TOPIC-I

SOILS
The importance of the soils lies in their
fertility which in turn depends upon the elements
present in the soils. From the point of view of the quali-
tative analysis of soil, it may be said to consist of or-
ganic and inorganic elements. The organic matter in
the soil, which differentiates it from regolith and which
comes from animal and vegetable decay, is called hu-
mus. The presence of humus in a soil leads to several
characteristics.
1. It leads to the growth of micro-organisms, so
important for the development of plants.
2. It makes available to the plants certain impor-
tant foods.
3. Due to humus, soils have greater capacity for
holding water.
4. It conserves moisture in the soil and prevents
leaching.
5. It makes the soil particles more adhesive so
that the whole becomes waxy and gelatinous.
The inorganic elements of a soil consist of cer-
tain mineral salts that are obtained from the bedrock
itself by physical action. The most important minerals
Rocks
present in a soil are nitrogen, potassium, magnesium,
boron, sulphur, phosphorus, calcium, iron and copper.
Each one of these elements has its own special
importance. Nitrogen is essential for plant growth and
reproduction. It is provided to the soil by nitrogen-
fixing bacteria. Phosphorus tends to increase plant
growth and crop yield. It is the element that helps in
ripening the seeds. Potassium gives starch to the plants.
It strengthens the stalks and improves the equality of
seeds. Magnesium and calcium are essential for plant
health and tend to help the growth of leaves. Iron and
sulphur also contribute their share to plant growth and
development. Most of these elements are obtained form
the mineral components of the original rocks.
The formation of a soil can be understood from
the chart given below.

Weathering

Chemical Forces Physical forces

/ | \
Plant action Chemical Animal action Wind Heat Water Glacier
and decay action and decay and cold
/ | | | | | |
Humus, Acids, bases, Humus, Scouring Expansion Grinding Grinding
organic solution, organic mixing and and
matter, oxidation matter contraction mixing
mixing
Carbonation

Soil
While the chemical action produces the elements so essential for plant growth, it is the mechanical action
or the impact of physical forces that gives structure and texture to the soil. As a matter of fact, soil may be said to
be of many types according to its origin, texture and structure.
Origin
According to origin, soils are residual and transported. Residual soils are those that were formed in the
place of their origin. Such soils exist on slopes and regions lying between the courses of two streams. The chief
characteristic of residual soils is that finer material is at the top but as one proceeds in depth, coarser material is
encountered. The size of the rock material goes on increasing as one moves downward. Their mineral content is
the same as that of the rock below. Besides, residual soils are subject to leaching and removal of top layer. When
this happens, it loses its fertility. Ordinarily, leaching is common in the residual soils of humid regions while

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removal of top layer takes place in arid zones.
The transported soils:
Are those that have been carried away by the
special agent from the place of origin and eposited at
some distant place. These soils are especially fertile,
and their characteristics differ according to the action
of the particular agent that has transported them. The
rock material may be transported by wind, water and
moving ice. According transported soils are known as
loess, alluvium and till, respectively. The chief charac-
teristic of the transported soils is that they differ from
the rock which underlies them. Such different soils, al-
luvium or that deposited by the water is most fertile,
especially because its elements are being replenished
every year during floods.
Soil Formation
Soil is defined in different ways for different pur- most climates, quartz is extremely resistant to chemical
poses. Engineering geologists define soil very broadly
to include all unconsolidated material overlying bed-
rock. Soil scientists term soil to those materials capable
of supporting plant growth and distinguish it from in-
fertile regolith. Conventionally, the term soil implies little
transportation away from the site at which the soil
formed. While the term sediment indicates matter that
has been transported and re-deposited by wind, water,
or ice.
Soil is produced by weathering, a term that en-
compasses a variety of chemical, physical, and biologi-
cal processes acting to break down rocks. It may be
formed directly from bedrock, or from further breakdown
of transport sediment, such as glacial till. The relative
importance of the different kinds of weathering pro-
cesses is largely determined by climate. Climate, topog-
raphy, the compositions of the materials from which
the soil is formed and time govern a soils final compo-
sition.
Mechanical weathering
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Mechanical weathering 9311958008,
is the physical breakup9311958009
of rocks without changes in the rocks composition. In
a cold climate, with temperature that fluctuates above
and below freezing, water in cracks repeatedly freezes
and expands, forcing rocks apart, then thaws and con-
tracts or flows away. Crystallizing salts in cracks may
have the same wedging effect. In extreme climates like
those of deserts, where the contrast between day and
night temperatures is very large, the daily thermal ex-
pansion and nightly contraction of rocks might cause
enough stress to break the rock up, although there is
some doubt that the stresses thus created are really
sufficient to break up unreturned rock. Whatever the
cause, the principal effect of mechanical weathering is
the breakup of large chunks of rock into smaller ones.
In the process, the total exposed surface area of the
particles is increased.
Chemical weathering
Chemical weathering involves the breakdown of
minerals by chemical reaction with water, with other
chemicals dissolved in water, or with gases in the air.
Minerals differ in the kinds of chemical reactions they
undergo. Calcite (calcium carbonate) tends to dissolve
completely, leaving no other minerals behind in its place.
Calcite dissolves rather slowly in plain water but more
rapidly in acidic water. Many natural waters are slightly
acidic; acid rainfall or acid runoff from coal strip mines
is more so and causes more rapid dissolution. This is,
in fact, becoming a serious problem where limestone
and its metamorphic equivalent-marble-are widely used
for outdoor sculptures and building stone. Calcite dis-
solution is gradually destroying delicate sculptural fea-
tures and eating away at the very fabric of many build-
ings in urban areas where acid rain is common.
Silicates tend to be somewhat less susceptible to
chemical weathering and leave other minerals behind
when they are attacked. Feldspars principally weather
into clay minerals. Ferromagnesian silicates leave be-
hind insoluble iron oxides and hydroxides and some
clays, with other chemical component being dissolved
away. Those residual iron compounds are responsible
for the reddish or yellowish colors of many soils. In
weathering, dissolving only slightly.
The susceptibility of many silicates to chemical
weathering can be inferred from the conditions under
which the silicates formed. Given several silicates that
have crystallized from the same magma, those that
formed at the highest temperatures tend to be the least
stable, or most easily weathered at the low tempera-
tures of soil formation at the earths surface, and vice
versa. A rocks tendency to weather chemically is de-
termined by its mineral composition. For example, a gab-
bro (the coarsely crystalline equivalent of basalt)
formed at high temperatures and rich in ferromagnesian
minerals, generally weathers more readily than a gran-
ite rich in quartz and low-temperature feldspars.
Climate plays a major role in the intensity of
chemical weathering. Most of the relevant chemical re-
actions involve water. All else being equal, then, the
more water, the more chemical weathering. Also, most
chemical reactions proceed more rapidly at high tem-
[2]
peratures than at low ones. Therefore, warm climates are more conducive to chemical weathering than cold ones.
The rates of chemical and mechanical weathering are interrelated. Chemical weathering may speed up the mechani-
cal breakup of rock together by dissolving the minerals that are holding the rock together by cementing the
mineral grains as in some sedimentary rocks. Increased mechanical weathering may, in turn, accelerate chemical
weathering through the increase in exposed surface area, because it is only at grain surfaces that minerals, air, and
water interact. The higher the ratio of surface area to volume-that is, the smaller the particles-the more rapid the
chemical weathering.
Biological weathering
Biological weathering effects can be either mechanical or chemical. Among the mechanical effects is the
action of tree roots in working into cracks to split rocks apart. Chemically, many organisms produce compounds
that may react with and dissolve or break down minerals. Plants, animals, and micro-organisms develop more
abundantly and in greater variety in warm, wet climates. Mechanical weathering is generally the dominant process
only in areas where climatic conditions have limited the impact of chemical weathering and biological effects-that
is, in cold or dry areas.
The following chart will make the whole thing very clear.
Origin

Formed in place Transported

(Residual)

By water By ice By wind

(Glacial) (aeolian)

River Ocean Lake

(alluvium) (marine) (lacustrine)

Texture of the soils

The texture of the soils depends upon the size and arrangement of soil particles. In some soils, the particles
are bigger and in some smaller. Similarly, in certain soils the arrangement of soil particles is more adhesive than in
others. On the arrangement of soil particles depends the pore spaces in a soil and this determines the thorough-
ness of a soil. The larger the size of the soil particles, greater would be the pore space and easier would be the
percolation of water through them. Sand is a characteristic example, which soaks water very quickly. But in sand
or soil of larger particles the water is as readily evaporated as well. On the other hand, soils with finer particles
and with a closer texture retain moisture in them. Clay is a significant case in point.

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 On the basis of the texture, soils may be classified as gravel, sand, silt and clay. A mixture of sand and clay
is called loam and accordingly as sand is more or clay is more in proportion, it may be called sandy loam or clayey
loam.
Texture

Sand Silt Clay Loam

1. Sand grains are 1. Quartz 1. Plate shaped
rounded or irreg- grains grains.
ular in shape. and 2. Sticky and Sandy Silty Clay
2. Loose, doesnt varied in highly plas loam loam loam
hold water well, shape -tic when
has large pore spaces wet; hard and
between the grains, cloddy when
water drains off rapid dry. Compact
-ly and movement of and fine grain-
air through the soil ed; Absorp-
is free. tive, adhesive.
Water and air
cannot move
rapidly
through it.

Structure of the soils

It refers to the pattern in which the soil particles are arranged. But not all soils have structure.

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 There are many well-known soils as sands, laterites and podsols, which have no structure whatsoever. Then
there are certain soils that have excellent structure. It is commonly seen that soils which lack structure, soils
having well defined structure are good in tilling. The structure of different soils is different. In some, the soil
particles are is granular or nutty. Each type of structure has its own special features, but the structure of the soils
in general plays a very important role both in making the soil fertile and then in replenishing its fertility.
Structure

Thin flat layers Aggregates of parti- Block like struc- small rounded
pile one upon cles are shaped like ture is found in aggregates are
the other hori- pillars-placed ver- subsoils of humid loosely combined
zontally. tically side by side regions-aggrega- (in soils rich
(arid and semi-arid tes are cube like in organic
regions). and rounded, materials).
lying closed
together.
In sands, the soil is formed of single grains and lacks structure. In clay the units are massive and have no
distinct structure.
The soil is a dynamic layer in the sense that many complex physical and chemical activities are going on
simultaneously within it.
Soil, is a natural surface layer containing living matter and supporting or capable of supporting plants.
Substance of the soil includes both inorganic (mineral) matter and organic matter, the latter comprises both living
and dead. Living matter in the soil consists not only of plant roots, but of many kinds of organisms, including
micro-organisms. The upper limit of the soil is air or shallow water. Horizontal limits of the soil may be deep water
or barren areas of rock or ice. Soil usually show soil horizons, which are distinctive horizontal layers set apart from
other soil zones or layers by differences in physical and chemical composition, organic content, structure, or a
combination of those properties. Soil horizons are developed by the interactions, through time, climate, living
organisms, and the configuration of the land surface (relief).
Our definition of soil excludes surfacial materials that do not support the growth of plants.
Modern soil science makes use of the concept of the polypedon, which is the smallest distinctive division
of the soil of a given area. A unique single set of properties applies to the polypedon, and this set differs from that
applying to adjacent polypedons. The polypedon is conceived in terms of space geometry as being composed of
pedons. A pedon is a soil column extending down from the surface to reach a lower limit in some form of regolith
or bedrock. Soil scientists often visualize a pedon as a 6-sided (hexagonal) column. The soil profile is the display
of horizons on one face of the pedon. Obviously, the same soil profile is displayed on all 6 faces of the pedon. In
practice, a soil scientist digs a deep pit, exposing a soil profile on the side of the pit.
Most horizons are visibly set apart on the basis of color or texture. Mineral soil horizons are designated by
a set of capital letters and numeral subscripts, starting with A at the top. An organic horizon, designated by the
letter O, lies on the A horizon.
The soil solum consists of the A, E, and B horizons of the soil profile; these are the dynamic and distinctive
layers of the soil. The Chorizon, by contrast, is the parent material. The soil solum occupies the zone in which
living plant roots exert control on the soil horizons; the C horizon lies below that level of root activity.
Color is the most obvious property of a soil. Black color usually indicates the presence of
abundant organic matter (humus); red color usually indicates the presence of sesquioxide of iron
(hematite). The soil color may in some areas be inherited from the parent matter; but more generally, it is a property
generated by the soil-forming processes.
Three measurable variables determine color. One is the hue, or dominant color of the pure spectrum, depend-
ing on wavelength. A second variable is value, the degree of darkness or lightness of the color. The third is
chroma, the purity or strength of the spectral color. By using standard color books, the observer can express soil
color as a letter-numeral code, telling hue, value, and chroma.
Soil consistence refers to the quality of stickiness of wet soil and to the plasticity of moist soil, as well as the
degree of coherence or hardness of the soil when it holds small amounts of moisture or is in the dry state.
Stickiness of a wet soil is evaluated by pressing a quantity of soil between thumb and finger, then separating the
digits and observing the extent to which soil adheres to the skin. Plasticity is evaluated by rolling a small amount
of wet soil into a rod shape. If plasticity is high, the soil can be rolled into a thin wire. Coherence is measured when
a soil is dry and is expressed by various levels of hardness, ranging from loose (non coherent) to extremely hard.
Soil Horizons
Soil horizons range greatly in thickness and distinctness. Soil horizons are of two classes: organic horizons
and mineral horizons.
Organic horizons, designated by the capital letter O, overlie the mineral horizons and are formed of accumu-
lations of organic matter derived from plants and animals. Typically, the uppermost organic horizon, designated as
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Oi, consists of vegetative matter in original forms recognizable with the unaided eye. Beneath the Oi horizon lies
the Oa horizon, which consists of altered remains of parts of plants and animals not recognizable with the naked
eye. Material of the Oa horizon is referred to as humus; it consists largely of plant tissues partly oxidized by
consumer organisms. The process by which the Oa horizon is produced has been called humification.
Mineral horizons consist predominantly of inorganic mineral matter, of which two basic groups are recog-
nized: (1) skeletal minerals and (2) clay minerals and related weathering products. The skeletal minerals, mostly
in the form of particles of sand and silt grades, comprise the bulk of most soils. Skeletal materials may consist of
individual grains of a single mineralquartz, for exampleor grains that are aggregates of several minerals.
They form the mineral soil fraction, most important in soil-forming processes, in the development of horizons,
and in determining the natural fertility of soils. The clay minerals have special physical and chemical properties
because of their colloidal size and because of the plate like shape of the individual clay particles.
Mineral horizons are designated by the letters A, E, and B, with various subdivisions designated by adding
subscript lowercase letters. Our emphasis in this description of the properties of the A, E, and B horizons is on
soils of most climates formed under forest cover. Our description would not apply closely to soils of semiarid and
arid climates. Mineral horizons have less than 20 percent organic matter when no clay is present, less than 30
percent organic matter when the mineral fraction consists of 50 percent or more clay.

