht
slavcs remaincd undcr thc striL authority ifi.gJ, or unjusr
of their mas_ meanr Through his specches *a .rp.J"Uv
I.,:t" hd thc right to scll them, arrangc their frm_
ily-affairs, punish thcm, and .u.n'.*..r",e
ings, Cicero hclped to cstablish
tris wrlt_
St"iiirilJ rhc most
Mir
them for prominenr school of moral philosophy un
serious offcnscs. in Rome . scll
Whcreas educated thinicrs a."*
inrpiotion from
rhe Greeks, thc masscs found comfort Ple
il-r.iigiors of
salvation thar cstablishcd their pr.r.n.. --' cm
THe Cosr*opoltrAN M eorennANEAN an(
throughout thc Mcditcrrancan basin
and Sabarton
beyond. Thesc rcligions bccamc pron.,i- of^!.c!igion an(
Thc inegration of thc Mcditcrancan basin lati,
had i*por_ nent fcatures in Romc during th" Lrc
tant cfftrts mt only for thc tradc and economy republic as wcll ten
of the as under-thc cmpirc. Malf o.ign.t"a
Roman cmpfoc but also for its cultural and in tt Ar_R,rng
rcligious na_
ditions. Roads and communication n"*uo.k!
rcalnrs of.rhc cmpirc, includinjth.
pop.rt"r "anatolian dcr.
favorccl c-trlt of lvlithras, thc Anatotian
thc sprcad popular rcligions. Most important lult
rn",t.r gd-
dcss Cybclc, and thc Egyptian cult "i,f,.
a.kl:,h.{".*,
long run uas Christianity,
of
wtrictr bccamc
of thc gJaers lsis. C*lt o

thc official rctigion of thc Roman cmpirc *J-,h.

pr"- . Thc.Mithraic rcligion provided divineLction for
nunlan trtc and cspccially for purposefut lno
dominant faidr ofthe Meditcrranean blin. moral bchav- lar
ior. It brought togcther a communiry
that wclcomed ficr.

?_, -.--_*"_-qra,
 (;H.{P.l.llR tt I l\tltDfr[RMNF.AN S()(:lt;I.t" trNl)!.lt'l-H11 CRF:];XS ANI)'rHf: ROMANS l5f