The A horizon is usually rich in finely divided organic matter and is therefore usually darker than the E
horizon below. The E horizon is characterized by loss of clay minerals and of oxides of iron and aluminum. A
concentration of quartz grains of sand or coarse silt grade usually remains, and the horizon is often pale.
The B horizon typically shows a gain of mineral matter, which may come from the A and E
horizons above. High concentrations of clay minerals, oxides of iron and aluminum, and organic
matter (humus) are often found in the B horizon. Thus, the B horizon is typically less friable than the A horizons;
it may be dense and tough and cementation may also occur.
The C horizon, beneath the B horizon, is a mineral layer of regolith or sediment (but not bedrock), little
affected by biologic activity. The C horizon is not part of the soil solum and is described simply as the layer of
parent material. The C horizon is, however, affected by physical and chemical processes. An example is the
accumulation of calcium carbonate in dry climates, which causes cementation in some soils. In these
environments,the C horizon may also show accumulations of silica or soluble salts. Bedrock underlying the C

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horizon (or the B horizon when the C horizon is missing) is designated the R horizon.

Soil Colloids
Clay mineral particles of colloidal dimensions are chemically active in the soil because of their great surface
area. The crystalline structure of the clay minerals is such that the atoms are arranged in systematic repeating
geometric patterns, called crystal lattices. For the clay minerals, the lattice structure takes the form of flat, parallel
lattice layers of extreme thinness. For this reason the clay minerals are referred to as layer silicates.
The chemical bonds that hold together the atoms within each lattice layer are strong, whereas the bonds
between layers are weak. Because of this structure, water molecules and various free ions can penetrate between
the layers of the clay mineral, leading to its chemical alteration and to its physical disruption.
Soil Acidity and Alkalinity
The various soil cations capable of being readily exchanged on colloidal particles belong to two general
classes. One class, important plant nutrients, consists of the base cations (or simply, bases). The base cations
most important in soils are the following:
Calcium Ca++
Magnesium Mg++
Potassium K+
Sodium Na+
When base cations comprise the large majority of cations held by soil colloids, the soil is in a condition
described as alkaline.
The other class consists of acid-generating cations. Three acid-generating cations are important in soils.
One is the aluminum ion, Al+++; it is associated with extreme acidity. The second is the hydroxyl aluminum ion,
Al (OH)++, associated with a moderate degree of acidity. The third is the hydrogen ion, H+, forming about 10
percent of the acid-generating ions in acid soils. These ions must be exchangeable, that is, free to change places
with other ions on the surface of colloids.
A soil is described as acidic when the total numbers of readily exchangeable acid-generating cations
comprise from 5 to 60 percent of the total cation exchange capacity; the larger the percentage, the greater the
degree of acidity.
The range of alkalinity or acidity of a soil is measured in terms of a number known as the pH of the soil
solution. (The pH is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions; it is the logarithm to the base 10 of the
reciprocal of the weight in grams of hydrogen ions per liter of water. Consequently, smaller the pH number, greater
the hydrogen ion concentration). A pH of 7.0 is neutral in this scale; values above 10 represent a strongly alkaline
soil solution.
For agricultural soils, this quality is very important because certain crops require near-neutral values of pH
and cannot thrive on acidic soils. Plants differ considerably in their preference for soil acidity or alkalinity, and

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this is an important factor in the distribution of plant types.
Soil-Temperature Regimes
Temperature acts as a control over biologic activity and influences the intensity of chemical processes
affecting the clay minerals. Below the freezing point, O0C (320F), there is no biologic activity; chemical processes
affecting minerals are inactive. Between O0C and 50C (32 and 410F), root growth of most plants and germination
of most sees is impossible. The germination of seeds of many low-latitude plants requires a soil temperature of
240C (750F) or higher.
Biologic Processes in Soil Formation
The total role of biologic processes in soil formation includes the presence and activities of living plants
and animals as well as their nonliving organic products. Living plants contribute to soil formation in two basic
ways. First is the production of organic matterboth above the soil as stems and leaves and within the soil as
roots. This primary production provides the raw material of organic matter in the O horizon and in lower horizons.
The decomposer organisms process this raw material, reducing it to humus and ultimately to its initial compo-
nentscarbon dioxide and water. Second is the recycling of nutrients from the soil to plant structures above the
ground and their return to the soil in dead plant tissues. Nutrient recycling is a mechanism by which nutrients are
prevented from escaping through the leaching action of surplus soil water moving downward through the soil.
Animals living in the soil, or entering and leaving the soil by means of excavated passageways, span a wide
range in species and individual dimensions.
Earthworms continually rework the soil not only by burrowing, but also by passing the soil through their
intestinal tracts. They ingest large amounts of decaying leaf matter, carrying it down from the surface and
incorporating it into the mineral soil horizons. The granular structure of the darkened A horizon derives its quality
from this activity. Many forms of insect larvae perform a similar function. Small tubular soil openings are also
formed by many species of burrowing insects. Large openings are made by larger animalsmoles, gophers,
rabbits, badgers, prairie dogs, and many other species. The growth of roots followed by decay, leaves tubular
openings in the soil.
Human activity is also a potent agent in influencing the physical and chemical nature of the soil. Large areas
of agricultural soils have been tilled and fertilized for centuries. Both structure and composition of these agricul-
tural soils have undergone profound changes and can now be recognized as distinct soil classes of importance
equal to natural soils.
Pedogenic Processes
Basic forming processes or pedogenic process - Pedogenic processes can be classified into four groups:
(1) addition of material to the soil body; (2) losses from the soil body; (3) translocation of materials within the soil
body; (4) transformation of material within the soil body.
Additions of materials to the soil body are covered by the general term soil enrichment. Inorganic enrich-
ment can come as sediment added to the soil surface by overland flow (colluviums) or overbank stream flooding
(alluvium), and by wind (loess or volcanic ash). Another form of enrichment is from the organic litter of plants
growing in the soil. This material accumulates in the O horizon and produces finely divided humus that is carried
down into the mineral horizons.
Losses of material from the soil body include removal of surface material by soil erosion and by leaching,
the downward washing out and removal by surplus soil water percolating through the soil.
Translocation of materials within the soil takes places in a number of quite different ways, each with a
different cause and often uniquely related to a particular soil-water regime. Two simultaneous processes of
downward translocation are eluviation and illuviation, typical of the udic soil-water regime.
Eluviation consists of the downward transport of fine particles, particularly the colloids (both
mineral and organic), carrying them out of an uppermost, or A, mineral soil horizon. Eluviation leaves behind
coarse skeletal mineral grains, forming the E horizon. In cool moist climates, the E horizon contains largely quartz
in sand or coarse silt grade sizes.
Silication is a term applied to this increase in proportion of silica because it remains behind while other
materials are removed.
Illuviation is the accumulation of materials in a lower horizon, brought down from a higher horizon. Typi-
cally, illuviation forms the B horizon. The materials that accumulate may be clay particles, organic particles
(humus), or sesquioxides of iron and aluminum.
The effects of both eluviation and illuviation can be seen most vividly in exposures of sandy soils in the
cool, moist climate of New England and southeastern Canada.
The translocation of calcium carbonate is another important process. Removal of calcium carbonate, or
decalcification, takes place as carbonic acid reacts with carbonate mineral matter. The soluble products are
carried down into a lower horizon. Their accumulation constitutes calcification; it may take place in the B horizon
or in the C horizon below the soil solum. Precipitation of soluble salts and the reverse process of removal of salts
are salinization and desalinization, respectively.

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 Transformations within the soil body affect both inorganic and organic materials. Decomposition of pri-
mary to secondary minerals is one such transformation. By synthesis, new minerals and organic compounds can
be formed from the products of decomposition. Decomposition also affects organic materials. Humification, the
process of transformation of plant tissues into humus, may be followed by total disappearance of the
organic matter as water and carbon dioxide by respiration.
Horizonation, the degree of development of soil horizons, is the result of complex combinations of the
pedogenic processes already listed. Horizons vary from place to place under the complex interaction of the
various soil-forming factorsparent material, temperature and soil-water regimes, biologic activity, and time.

Soil Classifications
The founder of modern theories of soil origin and classification was V.V. Dokuchaiev, a Russian geologist.
His studies between 1882 and 1900 led him to the concept that soil is an independent body whose character is
determined primarily by climate and vegetation. A Russian follower of Dokuchaiev, K.D. Glinka, expanded the
concepts of horizons in the soil profile.
During the 1920s and 1930s, C.F. Marbut, chief the Soil Survey Division of the U.S. Department of Agricul-
ture (USDA) became acquainted with Russian pedological views, adapted them to conditions in the United
States, and created a comprehensive system of soil classification. Built on his work, but also departing from it,
was the 1938 USDA system, used with a number of modifications for the next 25 years.
After progressing through a succession of stages over a period of several years, the new scheme was ready
for presentation by American pedologists to the Seventh International Congress of Soil Science in 1960; known
at the time as the Seventh Approximation (because it was the seventh in the series of revisions), in 1960.
Comprehensive Soil Classification System (CSCS) - The system defines its classes strictly in terms of the
morphology and composition of the soils, that is, in terms of the soil characteristics themselves.
The CSCS recognizes and gives equal importance to classes of soils deriving their characteristics from
human activities, such as long-continued cultivation and applications of lime and fertilizers and the accumulation
of agricultural wastes. Recognition of such modified soils is desirable and realistic in a classification system.
The classification system of the CSCS is known as the Soil Taxonomy; it is based on a hierarchy of six
categories, or levels, of classification.
Orders 10
Suborders 47
Great groups 185
Subgroups 1000 (approx.)
Families 5000 (approx.)
Series 10,000 (approx.)
Numbers given for the lowest three categories refer only to soils of the United States.
The Soil Orders
Each order has its unique criteria, so selected that the criteria for a given order exclude members of all other
orders. Criteria may include (1) gross composition, whether organic or mineral or both (e.g., percent clay or
percent organic matter); or (2) presence or absence of certain diagnostic horizons; or (3) degree of weathering of
the soil minerals, expressed as cation-exchange capacity (CEC) or as percent base saturation (PBS).

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 Soils with poorly developed horizons or no horizons and capable of further mineral alteration:
Entisols Soils lacking horizons.
Inceptisols Soils having weakly developed horizons and containing weatherable minerals.
Soils with a large proportion of organic matter-
Histosols Soils with a thick upper layer of organic matter.
Soils with well-developed horizons or with fully weathered minerals, resulting from long-continued ad-
justment to prevailing soil-temperature and soil-water regimes:
Oxisols Very old, highly weathered soils of low latitudes, with an oxic horizon and low CEC.
Ultisols Soils of mesic and warmer soil-temperature regimes, with an argillic horizon and low base status (PBS <
35%).
Vertisols Soils of subtropical and tropical zones with high clay content, developing deep, wide cracks when dry
and showing evidence of movement between aggregates.
Alfisols Soils of humid and subhumid climates, with high base status (PBS > 35%) and an argillic horizon (B
horizon).
Spodosols Soils with a spodic horizon (B horizon), an albic horizon (E horizon) with low CEC, and lacking carbonate
minerals.
Mollisols Soils chiefly of mid latitudes, with a mollic epipedon and very high base status, associated with sub
humid and semiarid soil-water regimes.
Aridisols Soils of dry climates, with or without argillic horizons, and with accumulations of carbonates or soluble
salts.

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 1. Oxisols: These soils (tropical soils) covering 9.2% worlds land area are characterized by remarkable
moisture and temperature intensity and uniform day length which greatly affect soils. These are very old and
highly weathered soils. These soils are highly acidic with a high concentration of iron and aluminium and a limited
A-horizon. Although easily worked, low humus content and poor cation-exchange capacity of these soils limit
fertility.
Early slash and burn shifting cultivation practices were adapted to these soil conditions and formed a
unique style of crop-rotation. Later on, plantation system was introduced here, putting enormous pressure on the
remaining tracts of forest that proved disastrous. The disturbed oxisols suffered a heavy soil loss besides an
increased rate of extinction of plant and animal species.
2. Aridisols: These are the most extensive soils covering 19.2% of the worlds land area. These sandy soils,
usually of pale light color, are formed in arid and semi-arid regions. Low humus content (due to sparse vegeta-
tion), high mineral salts, and lack of water usually make them unsuitable for agriculture. Salinization complicates
farming in aridisols. Careful introduction of irrigation and fertilizers increases the agricultural potential of aridisols.
In the Nile and Indus river valleys the aridisols are intensively farmed.
3. Mollisols: Mollisols (or grassland soils) cover more than 9% land area of the world. These are soft, dark soils,
usually formed under temperate grasslands in semi-arid climates. High humus content and workable texture make
them ideal for agriculture.
Soils of the Steppes and prairies belong to this soil group. Agriculture ranges from large-scale commercial
grain farming to grazing along the drier portions of the soil order. With fertilization, high crop yields are common
in these soils known as the Chernozems in the Steppes.
The process of calcification (involving the illuviated accumulation of calcium carbonate or magnesium
carbonate in the B and C-horizons) in these soils causes the formation of Caliche or Kankar deposits. Such
deposits are widely found in central and western Australia, Kalahari Desert, and high plains of the west-central
United States.
USDA 7th Approximation Soil Classification (1960)
Order Approximate equivalents in Thorp & Smith (1949)
1. Entisolos Azonal soils, Some Low Humic Gley soils
2. Vertisols Grumusols
3. Inceptisols Ando, Sol Brun Acide, Brown, Forest, Low Humic
Gley,, Humic Gley soils
4. Aridisols Desert, Reddish Desert, Sierusem Solonchak, Brown
soils, associated Solanetz
5. Mollisols Chestnut, Chernozem, Prairie, Rendzinas. Brown Forest, associated Solonetz,
Humic Gley Soils.
6. Spodosols Podsols, Brown Podsolic soils, Ground Water Podsols
7. Alfisols Grey Brown Podsolic Grey wooded soils, Non-Calcic
Brown soils, Degraded Chernozem, associated
Planosols, Half-Bog soils

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 8. Ultisols Red Yellow Podsolic soils, Reddish Brown Lateritic
soils, associated Planosols and Half-Bog soils
9. Oxisols Laterite soils, Latosols
10. Histosols Bog soils
4. Alfisols: Alfisols are widely occurring soils covering about 15% of the worlds land area. These are
moderately weathered forest soils extending in five sub-orders from near the equator to high latitudes. Most
alfisols have a greyish brown to reddish ochric color. Alfisols are moderately acidic soils, formed under forests
and mixed trees and grasses in humid, mild climates. Moderate fertility and good moisture supply make them
favorable for agriculture, particularly grains, hay, and dairy products in humid continental/hot summer climates.
In most winter/dry summer climates of the Mediterranean region, these productive soils are intensively farmed for
fruits, nuts and special crops like grapes, citrus, almonds, figs etc.
5. Ultisols: Ultisols are highly weathered forest soils with five sub-orders. An alfisol might degenerate into
an ultisol due to increased weathering under moist conditions. These soils extend over 8.5% of the worlds land
area. Their reddish brown color is due to residual iron and aluminum oxides in the A-horizon. Heavy leaching of
nutrients results in low fertility. Fertility is further reduced by certain cultural practices and soil damaging crops
such as cotton and tobacco, which deplete nitrogen and expose soil to erosion. However, these soils respond well
if subjected to good management like crop rotation that restores fixed nitrogen and cultivation practices that
prevent sheet wash and soil erosion.
6. Spodosols: The spodosols (northern coniferous forest soils) and their four sub-orders occur generally to
the north and east of the alfisols. These soils cover about 5.4% worlds land area. These soils are found in cold
and forested moist regimes in the northern hemisphere only. These soils form from sandy parent materials, shaded
under evergreen coniferous forests. These soils lack humus and clay in the A-horizon. Theses are acidic soils.
Their ash gray colour is characteristic of a formation process called podzolization.
Cultivation of these soils requires an addition of nitrogen, phosphate, and potash and crop rotation. An
addition of limestone to these soils can significantly increase the yields of crops like corn, wheat, oats, and hay.
7. Entisols: The entisols (recent, undeveloped soils) cover 12.5% land area of the world. These soils lack
vertical development of horizons. The five suborders of this soil group are based on differences in parent mate-
rials and climatic conditions. However, entisols are not climate dependent, for they occur in many climates
worldwide.
The entisols are generally poor agricultural soils, although those formed from river silt deposits are quite
fertile. Their fertility is adversely affected by too little or too much of water, poor structure, and insufficient
accumulation of weathered nutrients. Steep slopes, alluvium-filled flood plains, poorly drained tundra, tidal mud-
flats, dune sands, and ergs (sandy) deserts and glacial out-wash plains are characteristic regions of entisols.
8. Inceptisols: Inceptisols (Weakly developed soils) and their six sub-orders are inherently infertile. These
soils cover nearly 16% of the worlds land area. These soils include a wide variety of different soils, exhibiting a
lack of maturity and an evidence of weathering. Inceptisols are associated with moist soil regimes. These soils
include the soils of the Arctic tundra, glacially derived till and out-wash materials, and alluvium of the flood-
plains. Their productivity varies from excellent to poor.
9. Andisols: Andisols (volcanic parent materials) with seven sub-orders occur in areas of volcanic activity.
Until 1990, these soils were included in the categories of Inceptisols and Entisols. In these soils weathering and
mineral transformations are very important. Andisols possess a high water holding capacity and develop a
moderate fertility, but lack in phosphorus. The fertile fields of Hawaii produce cane sugar and pine apple. Andisols
are limited in their distribution, nut highly useful, locally.
10. Vertisols: Vertisols (expendable clay soils) are heavy clay soils, located in regions of highly variable
soil moisture balanced through the season. These soils occur in sub-humid to semi-arid
moisture conditions and under moderate to high temperature patterns. They frequently form under
savanna and grassland vegetation in tropical and sub-tropical climate.
Vertisol clays are black when wet and range to brown and dark gray. These deep clays swell when moistened
and shrink when dried. Repeated swelling and shrinking causes vertical cracks in these soils. Vertisols are high in
bases and nutrients and are good for farming. The soils of Deccan region of India are exceptionally good for
cotton cultivation. Elsewhere, they are planted with grain sorghums corn etc.
11. Histosols: Histosols (organic soils) with four sub-orders are formed from accumulation of thick organic
matter. These soils were formed in the former lakes in the mid-latitudes. Bog and marsh are a few examples.
Histosols also form in poorly drained depressions and produce ideal condition for peat formation.

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General Classification of Soils
The most comprehensive basis for the classification of soils is the specific climate and vegetation under
which the soil has grown and developed. Accordingly, the soils of the world can be broadly classified into two
broad classes:-
Pedalfurs
Or these soils which have grown in humid areas under rich vegetation cover. These contain a greater
proportion of aluminium and iron. But these lack in such important plant food as potassium, calcium and phos-
phorus.
Pedocols
Or these soils which have grown under arid conditions. These retain all the elements which go to make plant
foods. These soils are found in regions having less than 25 inches of rainfall per annum. Generally lighter in
colour, they do not suffer from leaching and are alkaline.
These broad classes of soil contain further sub-divisions or sub-varieties on the basis of the type of
vegetation cover, temperature conditions and the amount of precipitation. Their sub-varieties will be clear from
the chart given below:
Soils

Pedalfurs Pedocol

Laterite Tropical Red earth Gray brown Paririe Podsols Tundra

soil red soil soil soil soil

Black soil or Chestnut soil Gray soil Brown

Chernozems soil

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Laterites
In the equatorial regions, due to heavy rainfall throughout the year, the soils are the most weathered and
leached. They are known as the Laterites. These consist of silicates aluminium oxides and iron oxide. Being low in
humus content, their colour is yellow and reddish. These are extremely porous. Because of these characteristics
the soils are the poorest from the point of view of agriculture.
Tropical red soils
Are characteristically found in tropical grasslands and as such are richer in humus. Being less subject to
leaching and decomposition, these are better from the agricultural point of view.
Red soils
Are rich in iron content but contain only small amount of humus. They are poor in alkaline
elements and lime. These are commonly found on humid uplands and contain a coniferous forest cover over it.
Grey brown soils
Are characteristic of deciduous forest regions of the humid continental climates. Due to distinct summers
and winters, these are less subject to leaching and are richer in humus content. The
content of lime and potash is also greater. Because of these reasons, these soils are highly productive.
Prairie soils
As the name suggests, they are found in the temperate grasslands of America, east of the Rocky Mountains.
The regions of most extensive occurrence are in America, but areas of this soil also occur in Argentina, Manchuria
and portions of Africa. These prairie soils are black in colour but do not contain much lime. These are poorer in
alkalis also. Their black colour is due to the high percentage of humus which they contain.
These soils have developed under a grass cover. These tall grasses are responsible for their high humus
content and their black colour. But they suffer from leaching to a certain extent. Still, their fertility is very high and
they are the greatest grain-producing regions of the world.
Podsol soils
Are characteristic of coniferous forest regions and are the poorest. These do not posses any humus and
being covered with decayed organic matter, these become highly acidic. Being structure less, these soils cannot
be made productive even by extensive use of fertilizers. These are also hard to till.
These soils also occur along margins of North-Western Europe, coastal regions of the north-west of North
America and New Zealand. Wherever forests have been removed, extensive grazing is done.
Tundra soils
Are those found in the extreme north regions of the Northern Hemisphere, where for eight to ten months in
a year the land remains snow-bound. Even in the short summer months, the snow only melts to a depth of two to
three feet. Because of these reasons, the Tundra soils are not only poor but marshy so that in can only support
mosses, lichens and such like shrubs.
Black Earth or Chernozems
Are soils of dark brown colour and are found in semi-arid regions. Their black colour is not due to humus but
to the high percentage of lime that they contain. The other characteristic is their capacity to retain moisture so
that they are very suitable for agriculture in dry areas. In certain regions these have been formed by the decay and
disintegrations of volcanic lava flow. Being very good in structure, they are ideal for seed growth and formation
of roots. This is also known as black cotton soil.
Chestnut soils
Are of the colour of chestnut. Their colour is only deep brown, not as dark as the prairie soils or the black
soils. Their fertility is due to the absence of leaching although these soils are poor in organic matter and in
nitrogen. Wherever irrigation in available, these are utilized for crop farming. Other-wise they are mainly used for
fodder crops. These regions have dry farming.
Grey soils
Are found in the hot and temperate deserts of the world. These soils are deficient in humus, organic matter
and also in nitrogen. These are also subject to wind erosion. But situated in regions of meager rainfall, they do not
suffer from leaching and most of the inorganic elements that were present in parent rocks are also found in them.
Brown soils
Of the Mediterranean regions are very much similar to the chestnut soils. The content of inorganic elements
is quite high but they lack in nitrogen. Their chief defect is that these are found in patches in the transition zone
between the hot desert soils on one side and the chestnut soils on the other.