Isis throrrs.lr()ut thc Ronran cnrpirc, and tlrcl'rdorcd

thc tgr'ptiirn uoddcss as a bcncvolcnt and protcctivc
dcitv u'ho nurtured hcr s'orshipcrs and hclpcd thcm
rcc- copc u'ith tlrc strcsscs of lifc in cosnropolitrn srrcicn'-
'\'cd
Likc thc llirhr.ric rcligion, thc cult of Isis and orhcr rc-
thc ligions of srrlvirtion attractcd tirllorvers in Rome and
Dcirtcs otlrcr citics rhroughout thc N{cditcrrancan basin. Thc
inrnrcnsc 1',o1'rrrhrity of thcsc rcligions of sahrtion pro-
thc viclcs ir c()r)tc\t that helps to cxplain thc rcmarkablc
lcss succcss of (lhristianiry in the R<rn'ran cmpirc.
rost
ods
Judaisnr and Early Christianity
llcc After thc tlissolution of thc ot David
Jcu"ish kingdorn
md and Sokrnron in the early tenth ccntury B.C.E, the |cu'-
)ted
ish ;rco1'rlc nrlintained thcir fiitlr and thcircoarmuni-
)\vn tics undcr r'.rrious inrpcrial rcgin'rcs. At
hey tinres, fcr'isl', ..rnl*.r.,iti., .l"i'h.d r,,ith T7* Jevs cnd
the their inrprcrial ovcrlords, cspccially be- tb Empire
ces, cause m()notheistic |cws rcfused to revere empcrors as
iof gods.,\s the Ron.rans extended their empire in drc easr-
ern Mediterranean and brought the Iews in Falestinc
the under their control, relations berween the tno kcamc
hY' especiallv tense. Between 66 and 7A c.n.,rehtions de-
Built bctween I l8 and 125 c.r., rhe Pantheon in Rome teriorated to such a point that Palestinian Jcws rosc in
luence
was a templc h<lnoring all gods, and it survives as one of rebellion against the Romans in what became known
led the outstanding cxamples of Roman architccture. With
as the Jeu,ish War.
rch a diamcter of 43 meters (l4f feet), the building's dome
The ]ews were decisively defcated in the rrar, which
tily was the largest consrructed undl thc nvendeth century.
prompted some ]ews to found new sccts dlat looked
ha-
for saviors to deliver them from Ro-
ith man rule so tiey.""H;;;;.;';;ir fa*of Nawredt
us- and nurtured like-minded indir-iduals. Finally, it of- faith u,ithout interference . The early Christians were
he fered hope for individuals who conscientiously ob- one such sect. The Christians formed their communin-
to the cult's teachings by promising
-rst ' sert,ed
Mithraism them ecstatic and mysterious union with
around Jesus of Nazarerh, a charismaric Jewi*r tacher
u'hom they recognized as their savior. Born about the
'it- Mithras-who was strongly associated with military year 4 B.c.E., Jesus grew up at a time of high tcnsion
)st virnres such as strength, courage, and discipline-him- betu'cen Roman overlords and their Iewish subiects-
self. During the late republic, Nfithraic altars and tem- He was a peaceful man who taught devotioc to God
)m ples appeared in military garrisons throughout t}te and love for fellow human beings. He atrracted large
of empire. During the early centuries c.r., administrators crorvds because of a reputation for *tsdom urd rdracu-
gions and merchants also became enchanted with Mithras, lous poucrs, especially the abfin, to heal the sick.
q.fion. and his cult attracted follorvers among the male popu- Yet |esus alarmed the Romans because he also
lations of all sizable communities and commercial cen- taught that "the kingdom of God is at haod." To
ell ters in the Roman empire. Jesus, the kingdom of God rvas a spiritual rcatrm in
rg The cult ofMithras did not adrnit u,omen, but cults u'hich God s,ould gather those faithful to him. To
tn dedicated to the Anatolian mother goddess Cvbele, the Roman adrninistrators, holvever, his message xrunded
d- Egyptian goddess Isis, and other deities like a threat to Roman rule in Palestine, espreciallr-
is.
Cult of Isis made
-J ----
a place for both men and women. since crou'ds routinely accompanied |esus. In an et--
cr Indeed, the cult of Isis may have been the most popu- fort to forestall a new round of rebellion, Roman ad-
lar of all the Mediterranean religions of salvation be- ministrators executed |esus by fixing him to r cross in
:d fore the rise of Christianity. Devotees built temples to the earlv 30s c.B.
 I52 PART 2 I THE FORMATION OF CI,{SSICAL SOCIETIES, 5OO N.C.r. TO
5OO C.r,.