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 TOPIC-II
SOIL EROSION
EROSION is a comprehensive natural process of
detachment and removal of loosened rock materials and
soils by exo-genetic processes such as running water,
ground water, sea waves, wind, glacier etc. Erosion caused
by natural processes without being interfered by human
activities is also called as GEOLOGICAL EROSION.
Slow removal of soil is a part of the natural geologi-
cal process of denudation and is both inevitable and uni-
versal. ACCELERATED EROSION refers to the increased
rate of erosion caused by various land use change ef-
fected by man. Thus SOIL EROSION normally means ac-
celerated erosion which is also called as MAN-INDUCED
EROSION soil erosion is an extreme form of soil degrada-
tion in which natural geo-morphological processes are
accelerated so that soil is removed at rates ten and some-
times several thousand times faster than is the case under
the condition of natural vegetation, and much faster than
rates at which new soil forms.
Accelerated soil erosion or man induced soil ero-
sion is mostly operative in the humid climatic regions where
extensive forest clearance grassland removal (steppes and
prairies) and extensive overgrazing and trampling by live-
stock have been practiced by man at an alarming rate.
Soil erosion involves mainly two processes viz. (i)
loosening and detachment of soil particles from the soil
mass and (ii) removal and transport of the detached soil
particles down slope human activities have largely modi-
fied and changed the land use patterns but some distinc-
tions.
L.D. Meyer and W.H. Wischmeier stated that de-
tachability of soil particles from soil mass is a crucial fac-
tor for soil erosion. The detachability largely depends on
grain-size or the size and the cohesiveness of the par-
ticles. The detachment of particles having the grain size
of above 0.2mm requires more force provided by the ve-
locity of moving water. The required critical velocity to
detach soil particles increases with increase in the grain
size above 0.20mm.
Morisawa (1968) has identified two major indepen-
dent factors which control the rate and type of soil ero-
sion occurring on hill slope i.e. CLIMATE AND GEOL-
OGY.
Erosion is a function of soil erosion processes and
the ERODIBILITY of the soils. Defined as the potential
ability of processes (such as raindrop, running water in
the form of runoff and overland flow and sliding or flow-
ing earth masses) to cause erosion of soils in certain set
of environmental conditions. The erosivity of processes
depends, besides other environmental factors, on the na-
ture of disposition of rainwater on the ground surface or
in the soil profiles.
SOIL ERODIBILITY refers to the resistance of the
soil to erosion or its vulnerability to erosion. Soil erodibil-
ity is dependent upon soil characteristics such as its physi-
cal and chemical characteristics.
The FACTORS, which affect soil erosion, include
CLIMATE, TOPOGRAPHY, ROCK TYPE, VEGETATION
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AND SOIL CHARACTER These factors operate together
and are expressed as UNIVERSAL SOIL LOSS EQUA-
TION as given below-
E = f (C, T, R, V, S)
Where E = Soil erosion
F = function of
C = Climate
T = Topography
R = Rock type
V = Vegetation
S = Soil character (physical and chemical
properties)
THE FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION
(FAO) has listed (1965) the factors of soil erosion in
slightly different manner. According to FAO the following
are the important factors which influence soil erosion-
(i) Physiographic factors length, steepness and
curvature of slope
(ii) Climatic factors- quantity, intensity, energy and
distribution of rainfall and temperature changes
(iii) Soil characteristics- detachability and trans-port-
ability, aggregation and surface sealing, depth,
water-holding capacity
(iv) Cover or Vegetation-cultivated, fallow, forests
These factors of soil erosion have been used to
build a model of soil erosion which is known as UNIVER-
SAL SOIL LOSS EQUATION as given below-
E = f (R,K,L,S,C,P, )
Where E = average annual soil/sediment loss
F = function of
R = rainfall factor (quantity, intensity, energy and
distribution of rainfall)
K = soil erodibility factor (chemical and physical
characteristics of soils as referred to above)
L = length-of-slope factor
S = Steepness-of-slope factor
C = Cropping and management factor
P = conservation practice factor
Soil erosion may be divided into three main types:
wind erosion, sheet erosion and gully erosion. While the
chief causes of each type vary in detail, the fundamental
reason for soil erosion is the removal of the natural veg-
etation which formerly bound the soil and held it in place.
The ploughing of grasslands or the clearing of forest may
start a train of events, the effects of which become pro-
gressively more serious.
Wind erosion: The eroding and transporting power
of the wind involves the actual removal of dry, unconsoli-
dated material. Farmers at the beginning of this century
ploughed up large areas of the grasslands of the Mid-
western states of America, tempted by the accumulated
fertility of these virgin soils and by a number of years
which subsequently proved to be wetter than average.
Later a series of drier years caused some of these marginal
lands to be abandoned, but now devoid of their protec-
tive mat of grass vegetation. The wind was able to sweep
the finer soil particles away, and the region became noto-
[ 15 ]
rious as the Dust Bowl. Many prosperous farms were
ruined by the removal of their top-soil; others outside the
Dust Bowl have been partially buried by material blown
by the wind.
Sheet, rill and gully erosion: These types of soil
erosion are caused mainly by the action of water. Sheet
erosion is a general removal of the surface soil over large
area, as it slips gradually down the slopes. Rill and gully
erosion are more localized, when a sudden rainstorm, pro-
ducing a concentrated run-off, rips gashes into the land.
The cause in each case is the removal of vegetation. These
types of erosion are shown drastically in the Mississippi
Basin.
These forms of soil erosion are widespread in the
worldin the Mediterranean lands of Spain, Italy and
Greece, in the monsoon lands of India and Ceylon, in Java
and Sumatra, in the savanna lands of Africa. Shifting cul-
tivation, row-cropping instead of cover-cropping, over-
grazing especially by goats, deforestation, burning, wide-
spread clearing for over-ambitious schemes of plantation
agricultureall these enable rampant erosion to proceed.
Even in Britain sheet erosion takes place where a field has
been ploughed up and down the slope, and occasional
downpours falling upon newly ploughed soil produce
gullies.
Thus the fertility of the soil depends upon origin,
elements present in it, its texture and structure. All these
factors go to make a soil tillable and useful for agriculture.
There are various ways in which erosion by water
can be avoided. The simplest principle is by retarding the
flow and speed of water. This may be done by planting
logs or grasses on the slopes or by cutting the slopes into
terraces so that the water cannot descend with force. In
order to avoid the damage done by water erosion, a reori-
entation of agricultural practices has taken place. In culti-
vation of slope areas, now-a-days, strip pruning and con-
tour farming are practiced.
The most important among such methods are:
(i) Contour farming, strip cropping and inter-crop-
ping. These methods are practiced in highland
agriculture and check run off and soil erosion.
Contour farming is farming around the hillsides
instead of up and down the hills. It consists of
ploughing furrows around the hill or across the
slopes. The furrows check and catch the water,
which soaks into the ground and does not col-
lect and run rapidly downhill to carry soil away.
Strip cropping includes planting strips of grass,
clover or similar plants between strips of clean
cultivated row crops. Inter-cropping consists of
row crop planted with a low growing crop and
the low crop grows vigorously after the taller
one has been harvested.
(ii) Pebble mulch. Where rainfall is near the mini-
mum for crop production, farms spread pebbles
mixed with sand on the fields in a few centime-
ters thick layer. This helps to absorb rainwater,
check soil erosion, reduce evaporation, check ac-
cumulation of alkali in the surface soil, decreases
wide fluctuation of soil temperature and increases
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009
the yield. This method is successful in soil con-
servation and moisture conservation in arid re-
gions.
(iii) Terrace farming involves cutting the slope into
a series of terrace benches. This method reduces
the gradient of natural slopes for cultivation.
Standard terraces must have sufficient channel
capacity to take care of the maximum run-off and
side slopes on the terrace ridge and channel to
accommodate the equipment used in farming.
(iv) Sub-soiling is the practice of breaking up hard
impervious subsoil so that it can absorb more
moisture. This is done by means of tractors and
at a time when the subsoil is dry and brittle.
(v) Trash cultivation means churning the soil rather
than turning it upside down so that the crop resi-
dues and other organic matter scattered on the
ground are taken through the soil.
(vi) Water spreading and protection of water dis-
posal outlets by means of dikes, dams, meadow
strips and diversion ditches.
Salinity and water-logging could be another seri-
ous problem. A glaring example of ill management of land
in Pakistan is given by Lord Ritchie-Calder in a recent
issue of Foreign Affairs. In the Indus Valley of Pakistan,
one of the largest irrigated areas of the world, an acre of
land is being lost every 5 minutes through water-logging
and salinity. Twenty-three million acres of land are being
artificially watered by canals in the alluvial plains of the
Indus and its tributaries. But the canals are not lined, and
because of the inadequate gradient, the land retains 40
per cent of the water. The low-lying are became water-
logged and in some areas the water brought salts to the
surface layers, damaging crops. It is now estimated that
20 years and 15 billion rupees would be needed to repair
the damage. That is more than it cost to create the canals.
Land in certain areas is becoming saline from chemi-
cal wastes carried in a dissolved form by rivers.
The depletion of soil occasioned by careless and
injudicious methods of cultivation is of two types. By
constantly growing the same crop, a particular element or
elements are completely exhausted so that the
arrangements of mineral salts becomes disproportionate,
and the soils become absolutely poor, because of the re-
moval of certain plant foods. Therefore, if the fertility of
the soil is to be maintained, these plant foods must be
replenished or returned to the soil. This is
done partly by nature through rock decay and micro-or-
ganisms. This means that the land must be left
fallow for some period of time so that in this period of rest
nature may be able to replenish the exhausted stock of
mineral and organic elements in the soil. This is, however,
not feasible in view of the growing pressure of population
on land. But there are several other ways open to man
through which the soil fertility can be kept intact.
The following are the most important ones:
(1) By crop rotation the soil depleted is rebuilt with
the help of certain legumes, clovers, peas, and
beans. These are grown as soil crops so that the
nitrogen content is fixed and humus is main-
[ 16 ]
 tained. This also means greater profits and bet-
ter yield from a limited area. It ensures control
over weeds and plant diseases. It helps to build
up soil fertility and reduce soil erosion.
(2) By manuring, decayed vegetable and
animal matter is returned to the soil through fish
meal, bones, compost or night soil. Human waste,
commonly known as night soil, is the most im-
portant manure. Composted with social and waste
organic matter, it is allowed to ferment in pits and
then spread on the soil. Besides oil cake is also
used to manure the soil. This includes cotton-
seed cake, bean cake, rapeseed cake, sesame cake.
The wind and weeds taken from the bottom of
rivers and canals, ditches and ponds are also
used as manures.
(3) By green manuring vegetation is ploughed un-
der and the humus supplied to the soil. For this
purpose such crops are selected as easily break
under the plough and get mixed in the soil.
(4) By giving lime to the soil through limestone and
marl.
(5) Through commercial fertilizers such as phos-
phates, nitrates and ammonium sulphates.
TOPIC-III
WORLD DISTRIBUTION OF LAND ANIMALS
Like vegetation, animal life depends upon climatic
conditions. There are several categories of animals found
in the world(1) the migratory insects and birds, (2) the
herbivorous animals, and (3) the carnivorous animals liv-
ing on the second. Besides, the animal life may be re-
garded as marine or aquatic, consisting of those living in
water, land and air. But the most comprehensive division
and classification consists of
(a) The animals of hot lands.
(b) The animals of temperate lands.
(c) The animals of Arctic lands.
Hotlands possess a large variety of animals. While
in the dense equatorial forest only birds, monkeys, poi-
sonous insects and serpents are found, the more open
monsoon forests abound in a variety of carnivorous ani-
mals as lion, tiger and leopard. The
elephant, rhinoceros and the hippopotamus are also quite
many in numbers. Camel is the chief animal in the desert
regions. The rivers and streams are full of crocodiles and
alligators.
Temperate lands contain few reptiles and insects.
Whatever varieties are found, they are small and less poi-
sonous. Such domestic animals as ox, sheep, goat, horse
and donkey find their home here. A large variety of fowls
are also native to these lands. Geese, turkeys and pheas-
ants are quite important. The carnivorous animals are fewer
in number, the bear, wolf and fox being the chief varieties.
Arctic lands abound in fur-bearing animals on the
land and whales, seals and walruses in the sea. The chief
fur-bearing-animals are the polar bear, the fox, the sable
and the musk ox. The reindeer is a pet of the people there
who bring it into numerous domestic uses.
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Fertilizers and soil: Fertilizers are used very widely
to help boost food production. These fertilizers do in-
crease immediate crop yields but they gradually impover-
ish the soil.
The inorganic nitrogen fertilizers threaten to
disrupt the natural nitrogen cycle. Millions of bacteria
take nitrogen from the air and convert it into useful soil
materials. But when these nitrogen fixing bacteria are ex-
posed to inorganic nitrogen fertilizer, they stop their func-
tion and sometimes even perish. Eventually the quality of
the said deteriorates and the crop yield declines.
Fertilizers impoverish the organic matter content of
the soil and alter its physical character (especially its po-
rosity to oxygen). The soils ability to support crops is
reduced. It needs a greater amount of inorganic nitrogen
fertilizer. Moreover, it takes a longer time to restore the
natural efficiency of this impoverished soil. It also be-
comes more difficult for the crop to take up the fertilizer in
this poor quality soil. The unused fertilizer now drains out
into rivers and lakes where it joins with the nitrates im-
posed on water by sewage effluents. This leads to
overgrowths of green plants resulting in organic pollu-
tion. The lakes get choked and die.
Thus, while physical features and climate determines
the form of vegetation, all the three determine the animal
life and on it depends the life and occupation of man on
this earth, his adjustment to the environment.
Zoo-geography deals with the geographic distribu-
tion of animals. The world is divided into a number of zoo-
geographic or faunal regions. According to Wallace (1876)
the following zoo-geographic regions of the world may be
observed:
I. Palaearctic region
This largest region includes whole of Europe, north-
ern China, Japan, Soviet Russia, northern part of Africa
and Persia etc. It is subdivided into European, Mediterra-
nean, Siberian and Manchurian sub regions. Fauna is rep-
resented by 135 families of terrestrial vertebrates (33 mam-
mals, 68 of birds, 24 of reptiles, 10 of amphibians and fishes).
II. Ethiopian region
This includes whole of Africa and Arabia, Mada-
gascar and Mauritius. The fauna is much varied, repre-
sented by about 161 families of terrestrial vertebrates; of
which 30 are endemic to this region which include such
mammals as aye-aye, golden moles, mole rates, jumping
hares, African flying squirrels, giraffes etc. This region is
divided into east African, west African, south African and
Malagasy sub regions.
III. Oriental region
This region includes all the tropical parts of Asia,
like India, Sri Lanka, south China, Malaysia, and
Malayan islands located to the western side of Wallaces
line, i.e. Java, Sumatra, Philippines, Borneo, Bali etc. Cli-
matic conditions of this region are much varied, being
desert in the north of Indian sub-region,
[ 17 ]
tropical in southern portion of Indian and Sri Lanka, and
temperate in Bhutan, and Yangtse-kiang. Major part of
the region is occupied by luxuriant forest
vegetation. The terrestrial vertebrates are represented by
about 153 families of which 10 are peculiar to the region,
which include four mammals, one bird and five reptiles.
Faunal characteristics: This region includes some
interesting genera which are as follows:
(a) Fishes : Freshwater fishes are more common,
represented by about 13 families, including, notopterids,
silurids, anabantids, cyprinoids, nandidac etc.
(b) Amphibians : Amphibians are represented by
nine families of which interesting ones are caecilians,
rhacophoids, (tree frogs), true frogs and some salamanders.
(c) Reptiles : Reptiles are represented by 35 families
of which important ones are true vipers, pit vipers, sea
snakes, turtles, freshwater snakes, tree snakes,
Pythonidae, crocodiles, gavialis, water lizards, geckos,
some iguanas, etc.
(d) Aves : Aves are represented by 71 families, of
which important ones are babblers, sunbirds, king crows,
passers, woodpeckers, barbets, cuckoos, kingfishers, pi-
geons, doves, fowls, peacocks, etc.
(e) Mammals : These are represented by 35 families,
in which interesting ones are hedgehogs, shrews, flying
lemurs, old world monkeys, cats, bear, dogs, elephants,
rhinoceros, rodents, orangutans etc. The gibbons, tarsiers and
tree shrews are peculiar to this region.
Oriental region is divided into the following four
sub regions :
1. Indian sub region : It includes whole of India
from the Himalayan slopes to Cape Comorin. The fauna is
characterized by 123 families of terrestrial vertebrates.
Elachistodontidae with a single species of colubrine snake
is peculiar. Mammalian forms as four-horned antelope,
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009
Indian or sloth-bear and shield-tails are characteristics of
this region.
2. Ceylonese sub region : It comprises the island of
Sri Lanka, whose physical characteristics are more or less
similar to those of southern mountains of India. Charac-
teristic fauna includes shield-tails, loris, spiny rat, leaf in-
sect, kalmia, mimetic butterflies.
3. Indo-Chinese sub region : It includes China, south
of Palaearctic boundary, Burma, Thailand, and islands of
Andamans, Formosa, and Hainan. This region is compara-
tively richer and varied than the Indian and Ceylonese subre-
gions. There are about 138 families of animals, of which
peculiar ones are ailurus, budocras, hapalomys, moles,
gibbons, flying lemurs, tapir and rhinoceros, salamanders
and disc-tongued frogs.
4. Indo-Malayan sub region : It includes the Ma-
layan Peninsula and islands of Malayan Archipelago, i.e.,
Borneo, Java, Sumatra, Nicobar etc. The fauna is repre-
sented by 132 families, of which important ones are oran-
gutan proboscis monkey, Malayan badger, tree shrews,
gibbons, broadbills etc.
IV. Australian region
This includes the whole of Australian, New Zealand,
New Guinea, and adjoining islands, particularly those of
Pacific Ocean. The oriental and Australian regions are
separated from each other by an imaginary line, Wallaces
line, that is supposed to run between the island of Bali
and Lombok. In various parts, the climate is of temperate
as well as tropical type. The fauna is represented by 134
families of terrestrial vertebrates, of which 30 are specific
to the region including 8 families or mammals, 17 of birds,
3 of reptiles, and 2 of amphibians. Among the mammals, all
belong to monotremata and marsupialia, placental ones
being altogether absent. Marsupialia includes kangaroos
and related forms. Characteristic genera are kangaroos,
wombats bandicoots, phalangers, marsupial mole and
[ 18 ]
dasyures. Among birds, peculiar ones are kiwis, emus,
cassowaries, birds of paradise, and tooth-billed pigeons.
Reptilian genera include such forms as sphenodon, or
tuatara and scale-footed lizards, fly-river turtles and elapid
snakes. This region is divided into Austro-Malayan, Aus-
tralian, Polynesian, and New Zealand sub region.
V. Neotropical region
It comprises southern Mexico, Central and South
America, West Indies, and Galapagos islands. It is a tropi-
cal region with luxuriant forests. The fauna is represented
by 155 families of terrestrial vertebrates, of which 39 are
peculiar to the region. These include 10 mammals, 23 birds,
2 reptiles and 4 amphibians. This region is divided into
Chilian, Brazilian, Mexican, and Artillian sub regions.
VI. Neoarctic region
It comprises Greenland and North America up to the
centre of Mexico. In the west, there are many large lakes
and island seas. The terrestrial vertebrates are about 120,
or which 26 are mammals, 59 birds, 21 reptiles, and am-
phibians. Of these, 5 are peculiar, such as Haplodontidae,
and prong-buck among mammals the wren-tits among
birds. Anillidae among reptiles and the Siredidae among
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009
amphibians. This region is divided into Californian, Rocky
mountain, Alleghany and Canadian sub regions.
An ecosystem is a self-regulating association of liv-
ing plants and animals and their nonliving physical envi-
ronment. In an ecosystem a change in one component
causes changes in others, as systems adjust to new oper-
ating conditions.
Earth itself is the largest ecosystem within the natu-
ral boundary of the atmosphere. Natural ecosystems are
open systems for both energy and matter, with almost all
ecosystem boundaries functioning as transition zones
rather than as sharp demarcations. Smaller ecosystems
for example Forests, seas, mountain tops, deserts, beaches,
islands, lakes, pondsmake up the larger whole.
Biogeography, essentially a spatial ecology, is the
study of the distribution of plants and animals, the di-
verse spatial patterns they create, and the physical and
biological processes, past and present, that produce this
distribution across Earth. To better understand an eco-
system, bio-geographers must look across the ages and
reassemble Earths tectonic plates to recreate previous
environmental relationships.
[ 19 ]
 TOPIC-IV
ECOSYSTEM COMPONENTS AND CYCLES
An ecosystem is a complex of many variables, all
functioning independently yet in concert, with compli-
cated flows of energy and matter.
An ecosystem is composed of both biotic and abi-
otic components. Nearly all depend upon an input of so-
lar energy; the few limited ecosystems that exist in dark
caves or on the ocean floor depend upon chemical reac-
tions. Ecosystems are divided onto subsystems, with the
biotic portion composed of producers, consumers, and
decomposers. The abiotic flows in an ecosystem include
gaseous and sedimentary nutrient cycles.

Communities
closely related species are separated at some distance from
A convenient biotic subdivision within an ecosys-
one another. In other words, each species operates to re-
tem is a community, which is formed by relationships
duce competition.
among populations of living animals and plants in an area.
Some species have symbiotic relationships, an ar-
An ecosystem is the interaction of many communities with
rangement that mutually benefits and sustains each or-
the abiotic physical components of its environment. For
ganism. For example, lichen (pronounced liken) is made
example, in a forest ecosystem, a specific community may
up of algae and fungi. The algae are the producer and
exist on the forest floor, whereas, another community func-
food source, and the fungus provides structure and sup-
tions in the canopy of leaves high above. Similarly, within
port. Their mutually beneficial relationship (mutualism)
a lake ecosystem, the plants and animals that flourish in
allows the two to occupy a niche in which neither could
the bottom sediments form one community, whereas those
survive alone. Lichen developed from an earlier parasitic
near the surface form another. A community is identified
relationship in which the fungi broke into algae cells di-
in several waysby its physical appearance, the number
rectly. Today the two organisms have evolved into a sup-
of species and the abundance of each, the complex pat-
portive harmony and symbiotic relationship.
terns of their interdependence, and the trophic (feeding)
By contrast, parasitic relationships eventually may
structure of the community.
kill the host, thus destroying the parasites own niche and
Within a community, two concepts are important:
habitat. An example is mistletoe (Phoradendron), which
habitat and niche. Habitat is the specific physical
lives on and may kill various kinds of trees. Some scien-
location of an organism, the type of environment in which
tists are questioning whether our human society and the
it resides or is biologically suited to live. In terms of physi-
physical systems of
cal and natural factors, most species have
Earth constitute a global-scale symbiotic relationship (sus-
specific habitat parameters with definite limits and a spe-
tainable) or a parasitic one (non-sustainable).
cific regimen of sustaining nutrients.
Plants are the critical biotic link between life and
Niche refers to the function, or occupation, of a life
solar energy. Ultimately the fate of the biosphere rests on
form within a given community. It is the way an organism
the success of plants and their ability to capture sunlight.
obtains and sustains the physical, chemical, and biologi- Photosynthesis and Respiration: Photosynthesis
cal factors it needs to survive. Similar unites carbon dioxide and oxygen (derived from water in
habitats produce comparable niches. In a stable the plant) under the influence of certain wavelengths of
community, no niche is left unfilled. The principle of com- visible light. The process releases oxygen and produces
petitive exclusion states that no two species can occupy energy-rich organic material. The name is descriptive,
the same niche successfully in a stable community. Thus, photo-refers to sunlight, and synthesis describes the bring-
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009 [ 20 ]

ing together of materials to form compounds and pro-
duce reactions within plant leaves.
Only about one-quarter of the light energy
arriving at the surface of a leaf is useful to the light-sen-
sitive chlorophyll. Chlorophyll absorbs only the orange
red and violet-blue wavelengths for photochemical op-
erations, and reflects predominantly green hues (and
some yellow). This is why trees and other vegetation look
green. Understandably, competition for light is a domi-
nant factor in the formation of plant communities. This
competition is expressed in their height, orientation, and
structure.
Photosynthesis essentially follows this
equation:
CO2 + H2O + light = x (CH2O) + O2
(Carbon- (Water) energy (Carbo- (Oxygen)
dioxide ) hydrate)
From the equation, you can see that photosynthe-
sis removes carbon (in the form of CO2) from Earths at-
mosphere. The quantity is prodigious:
approximately 91 billion metric tons (100 billion tons) per
year. Carbohydrates, the organic result of the
photosynthetic process, are combinations of carbon, hy-
drogen, and oxygen. They can form simple sugars, such
as glucose (C6H12O6). Glucose, in turn, is used by plants
to build starches, which are more complex carbohydrates
and the principal food storage substance in plants. Pri-
mary productivity refers to the rate at which energy is
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009
stored in such organic substances.
Plants not only store energy; they must consume
some of this energy by converting carbohydrates through
respiration to derive energy for their other operations.
Thus, respiration is essentially a reverse of the photo-
synthetic process:
x(CH2O)+ O2 CO2 + H2O + energy
(Carbo- (Oxygen) (Carbon (Water) (Heat)
hydrate) dioxide)
In respiration, plants oxidize stored energy,
releasing carbon dioxide, water, and energy as heat. The
overall growth of a plant depends on a surplus of carbo-
hydrates beyond what is lost through plant
respiration.
The compensation point is the break-even point
between the production and consumption of organic ma-
terial. Each leaf operates above the compensation point,
with unproductive leaves being eliminated by the plant.
The difference between photosynthetic
production and respiration loss is called net photosyn-
thesis. The amount varies, depending on controlling en-
vironmental factors such as light, water, temperature, soil
fertility, and the plants site, elevation, and competition
from other plants and animals.
Plant productivity increases as light availability in-
creasesup to a point. When the light level is too high,
light saturation occurs and most plants actually reduce
their output in response. Some plants adapt better to shade,
whereas others flourish in full sunlight. Crops such as
rice, wheat, and sugar cane do well with high light inten-
sity.
Net Primary Productivity- The net photosynthesis
for an entire community is its net primary productivity.
This is the amount of useful chemical energy (biomass)
that the community generates for the ecosystem. Biom-
ass is the net dry weight of organic material; it is biomass
that feeds the food chain.
Net primary productivity is mapped in terms of fixed
carbon per square meter per year. On land, net primary
production tends to be highest in the tropics at sea level
and decreases toward higher latitudes. But precipitation
also affects productivity, as evidenced on the map by the
correlations of abundant precipitation with high produc-
tivity and reduced precipitation with low productivity, the
latter observable in subtropical deserts. Even though
deserts are high in solar radiation, other controlling fac-
tors are important, namely water availability and soil con-
ditions.
[ 21 ]
 In the oceans, productivity is limited by differing
nutrient levels. Regions with nutrient-rich upwelling cur-
rents generally are the most productive. Tropical ocean
and areas of subtropical high pressure are quite low in
productivity.
In temperate and high latitudes, the rate at which
carbon dioxide is fixed by vegetation varies seasonally,
increasing in spring and summer as plants
flourish with increasing solar input and, in some
areas, more available (non frozen) water, and decreasing
in late fall and winter. Rates in the tropics are
high throughout the year, and turnover in the photosyn-
thesis-respiration cycle is faster, exceeding by many times
the rates experienced in a desert environment
or in the far northern limits of the tundra. A lush acre of
sugar cane in the tropics might fix 18 metric tons (20 tons)
of carbon in a year, whereas desert plants
in an equivalent area might achieve only 1% of this
amount.
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009
Net primary productivity is estimated at 170 billion
metric tons of dry organic matter per year. Net productiv-
ity is generally regarded as the most important aspect of
any type of community, and the distribution of productiv-
ity over Earths surface is an important subject of bioge-
ography.
Abiotic Ecosystem Components
Critical in each ecosystem are the flow of energy
and the cycling of matter in the form of nutrients and wa-
ter. Nonliving abiotic components set the stage for eco-
system operations.
Light, Temperature, Water, and Climate- The pat-
tern of solar energy receipt is crucial on both
terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Solar energy enters an
ecosystem by way of photosynthesis, with heat
dissipated from the system at many points. Of the total
energy intercepted at Earths surface and available for
work, only about 1.0% is actually fixed by photosynthe-
[ 22 ]