Jesus'crucifixion did not put an end to his move_ pervisors, known as bishopsrwho oversaw
ment. Eyn after his execution |esus, close followers priests and
governed their jurisdictions according
sSolgly felt his presence and proclaimed to their own
Trsw, Earh best understanding of Christian do._ "
Fottowri' that he had triumphed over death by ris_ a result, until the emergence Early Cbristian St
ing from his grave. They called him "T:.A"
oj Rome as the principal ,.I, or conaruunities
"Christ,o mcaning ..the.anointed oner, the savior
yh: agdd bring individuals into the kingdom of :hy.l, authority in the third century c.r., Christians
held doctrinal
Ur
so,
views and followed pr".ti.., tt varied
God. Thcy taught that he was the son of God and
considerably from one community to the "t Some
next.
M,
that his sacrifice served to offset the sins of those
who religious ledders taught that sti
had faith fu him. They taught further that, like Jesus had literally risen
Jesus, from the dead and come back to life, for example, lar
the faithftl would survive death and would experi_ and
others held that his resurrectio, *", a spiritual thl.
ence eterml lifc in the spiritual kingdom of rather
God. pol_ than physical matter. Only graduaUy ala believers ab
lowing |csus'teachings, the early Cfuistians observed
agree to recognize ccrtain texts as auihoritative eC(
a demanding noral code and devoted themselves scrip_
un_ ture-the New Testament_and adopt them as funda_ th.
compromisingly to God-. They also compiled
a body mental guides for Christian doctrineLd practice. Br.
of writings-accounts of lesur; Iif., r.port" of
his fol_ Like the ]ews from whose rant<s ttrey had co
lowers'wuks, and letters outlining ihrirti* teach_ sprung,
the early Cfuistians refirsed to honor tt.
ings-thatgained recognition as thl Ncw Testament.
cults or revere the emperor as a god.
io** st"t
SPI
in
Togethcr rrith the Jelvs' He brew scriprures, which
As a result, Roman impiriat auttrorities The Gropth sor
Christiansrcfemed to as the Old Testarneng of Eorly
the New launched sporadic ."-i"ign ofp..r.*_ tin
Testamcntbeome the holy book of Cfuistianity.
tio,r designied to elimina,""chri#;q, ; . chriaianity we
Jesus and his earliest followers wcre all
1ews. ne_ -a.threat tg thc empire.
ginning about the middle of the first century |n spite ofthis repression, Cfuis_
c.E., tial nu1!er1 grew rapidly. During thc^firsi three
howevcr, some Christiaos avidly r""ghi cen_
Paal of - Tarrs converts from non-]ewish communities
turies of the faith,s existence, Chris-tianiry
found its way
to almost all parts of thc Roman empire; and
in the Helhni*ic world and thc Roman empire. Chris-
The tians established tfuiving communities
principal fturc in the expansion of Chriitianity throughorrt th..*
be- Mediterrancan basin *d f.rth., easr in
1,ond Judaim rras paul of Tarsus, a Jew from Anatolia MJopot"_i,
and Iran. The remarkable growth of
who.zealously preached his faith, especially CUisiianity re_
in thc flected rhe new faith,s appcil p*ti."f*lv
Greek-spceting castern rcgion of tt. Rorn* io the lower
empire. classes, r1Pll pop"lations, and womeri.
Paul taught a Christianity that attracted thc Christianity
urban accorded horior and dignity to individuals
masses in thc same way as other religions who did not
of salvation
that spread ridcly in thc Roman .-lir..
His doctrine ?"y hi.+ standing in Roman sociqry, and it endowed
of spiritual freedom.".. _."rri.,g_
called ficr individuals to observe high moral
standards *:T^yl ",sense
tnaS wedth, power, or_social prominence. It taugf,t
and to placc tlrcir faith ahcad of pirsonal ryt
and family thc sp-iritual equality of the ,"*.,
inrcrests. }[s tcaching also explained
the rvorld and
*.lcomed the
human hisrnry as rhe result, oiGod', purposeful
contributions of both mcn and womcn. ""J And it pro_
ac-
tlnr it provided a framework of mcaning for lded a promise of futurc gtory for tt o* *no placcd
:i"i!::" their faith in |esus. fhus, J&ough Chrisd;;ity
origi-
i n di vid u als' f,vcs-
Fu rthcrmorc, paul's doctrinc prom _
nated as a minor sect of
iscti a glorious futrrre cxistcncc for those
rvho consci_
fudair-,Lb* populations in
thc.Roman empire embraced tt.
*ith ,u.h
cnri()uslv ohcrrrd thc faith.
)tt fbr rrro crnrurics aftcr thc crucifixion of fcsus, enthusiasm that by thc third ccnrury ".* zuri
ci it had bc_
most dynamicand influcntial rcligircus
tlrcrc rvas roccntral authoriry fbr thc flcdgling
church.
:"T. 1h_.
in thc Mediterranean basrn.
faith
Retl'rcr, indiyllud comrnunities sclccted jrcir
orvn su-
 (lllAI'l'l:R tl I rlFll)11'F.R&{NI':AN s(x;lFlT'\' trNt)ttR THIi GREHKS ANt)'rHli RoMANs f 53

.rntl
)\\'n

ristian Surr,tmnnv
unitics
Lirrdcr (ircck artd Roman influcncc, l'lctlitcrrancan lands becanrc a tightly intcgratcc{
iirrts
s()cict\'. Although thc Grecks clicl not build a ccntralizcd cmpirc, thcy rJotticl thc
riccl
)nlc
lr'lcditcrrancatr and Black Sca slrorclincs rvith- thcir colonics, ancl thcir rr.rcrchant flccts
tscll
stinrulatctl troth c<>mmcrcial ancl cultural intcractions bc$vccn pcoplcs of distant
l:rnds. (ircck tncrchants, soldicrs, rnd administrators also playcd
.rtrrl 1'rrrlnrincnt rolcs in
the cxtcnsivc cttrpircs of Alcxandcr irntl thc Hellcnistic rulers, and tlrcy, lcft a rcnrirrk-
Ircr
:rblv rich attcl ctrtlttring cultural lcrrlrcr'. Building in part on lroth thc cultural antl t5c
. crs
ccononric lcglcics of the Grceks, thc Ilonrlns procccded to coltstruct a republic,:rp{
ri1't-
thcu alr ctnpirc, that cvcntualh'irclrninistcred lands as distant as Mesopotamia a6tl
rtllt-
Ilritain. Highlv organized tradc ncrrvorks cnabled peoples throughout thc cmpirc t<r
c()nccntratc on spccialized agrictrltural or industrial production. Popular religions
llg'
sprcad u'iclelt' and attracted entl'rusiastic converrs. Like Confucianism and Buddhisnt
i lltc
in classical China and India, rational philosophy and Christianin'bccanrc prominent
lrowtb sourccs of intcllcctual and religious authoriq, in the classical Meditcrranean and con-
'Early tinued to influence cultural development in the Mediterranean, Europe, and south-
ianity u,est Asia ovcr the long term.