sis as chemical energy (energy stored as carbohydrates
in plants).
The duration of Sun exposure is the photoperiod.
Along the equator, days are almost always 12 hours in
length; however, with distance from the
equator, seasonal effects become pronounced. Plants have
adapted their flowering and seed germination to seasonal
changes in insolation. Some plant seeds
germinate only when day length reaches a certain
number of hours. A plant that responds in the opposite
manner is the poinsettia, Euphorbia pulcherrima, which
requires at least two months of 14-hour nights to start
flowering.
Other components also are important to
ecosystem processes. Air and soil temperatures
determine the rates at which chemical reactions
proceed. Significant temperature factors are seasonal varia-
tion, duration and pattern of minimum and maximum val-
ues, and the average.
Operations of the hydrologic cycle and water avail-
ability depend on precipitation/evaporation rates and their
seasonal distribution. Water quality is importantits min-
eral content, salinity, and levels of
pollution and toxicity. Also, daily weather patterns over
time create regional climates, which in turn affect the pat-
tern of vegetation and ultimately influence soil
development. All of these factors work together to estab-
lish the parameters for ecosystems that may
develop in a given location.
Gaseous and Sedimentary Cycles- The most abun-
dant natural elements in living matter are hydrogen (H),
oxygen (O), and carbon (C). Together, these elements make
up more than 99% of Earths biomass; in fact, all life (or-
ganic molecules) contains hydrogen and carbon. In addi-
tion, nitrogen (N), calcium (Ca), potassium (K), magne-
sium (Mg) sulfur (S), and phosphorus (P) are important
nutrients, elements necessary for the growth and devel-
opment of a living organism.
Several important cycles of chemical elements
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009
operate. Oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen each have gas-
eous cycles, parts of which are in the atmosphere. Other
elements have sedimentary cycles which principally in-
volve the mineral and solid phases (major ones include
phosphorus, calcium, and sulfur). Some elements com-
bine gaseous and sedimentary cycles. These processes
are called biogeochemical cycles, because they involve
chemical reactions in both life and Earth systems. The
chemical elements themselves recycle over and over again
in life processes.
Oxygen and carbon cycles we consider together
because they are so closely intertwined through
photosynthesis and respiration. The atmosphere is the
principal reserve of available oxygen. Large reserves of
oxygen than in the atmosphere exist in Earths crust, but
they are unavailable, being tied up in combination with
other elements. Unoxidized reserves of fossil fuels and
sediments also contain oxygen.
The greatest pool of carbon is in the ocean- about
39,000 billion tons, or about 93% of the total. All of this
carbon is bound chemically in carbon dioxide, calcium car-
bonate, and other compounds the ocean absorbs carbon
dioxide through the functioning (photosynthesis) of small
phytoplankton organisms. The atmosphere, which serves
as the integrating link in the cycle, contains only about
700 billion tons of carbon at any moment far less than
fossil fuels and oil shales (12,000 billion tons) or living
and dead organic matter (2275 billion tons). Carbon diox-
ide in the atmosphere is produced by the respiration of
plants and animals, volcanic activity, and fossil fuel com-
bustion by industry and transportation. In organic matter,
carbon is stored in carbohydrate molecules; in fossil fuels
it exists in hydrocarbon molecules. Carbon also is stored
in certain carbonate minerals, such as limestone.
The carbon dioxide dumped into the atmosphere by
human activity constitutes a vast geochemical experiment.
Since 1970, we have added to the atmospheric pool and
[ 23 ]
amount of carbon equivalent to more than 25% of the
total amount added since 1880. Annual emissions by so-
ciety have now reached 6 billion tons and represent our
greatest single atmospheric waste product. Furthermore,
about 50% of the carbon dioxide emitted since the begin-
ning of the industrial revolution and not absorbed by
oceans and organisms is still in the atmosphere, enhanc-
ing Earths natural green house effect.
The nitrogen cycle involves the major constituent
of the atmosphere, 78.084% of each breath we take. Nitro-
gen also is important in the makeup of organic molecules,
especially proteins, and therefore is essential to living
process. However, this vast atmospheric reservoir is in-
accessible directly to most organisms. The key link to life
is provided by nitrogen-fixing bacteria, which live princi-
pally in the soil and are associated with the roots of cer-
tain plantsfor example, the legumes such as clover, al-
falfa, soybeans, peas, beans, and peanuts. Bacteria colo-
nies reside in nodules on the legume roots and chemi-
cally combine the nitrogen from the air in the form of
nitrates (NO3) and ammonia (NH3). Plants use these fixed
forms of nitrogen to produce their own organic matter.
Anyone or anything feeding on the plants thus ingests
the nitrogen. Finally, the nitrogen in the organic wastes
of these consuming organisms is freed by denitrifying
bacteria, which recycle it back to the atmosphere.
To improve agricultural yields, inorganic fertilizers
are used. These fertilizers are chemically produced
through artificial nitrogen fixation at factories. The an-
nual production of inorganic fertilizers far exceeds the
ability of natural denitrification systemspresent manu-
facturing or inorganic fertilizers is now doubling every 8
years. The surplus of usable nitrogen accumulates in
Earths ecosystems. Some is present as excess nutrients,
washed from soil into waterways and eventually the
ocean. This excess nitrogen load begins a water pollu-
tion process that involves an unwanted growth of algae
and phytoplankton, increased biological oxygen demand,
loss of dissolved oxygen reserves, and eventual disrup-
tion of the aquatic ecosystem. In addition, excess nitro-
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009
gen compounds in air pollution are a component in acid
deposition, further altering the nitrogen cycle in soils and
waterways.
Limiting Factors- The term limiting factor identi-
fies the one physical or chemical abiotic component that
most inhibits biotic operations, through its lack or excess.
A few examples include low temperatures at high eleva-
tion, the lack of water in a desert, the excess water in a bog,
the amount of iron in ocean surface environments, the
phosphorus content of soils in the eastern United Stats,
or the general lack of active chlorophyll above 6100m
(20,000ft). In most ecosystems, precipitation is the limiting
factor, although variation in temperatures and soil charac-
teristics certainly affect vegetation patterns.
Each organism possesses a range of tolerance
for each variable in its environment.
Biotic Ecosystem Operations
The abiotic components of energy, atmosphere, wa-
ter, weather, climate, and minerals support the biotic com-
ponents of each ecosystem and their constituent soils,
vegetation, and life forms.
Producers, Consumers, and Decomposers-
Organisms that are capable of using carbon dioxide as their
sole source of carbon are called autotrophs or producers.
They chemically fix carbon through photosynthesis. Or-
ganisms that depend on autotrophs for their carbon are
called heterotrophs, or consumers. Autotrophs are the
essential producers in an ecosystemcapturing light and
generating heat energy and converting it to chemical en-
ergy, incorporating carbon, forming new plant tissue and
biomass, and freeing oxygen, all as a part of photosynthe-
sis.
From these producers, when manufacture their own
food, energy flows through the system along a circuit called
the food chain, reaching consumers and eventually de-
composers. Ecosystems generally are structured in a food
web, a complex network of interconnected food chains. In
a food web, consumers participate in several different food
chains. Organisms that share the same basic foods are
said to be at the same trophic (feeding, nutrition) level.
Primary consumer feed on producers. Because pro-
ducers are always plants, the primary consumer is called a
herbivore, or plant eater. A carnivore is a secondary con-
sumer and primarily eats meat. A tertiary consumer eats
secondary consumers. A consumer that feeds on both pro-
ducers (plants) and consumers (meat) is called an omni-
vorea role occupied by humans, among others.
Decomposers are the final links in the chain; they
are the microorganismsbacteria, fungi, insects, worms,
and othersthat digest and recycle the organic debris
and waste in the environment Waste products, dead plants
and animals, and other organic remains are their principal
food source. Material is released by the decomposers and
enters the food chainand the cycle continues.
STABILITYAND SUCCESSION
A rough equilibrium is achieved in an ecosystem
by the constant interplay of increasing growth toward the
potential in a community and decreasing growth caused
by resisting factors that force limits in a community. Both
biotic and abiotic factors affect growth. Far from being
static, Earths ecosystems are dynamic and ever-chang-
[ 24 ]
ing. Over time, communities of plants and animals have optimum for the conditions, known as the climatic
adapted to such variation, evolved, and in turn shaped climax community, establishes itself. When this is
their environments. attained, there is no further alteration in the broad aspect
Ecosystem Stability of the vegetation, and a situations of equilibrium is at-
In a given ecosystem, a community moves tained. This term climatic climax community is now pre-
toward maximum biomass and relative stability because ferred to natural vegetation.
this has optimum survival value for the community. How-
ever, the tendency for birth and death rates to
balance. And the composition of species to remain stable,
inertial stability, does not necessarily foster the ability
to recover from change, resilience. Examples of stable
communities include a redwood forest, a pine forest at a
high elevation, and a tropical rain forest near the equator.
Yet, cleared tracts recover slowly (if ever) and therefore
have poor resilience.
Another aspect related to stability is diversity. The
more diverse the species population (both in
number of species and quantity of members in each spe-
cies), the more risks are spread over the entire
community, because several food sources exist at each
trophic level. In other words, greater diversity in an eco-
system results in greater stability. An artificially produced
monoculture community, such as a field of wheat, is sin-
gularly vulnerable to failure or attack. Humans simplify One of the most striking examples of
communities by eliminating diversity and in this way we successional change is that of the small islands
place more ecosystems at risk of unwanted change and produced after the eruption of Krakatoa in 1883; the origi-
perhaps failure. In some regions, a simple return to mul- nal vegetation was destroyed and the new islands con-
tiple crops brings more stability to the ecosystem.
sisted of sterile volcanic rocks. By 1886 eight
PLANT COMMUNITIES AND SUCCESSIONS
species of plants had established themselves, and
Plant communities
A group of plants growing in some particular, area, within fifty years the islands were covered with
under certain physical conditions which dense secondary forest, in which large trees are
satisfy them, is known as a plant community, which can now slowly becoming dominant. The tendency
be of different grades. The largest is sometimes called a seems to be the ultimate re-establishment of rain-
plant formation, as for example, the Temperate Deciduous forest, which will be the climatic climax community.
Forest, in which the distinctive plant-form is the decidu- Ecologists have sought to analyze the vegetation
ous tree. With in this major community is a grouping cover on a scientific, basis in terms of develop-
known as a plant association; an oak forest is a particular mental succession or sequences, known generally
association within the formation of the Temperate De- as seres. The whole series of communities which
ciduous Forest. A plant society is a local community with leads from a virgin land surface to a climatic
special conditions and species. An ecologist distinguishes
climax community is termed a presere. Each stage
smaller, more detailed and more local communities in the
in this succession is a seral community, itself only
course of his work.
With any community is a variety of individual plants, temporary and affording conditions successively more fa-
but the strongest and most vigorous is known as the vorable for colonization by more demanding
dominant. In an oak-wood the dominant is the rock tree, communities.
but other plants are found, such as hazel, wood anemo- One other type of community involves the
nes, primroses and mosses. In complex communities sev- interruption of climax vegetation by prolonged direct or
eral strata occur, known as layer; there may be a canopy- indirect human interference. Many English uplands, for-
layer made up of the crowns of the dominant trees, a shrub- merly wooded, have been turned into grassland as the
layer of bushes or weaker trees, a field-or-herb-layer of result of the initial clearing of the trees, followed by con-
small plants, and a ground-layer of mosses and li- tinuous grazing which has precluded the
chens. regeneration of the woodland. This is a plagiosere,
Plant succession
leading to an ultimate community in equilibrium
Much vegetation, particularly which is semi-
known as plagiclimax.
natural, reveals a gradual sequence of changes or phases
over a period of time, even if the climate remains
unaltered. An area of land, bare of vegetation after a vol-
canic eruption, a wide-spread fire, submergence by water
or mans destructive activities, will experience a gradual
succession of vegetation changes until the
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009 [ 25 ]
 TOPIC-V
VEGETATION
The living mantle of vegetation which covers most
of the land surface of the world has been called the inter-
mediate link between physical geography on the one hand
and economic and human geography on the other. The
various plant associations owe their
nature to the interaction of different climatic elements-
heat, light, moisture and wind-with other factors,
principally surface relief and the soil-cover. These
conditions impart a special character and a distinctive ap-
pearance to a particular association of plants; it is pos-
sible to distinguish areas of the world which the broadly
similar plant associations, called vegetation regions.
THE FACTORS CONTROLLING VEGETATION
These factors can be divided into three groups-cli-
matic (the several climatic elements), edaphic (mainly soil
conditions) and physiographic (relief,
aspect and drainage). However, these various factors are
closely interrelated and interdependent.
Two other groups are the biotic factors, the
effect of organisms, and those due to human activities,
the grazing of domestic animals, burnings, the human ac-
tivities, the grazing of domestic animals, burning, the fell-
ing of forest and drainage schemes.
Climatic factors
The two main elements on which plant growth de-
pends are rainfall and temperature.
Rainfall determines the vegetation type; abundant
(i) Megatherms (e.g. palm) coldest month above 18 C
(ii) Mesotherms (e.g. olive) coldest month between 6C and 18C warmest month over 6 C
(iii) Mircotherms (e.g. oak) coldest month above 6 C warmest month between 10C & 22 C
(iv) Hekistotherms warmest month less than 10 C
(E.g. reindeer moss)
Rainfall
Moisture is vital to every plant, since it is by
water absorbed through its roots that it receives in solu-
tion the foods it needs.
Plants may be classified Hydrophytes, which are
purely aquatic plants, both floating and submerged. Hy-
grophytes include those plants which live in an environ-
ment with a plentiful water-supply, such as many species
of the Tropical Rainforest. Mesophytes have available
moderate water-supply, and most trees fall into this cat-
egory. Xerophytes are adapted in various ways to dry
conditions, seasonal or perennial; their modifications in-
clude long roots penetrating deeply in search of ground-
water, small leaves protected against transpiration with
thick skins or with the surfaces coated with wax or fine
hairs, hard thorny buds and shoots, thick rough bark as in
the case of the cork oak, tuberous roots, and even water-
storage devices such as have the baobab tree and the
multifarious cacti.
Many other plants possess various characteris-
tics to enable them to survive a period of seasonal adver-
sity; these are known as tropophytes. Thus leaf-shed-
ding enables a plant to survive a period of seasonal ad-
versity, due to either cold or drought.
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009
rainfall tends to produce forest, light rainfall causes grass-
land, and meager or deficient rainfall result in scrub and
desert. Temperature, however, plays a large part in deter-
mining the actual constituents of the
flora; there is the Boreal Forest of lands near the
Arctic Circle, the Cool Temperate Forest, the Warm Tem-
perate Forest and the Tropical Rain-forest-all
forests, but differing considerably in their nature and ap-
pearance largely because of the varied temperature con-
ditions.
Temperature
Low temperatures tend to result in slower plant
growth and smaller size, while higher temperatures pro-
duce more luxuriant growth. With an increase in either
latitude or altitude, assuming that the available moisture
remains constant, there is a corresponding decrease in
the size of luxuriance and rate of growth of the vegetation.
Of special importance are critical temperatures at
particular times of the years and actual extremes of heat
and cold. Freezing point is one of the most crucial tem-
peratures, since so many plants are vulnerable to frost.
Another is the figure of 6 C, since for most plants it seems
that active growth cannot take place at temperature much
below this point.
Various classifications of plants have been made on
the basis of their temperature requirements; one such is
as follows :
Light : Another climatic factor of importance to plant
growth is the amount of available light, both its strength
and its diurnal and seasonal duration. Chlorophyll, the
green pigment in plants, absorbs energy from sunlight,
and as a result carbohydrates are formed from carbon di-
oxide and water by a very complex and not fully under-
stood process, and plant growth is sustained. Where light
is weak, therefore, growth is lank and pale, as in the dim
green light under the canopy of a Tropical Rain-forest.
Many species in tropical forests actually move
their leaves during the course of the day, turning the edges
toward the direct rays to minimize their effects (heliotro-
pism).
The short days and weak light of winter in cool tem-
perate latitudes is probably one factor which induces a
deciduous habit in some trees, providing that the summer
is sufficiently long to enable them to complete the cycle
of leaf development, growth and fall in one season. Wind
: The major influence of wind upon plants is that it re-
moves the vapor transpired from the stomata; a strong
wind means rapid transpiration. If a wind is warm and dry,
this effect is very marked; the sirocco may cause trees
and shrubs in southern Italy to transpire so rapidly that
[ 26 ]
buds are killed and blackened, as if by a sudden frost.
The pole ward limit of shrubs, on the borders of the
coniferous forest and the tundra, is probably determined
more by wind than by temperature.
Physiographic and edaphic factors: The relief of
the land, its steepness or levelness, whether there are
valleys and mountains or uniform low-lying plains, affects
the vegetation-cover. On mountain ranges there is a great
diversity in the vegetation-cover owing to rapid change
in climate, soil, aspect and drainage, but generally the
result of altitude is to produce Zones or girdles of veg-
etation, the details of which vary according to the cli-
matic base-level of the mountainswhich itself largely
depends upon latitude.
The effectiveness of the natural drainage is shown
in the Tropics, where mangrove forest occurs under con-
ditions of brackish tidal water logging, swamp-forest un-
der conditions of fresh-water flooding, and true rain-for-
est where drainage is adequate. The high bogs on the
moors of northern Germany are closely related botanically
to the heaths which surround them, for both have the
same poverty of mineral nutrients and the same high acid-
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009
ity; the bogs have a permanently damp surface while the
heaths are dry. Should the bog dry out, naturally or artifi-
cially, heath will result.
Edaphic factors are those concerned with the char-
acteristics of the soil-cover, since in this are rooted the
majority of plants, and the plant-cover itself contributes
to the processes which produce the mature soil. There is
no need to stress the influence of the soil-factor; compare
the thin skeletal soils on steep mountains, the acid-peat
soils of the moorlands, the sandy soils of the heaths and
the coastal areas, the clay and alluvial soils of the low-
lands. The ecologist is concerned with much more de-
tailed edaphic difference; he studies an assemblage of
species, and in an ecological survey of a grassland, for
example, he finds considerable botanical differences due
to slight variations in acidity and alkalinity, water content
and mineral content.
However, vegetation in some way summarizes the
various physical features, and vegetation regions have been
called climatico-botanical frames. The broad relationship
between climatic type, zonal soil group and vegetation
region is shown in the following table :
[ 27 ]
 Climate Soil Vegetation
Arctic tundra Tundra
{cooler podzols Coniferous Forest
Cool Temperate Heathland
{warmer brown-earths Temperate Deciduous
Forest
Cool Temperate {chernozem Temperate Grassland
(Continental) {prairie soils
{arid chestnut-colored Arid Grassland
Cool Temperate soils
{very arid saline soils Salt desert plants
Mediterranean Warm various Warm Temperate Ever-
Temperate (much terra rossa) green Woodlands
Hot Desert {semi-desert {red desert soils Desert Scrub
{true desert {sandy, saline soils Plantless Deserts
{red-earths Savanna Grassland
Tropical (summer rain) {lateritic soils
{lateritic soils Monsoon Forest
Tropical (monsoon) {regur
Equatorial lateritic and Tropical Rain-forest
Associated forms Swamp Forest
Mangrove Swamp
Mountain (zoning Skeletal Zoning according to
altitude, culminating
in high moorland,
mountain grassland,
scrub, alpine flora,
plantless ice-cap and
snowfield

TOPIC-VI
BIOMES
Principal terrestrial vegetation types into
which the world is divided have come to be known as
biomes.
If individual ecosystems are the species of ecol-
ogy, then biomes are the phyla or divisions. No two tax-
onomists seem to agree on a system of classification, so it
is hardly surprising that a definitive list of biomes cannot
be produced.
Biomes provide a convenient shorthand for describ-
ing the worlds flora and fauna. Traditionally biomes have
been defined mainly in terms of their vegetation.
Whittaker (1975) provides a comprehensive list of
the worlds biomes and we will follow his approach.
Tropical rainforest
They are found in South and Central America, West
and Equatorial Africa. South-east Asia, Indonesia and
North-east Australia continual combination of warmth and
moisture allows continuous plant growth to occur.
It has been said that if all the soil invertebrates found
in a cubic metre of tropical rainforest soil are collected,
there will probably be at least one species there which has
never been named or described by scientists. Certainly
there is no doubt that tropical rainforests contain the great-
est diversity of life of any of the worlds biomes.
Undisturbed tropical rainforest is not impenetrable.
This is because so little light is able to get through to the
forest floor that relatively few plants can grow there. It is
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009
up in the canopy, some 30-50m high, that most photosyn-
thesis occurs.
Many trees in the canopy are covered by epiphytes
plants. Nutrient cycling within the canopy is probably
important and many trees produce aerial roots which ab-
sorb nutrients just as roots in soil do. Much of the animal
life too is confined for most of the time to the canopy.
Fruits are found throughout the year and specialized fruit-
eaters have evolved among the insects, the birds and the
primates.
Other animals concentrate on leaves. All species of
sloth (Choloepus and Bradypus), for instance, have ex-
tremely large multi-compartmented stomachs which hold
cellulose-digesting bacteria. A full stomach may account
for 30% of the body weight of a sloth, and meals may be
digested there for more than a month before passing into
the relatively short intestine (Dickman, 1985). Some of the
adaptations shown by sloths to this indigestible diet are
remark able. Their body temperature is low, about 30-340C,
and variable, falling at night, during wet weather and when
the animals are inactive. This helps conserve energy. Cam-
ouflage, provided by two species of cyanobacteria which
live in their fur and turn it green, helps reduce predation.
Sloths are the most abundant large mammals in tropical
South American forest.
[ 28 ]
 THE WORLDS TERRESTRIAL BIOMES
Elfinwoods
Elfinwoods resemble tropical rainforests in minia-
ture. They get their name from elves. The mythical little
people recorded in many European fairy stories.
Elfinwoods occur high up on tropical mountains in Af-
rica, South America and New Guinea. Here it is cold, but
the climate is non seasonal. The cold leads the trees to be
small and stunted, with contorted branches and a low
canopy of broad evergreen leaves (Whittaker, 1975). The
branches are covered with curtains of
lichens, mosses and filmy ferns (Walter, 1979). These epi-
phytes occur because the relative humidity is
typically very high and elfinwoods are sometimes
called cloud forests.
Tropical seasonal forest
Tropical seasonal forests occur in humid tropical
climates with a clear dry season during which trees may
lose their leaves. They are found in India, South-east Asia,
West and East Africa, South and Central America, the West
Indies and Northern Australia (Whittaker, 1975). It is their
seasonality that probably accounts for their being less
diverse the rainforests. Tropical seasonal forests are of-
ten found where monsoons occur as these provide sea-
sonal rain.
Tropical broad-leaved woodland
Tropical broad-leaved woodlands contain small
trees and replace tropical seasonal forests when the cli-
mate gets drier and the soils poorer. The canopy is typi-
cally only 310m high and consists of trees or shrubs
with twisted branches and thick, fire-adapted bark
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009
(Whittaker, 1975). Tropical broad-leaved woodland occurs
in northern South America, the West Indies, southern Af-
rica and Burma.
Thornwood
Thornwoods occur in the same part of the world as
tropical broad-leaved woodlands and in other parts of Asia
and in Madagascar. The climate, though, is more arid. The
name of the biome comes from the presence of spiny spe-
cies of trees in the genus Acacia and in other genera of
the pea family.
Temperate rainforest
Temperate rainforests occur along the Pacific Coast
of North America and in New Zealand, Australia and Chile.
There climate is cool and maritime, lacking great variation
in temperature and with abundant summer rain and much
cloudiness and fog. In common with tropical rainforest,
they have rain throughout the year, though at some times
of the year the rain is condensed fog. This fog comes
from moisture brought in by winds from the sea.
The trees in temperate rainforest are the tallest in
the world. In Australia, the dominant tree of these
forests is the mountain ash (Eucalyptus regnans)
which can grow to over 90m in height (Bergamini, 1965). In
North America, the dominant tree is the
redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) which may reach 100m.
The New Zealand forests include trees in the genus
Podocarpus.
Temperate deciduous forest
Temperate deciduous forests grow in continental
climates with summer rainfall and severe winters. They are
[ 29 ]
dominated by broad-leaved deciduous trees and are found
in Europe. In Asia and the Americas Oak woodlands oc-
cur in temperate climates in the northern hemisphere. They
experience a high degree of seasonality from cold, sub-
zero winters with frost and snow, to warm mild summers
which are often wet, but which may include drought for
several weeks at a time. Trees are the dominant life form
and the most abundant species are the oaks.
The vegetation structure of oak woodland takes the
form of canopy of tall trees, about 12-20m high, with a
lower layer or understorey of bushes and a herb ground
flora. Associated with this is a diversity of woodland birds
and small mammals and a variety of insects. The commu-
nity has a fairly high diversity.
Temperate evergreen forest
Temperate evergreen forests occur in variety of cli-
mates. Those in California, the Mediterranean and South-
ern Australia are dominated by trees with tough, ever-
green and broad, but relatively small, leaves. North of
California in Western USA, conifers predominate, includ-
ing Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and sitka spruce
(Picea sitchensis). In New Zealand, various trees are
found including southern beech (Nothofagus), which is
also found in the temperate evergreen forests of Chile.
The New Zealand forests include some remarkable
birds. Perhaps the most unusual is the flightless kiwi (Ap-
teryx). New Zealand has no native mammalian ground
predators and so many of the indigenous birds have lost
the ability to fly. Although kiwis have poor eyesight and
cannot fly, their sense of smell is excellent and they use
this to hunt out worms on which they feed. Also in New
Zealand is the kakapo (Strigops habroptilus), a very rare
bird that is almost unable to fly. It was long feared extinct,
but a few are known to survive, feeding on leaves, young
shoots, berries and moss. A third unusual bird of these
New Zealand forests is the kea (Nestor notabilis). This is
one of the few New Zealand species to have benefited
from introduced species. Previously vegetarian, the kea
has learned to attack sheep and is now the worlds only
carnivorous parrot.
Across much of Europe, a form of temperate ever-
green forest is found on mountains where the growing
season is too short for deciduous trees. The trees include
silver fir (Abies abies), Norway spruce (Picea abies) and
several species of pine (Pinus). The forest has the struc-
ture of the mountain form of the boreal forest Mammals
include the herbivorous red squirrel and chamois and the
carnivorous pine martin and lynx Among the birds are the
nutcracker and crested tit.
Temperate woodland
Temperate woodland occurs when the climate is too
dry for true forest. It is dominated by small tress, but these
often provide only an incomplete and open canopy, so
that the appearance may be of grassland with occasional
scattered trees. Temperate woodland therefore lies on a
continuum between forest and shrubland, grassland and
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009
semi-desert. An example of temperate woodland is pygmy
conifer woodland in the western United Stated. Here, open
woodland dominated by pine and junipers is found with
shrubs and grass beneath.
Temperate shrubland
Around the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, the
annual rainfall is between about 300 and 800mm, and dur-
ing the summer there is usually no rain for about four
months. In these months the means temperature is 20-
250C. In the coldest months the mean temperature is about
100C and frosts are only sporadic (Friday & Ingram, 1985;
Walter, 1979). Very similar climates occur in southern Cali-
fornia, parts of Chile, the Cape of Good Hope in southern
Africa and South-western Australia.
The shrubs are between 1 and 5m high, and have
small thick drought-resistant leaves. Mediterranean
maquis and Californian chaparral are among the best
known examples of this biome. Heathland is also
included in this classification, although it can only just be
classified as shrubland. All of these types of shrubland
are greatly affected by fire. These fires burn off the above-
ground stems. Re-growth then occurs from root systems
that survive the fire and from
buried seeds.
However, if fires occur too often, those species
which rely on regeneration from seed, rather than on re-
growth from roots, are eliminated and the composition of
the vegetation changes. If fires occur much less often
than once every 12 years, fire-intolerant species such as
Prunus ilicifolia and Rhamnus crocea invade.
Heathland occurs in Ireland, Scotland, England,
Denmark and parts of northern Germany and southern
Sweden (Friday & Ingram, 1985). The vegetation is domi-
nated by low shrubs in the heather family (Ericaceae).
These heaths generally occur on very poor and shallow
sandy podzols. The origins of heathland have been widely
debated. One theory is that they are derived from forest
by razing and burning. Another theory is that they have
never been forest; rather, they represent a sub-climax
community.
Throughout much of Europe, heathland is being
destroyed for conifer plantations, agricultural reclamation
and housing developments.
Boreal forest
Boreal forest is also known as taiga. It extends from
north-eastern Europe across Russia to the Pacific Ocean,
and right across North America from Alaska to New-
foundland. To the north it merges into tundra; to the south
it grades into deciduous forest or grassland.
Permafrost is widespread, so that the deeper layers
of the soil remain frozen all year round, and for much of
the year snow lies on the ground.
The vegetation of the boreal forest is dominated by
coniferous trees. With the exception of the larches these
are evergreen. The important genera are pines spruces
firs and larches. Some broad-leaved species also occur,
[ 30 ]
notably poplars and birches. The ground flora includes
some exquisite and delicate flowering plants such as twin
flower, one-flowered wintergreen and creeping ladys
tresses.
With its harsh winters, the taiga poses severe prob-
lems for the animals founds in it. Some of the birds and
mammals migrate, some remain active during the long dark
winter and some of the mammals hibernate. Most of the
invertebrates survive as resting stages, typically eggs or
pupae.
Many of the animals in the taiga have evolved spe-
cific adaptations to the conifers. The conifers produce
large numbers of seeds. The crossbills, are particularly
interesting because their mandibles, which cross at the
tips, enable them to get at the seeds before the cones
open.
Savannah
Savannahs are tropical grasslands, often with scat-
tered trees. They are most extensive in Africa, but are also
found in Australia, South America and southern Asia.
Savannah is subject to fire. Fires may result from light-
ning or be started by humans. Savannah trees have thick
bark which insulates the living cambium from the heat of
the fire.
The savannah or grassland of East Africa is famed
for its abundance of wildlife. Enormous numbers of large
herbivores and carnivores still roam East Africa. More is
known about the natural behavior of the animals and their
ecology in the Serengeti of northern Tanzania and south-
ern Kenya than about any other region in the world.
The Serengeti still has vast herds of wild beast.
These move around, following the same path that the rain
does as they seek the best grass on which to feed. These
herbivores support large numbers of mammalian carnivores