ns-
cn-
vay
ris-
the
nia
re-
ver
,it,v
rot
'ed
rg-
{hr
he
'o-
ed
oi-
in
ch
)e-
.rh
 I54 PART 2 I THE FORMAIION OF CII,SSICAI SOCIETIES, 5OO S.C.r. TO 5OO C.r.

M,

ry}FTE!
iw*tli
tI;rffi{i*'!
a ,i.-u. ,1 '*f..'I

:l;!il:r:li:

Fon FunmrER READTNG

Martin Bcrnal. Nack Athcnr: Thc Aftoasiatic

Roots of Clarsicel ofcarly Christian history that incorporatcs
Civilintiot.2vols. to datc. N"* l.unr*i.t, iSiZ_. thc findings ofrc-
tivc erd controvcrcial study arguing fo.
froro..- ccnt scholanhip.
fg;,i.n'"nrI Scmitic
- F. M. Cornford. Bcforc and aJtcr
influcmcs oo certy Grcck socicty. Socrates.Cambridgc, 1965. A
Hcnry C. Borcn. Rorzaz Sa cbty.2nicd. t short but brilliant svrrthcsis of classical
cxington, 1992. An Grcl[ piili_pr,v.
au_ M. I. Finlcy. Ancicnt Sievctl cnd Modcrtt
fodadvc rynrhcsis that piaccs social and .'."n"_i. history in tar-olrfy.'i'ip"ndetl cd.
its politkrt r:ontcxt. Princcton, 199g. prcscnts a thoughtfirl
ur,.t
lGith & Badlcy. Discovcring tb in tight of mod.."' ".r"(ir.-ricr".f
,r.r"r/.ili .on,._po.rry
Roaea Fanily: S*dics in Romen I.#l:.',"'..,
&,cial Hktq. Ncw y_ork, 1991. A p-ro.",lu. enelysis of Frcdcrick C. (irant, cd. Hclbnistic
Roman 6milf lifi *ith illustrations &o_ irOJaJ*p"A.n.o. Rcligiont: Tbc r$c of Smcntbte.
-
PctcrBtorm. Risc of Watcrn Chri*adw* Triiai saA Divcr-
Indianagr>lis, r9s3. Fr*nrting coflcction
of translercd <rocu-
-TIz
ffill,:["j,:il:',1:i;1ffi :*, -'
siar, A-D.20$-lArr\.2ntl rcrigious
cd. Orford, 2003. A tan'iiart analysis fnlo*pr,i.
"nJ
-.-'.-"1--'"-*--:"
"_F-a".i'."'.v
 I
CHAPTHR 8 | MEDITERRANTAN S()(:ll;r1' Lrn-l)t-:R THr: (;RFtt:KS ANt)'rHl: R()l\tANS r55

I atd
Michacl Grant. CiriarolVatrius: Pompcii Hcrculanct nt.Lnn-
don, 1971. Faxinating glimpsc ol'Rontrn socictl, as rccon-
sructcd by archacologists u,orking rt sitcs dcstrovcd hv thc
cruption o[Vcsuvius in 79 t:.r.
Naphtali lrwis and Mcycr Rcinhold, ccls. Ilorzar Cbili:arion: Sc-
hctcd Rcadings.2 vols. 3rd cd. Ncrv Y<rrk, 1990. A rich collcc.
tiorr ol'translatcd tcrts and d<xunrcnts thirt illuminrtc Romen
historr' ;rntl srricn.
Sar,rh ll. l-orrrcror'. (ioddcsscs, llTronr, [1ilr.r, ard Slaws: Wc;,ca in
Clnxi,ll Autiqrir. Ncs'l'orh, 1995. ()utstanding study enr-
lvzinq thc st:rtus and rolc ols'orncrr in chssicrl Grtccc end
Rontt'.

e-

d.
rd
ry

w.
u-
ri-