including spotted hyena, lion, leopard, cheetah, African
wild dog.
Temperate grassland
Temperate grasslands are found across large areas
of eastern Europe and Asia (steppe), central North America
(prairie) and Argentina (pampas). The climate is moder-
ately dry (between 200 and 750mm of rain each year) and
continental, so the summers are hot and the winters cold.
The flora of these temperate grasslands is dominated by
perennial grasses. Associated with the grasses are broad-
leaved perennials. The smaller broad-leaved plants flower
early in the growing season, before the grasses reach their
maximum height; the larger broad-leaved plants flower
towards the end of the growing season, after the grasses
have begun to die down.
The soils are chernozems and nowadays most of
the steppe has been devoted to the production of wheat.
Once the huge areas of wild grassland supported great
herds of Przewalskis horse. Przewalskis horse is now
possibly extinct in the wild. It is a possible ancestor of the
domestic horse which was first domesticated on the steppe
about 6000 years ago.
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009
There are not very many species of birds on the
steppe, probably because of the uniformity of the vegeta-
tion structure. Even some of the eagles are forced to nest
on the ground, given the absence of trees or cliffs. Nor is
the steppe ideal for amphibians or reptiles. The few am-
phibians found are burrowers. While the short growing
season gives little time for eggs to hatch and develop to
adulthood.
Alpine shrubland
Alpine shrublands are sometimes found above the
treeline on mountains. They occur in South America, Af-
rica, the Himalayas and New Zealand. On mountains in
Africa, a characteristic vegetation is found in these cir-
cumstances dominated by large sparsely branched rosette
plants which may be 5-8m in height. The genera
dendrosenecio and Lobelia are most prominent.
Alpine grassland
The climate high up a mountain might be thought
similar to the climate near the poles. However, day length
remains constant up a mountain, while it changes as you
approach the poles. Further, mountains often receive more
rain and snow than regions near the poles. The thin atmo-
sphere lets through more ultraviolet
radiation, and diurnal changes in temperature may be ex-
treme. The soils may be very thin and large amounts of
loose rock are often present. Theses differences
combine to ensure that mountain vegetation differs
significantly from the vegetation of the tundra.
Small alpine plants are often much loved by
gardeners. They tend to grow slowly and have
beautiful delicate brightly colored flowers. Well known
genera include Pulsatilla, Hepatica, Saxifraga, Primula,
Androsace, Gentiana, Campanula, Fritillaria and Cro-
cus
The alpine marmot throughout the Alps of
central Europe and is well adapted to life in the moun-
tains. Marmots hibernate at least half the year. During
hibernation, their heartbeats slow down and their body
temperature falls to between 4 and 80C. This helps the
marmots to conserve energy. During the few months of
the year when they are active they seem to spend much of
their time standing on their hind legs checking whether
there are any predators in the vicinity.
Tundra
Huge areas of northern Asia and northern Canada
are covered with low treeless vegetation known as tun-
dra. The growing season is too short, the winters too cold
and dry, and the soil too unstable to support trees. Pri-
mary production is low, as might be expected. The soils
are poor and the annual freezing and thawing gradually
turns the soil over and sorts the soil particles out by size.
On flat ground the result is often a characteristic polygo-
nal pattern which results from the larger stones being
forced to the surface.
The growing season is so short that few plants in
the tundra are annuals. Sedges, lichens and dwarf
[ 31 ]
willows are found. When the short growing season does
arrive, plant growth and flowering may be spectacular with
enormous areas bathed in colour. Tremendous numbers
of insects suddenly appear and for a few weeks produc-
tivity is high before winter sets in again for most of the
year.
Warm semi-desert scrub
Warm semi-desert scrubs occur throughout the
world in dry warm-temperate and subtropical climates. The
vegetation is characterized by scattered bushes, while the
fauna is often rich in small mammals, birds, lizards and
snakes.
Cool semi-desert
Cool semi-deserts are found in parts of North
America, central Asia and Iran, Australia, Patagonia and
the Andes. The vegetation often contains scrub and is
found in places too dry for grassland.
Arctic-alpine semi-desert
Arctic-alpine semi-deserts are found in arid
regions either in the arctic or on mountains above the
tree-line. The vegetation usually consists of low
cushion plants.
Desert
Deserts are throughout the world, mostly in the sub-
tropical zone between 15 and 400 north and south of the
equator. Among the great deserts of the world are the
Namib and Kalahari deserts in the south of
Africa, the Sahara in the north, the Arabian desert, the
Gobi to the north of the Himalayas and, perhaps the driest
of them all, the coastal Atacama desert of
Peru and Chile,
Deserts usually receive less than 50mm of rain a
year. Not only that, but the rain is unpredictable. For most
desert organisms, the key to survival is being able to make
use of the occasional heavy rainfalls. There are two ex-
treme strategies open to plants. One is to survive as an
ephemeral. Some of these ephemerals can complete their
entire life cycle in a few weeks. They can take advantage
of sudden rains by germinating, growing, flowering and
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009
seeding within the space of just 20-30 days. Other plants
survive as perennials. Geophytes effectively avoid peri-
ods of drought by surviving as underground bulbs or
corms. Above-ground parts are produced only after heavy
rain. Succulents, though, such as the cacti of America and
the euphorbia of Africa, have adaptations which enable
them to survive above ground throughout the year. Suc-
culents typically have thick cuticles, a very low surface
area to volume ratio and sunken stomata which only open
at night so as to minimize transpiration losses.
Animals in deserts face a formidable array of prob-
lems. Water is obviously scarce, but so is food. It may be
very hot during the day, but cold at night. Sand makes
locomotion difficult and there may be occasional blinding
sandstorms. A wide variety of mechanisms have evolved
to deal with these problems.
Camels can tolerate a 30% loss of their total
water content. Most mammals die if 14% of their
water is lost. Even when severely dehydrated,
camels continue to eat at almost their normal rate.
In most other mammals, food is refused once the
animal becomes dehydrated. Recovery from dehydration
is spectacular. Camels can drink 20% of their body weight
in ten minutes! When a camel becomes short of water, its
temperature fluctuates more than is
otherwise the case. The thick fur of camel insulates its
body from the sun.
Arctic-alpine desert
Greenland, Antarctica and mountains well
above the tree line support almost no plant life. The envi-
ronment is dominated by rock, ice and snow.
Arctic-alpine desert is the home for just a few wonderfully
adapted animals. The Arctic is home to the polar bear
(Thalarcos maritimus), while in Antarctica the emperor
penguin (Aptenodytes forsteri) breeds in
midwinter when it is appallingly cold and there is
darkness 24 hours a day.
[ 32 ]
 TOPIC-VII
HUMAN IMPACT ON THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT
Man acts as the dominant force in many of the Earths
physical and biological systems. Man has become capable
of altering his physical environment to suit himself. Al-
though the object of these alterations was to improve his
living conditions, in some cases they have created major
long-term problems, and in still others they have been
catastrophic, both for the natural environment and him-
self.
Many apparently natural systems are in fact control
systems in which man acts as a regulator either consciously
or inadvertently. At best, except for large-scale weather
phenomena, natural systems are mostly modified systems.
Modification of Landforms
Mining and quarrying, deforestation, the introduc-
tion of exotic plants and animals, the use of agricultural
machinery, the building and use of tracks and roads, and
the overgrazing of pasture, have all, singly and in combi-
nation, profoundly altered landforms and caused acceler-
ated erosion and deposition to occur.
Direct Alteration of Landforms
By excavating and pilling up earth, reclaiming land
from the sea and causing subsidence through mining;
these activities have greatly increased since the Indus-
trial Revolution. Land scarification is sometimes used as a
general term for disturbances created by the extraction of min-
eral resources; open-pit mines, quarries, sand and gravel
pits are among the forms of scarification. Strip-mining is
one of the most devastating examples of landform alteration
of this kind. The effects of subsidence are common in most of
the older coal-mining areas of Britain. Switchback roads,
perched canals, fractured buildings and flooded depres-
sions or flashes are all visible manifestation of recent
changes in the surface form of the ground.
Heaps form mining and quarrying. Many of these
features are geomorphologically unstable, allowing vari-
ous forms of mass movement to generate. In 1966 at
Aberfan in Wales, a major disaster occurred on a spring-
saturated coal waste heap which moved as an earthflow.
Indirect Effects: Slopes and Rivers
Most important of all mans effects on landforms
are those connected with his interference with the natural
vegetation. There is a close relationship between the
amount of vegetation cover and erosion rates on hillslopes,
and hence with the amount of sediment in streams. A stable
vegetation cover acts as an effective regulator of natural
erosion, protecting the ground from direct raindrop im-
pact, absorbing some of the run-off, and making the slope
more cohesive. With the removal of the vegetation, the
surface loses its plant litter, causing a loss of soil struc-
ture, cohesion and porosity. Overgrazing has similar ef-
fects, and the introduction of animal pests such as the
rabbit into Australia has also had a detrimental effect on
slope stability.
Multiple shoe-string rills and gullies on hillsides are
often a typical manifestation of mans indirect effect on
slopes. Semi-arid regions are susceptible to tropical down
pours. High rates of hillslope erosion by overland flow
are a natural state in some localities, creating badlands as
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in South Dakota where much of the area is underlain by
almost impervious clay formation. But badlands can be
artificially produced where accelerated erosion proceeds
unchecked e.g. Southern Appalachians in the United
States.
The alteration of infiltration and run off on slopes
by modifying the vegetation inevitably has profound ef-
fect on adjacent rivers in at least two respects: by increas-
ing both the discharge and also the sediment supply. There
seems little doubt that many of the floods in mid-latitude
rivers would not occur if the vegetation in the drainage
basin were in its natural state.
Another way in which discharge levels may be af-
fected in similar fashion is through urbanization; the
ground surface is rendered impervious by buildings, paths
and roads, and precipitation is channeled directly to riv-
ers through drains and sewers. Damage to river banks,
properties and farmland cultivation has greatly increased
the sediment load of rivers of south-east, Asia, Europe
and North America. The effect of this increase is of con-
siderable importance in the construction of dams and ca-
nals; in severe cases, large amounts of sediment supply
may also cause valley aggradation, destroying produc-
tive land capacity.
Wind Deflation
Dustbowl in the Great Plains region of America in
the 1930 is a well-known example of man-induced land
erosion. The area was former grassland underlain by rich
brown and chestnut soils, but both overgrazing and
ploughing contributed to the catastrophe which caused
the widespread abandonment of farms.
In the marginal areas around todays hot deserts,
such as the Thar desert of Pakistan and India, and the
Egyptian desert, a great deal of deflation is initiated by
grazing animals. In Britain, coastal dunes are highly sus-
ceptible to deflation when interfered with by man. Con-
stant trampling or vehicular traffic quickly destroys the
protective grass vegetation, initiating blowouts or land-
ward migration of the dunes.
Coastal Erosion and Deposition
Man has had some effect on coastal erosion and
deposition at the shoreline by building various structures
and by removing beach material for ballast or construc-
tion. Urbanization of many coastal areas in Britain has
often paid little attention to local erosion factors, and one
can find many examples where even a few yards of ero-
sion by the sea may spell disaster for a heavily built-up
area. Hence various engineering structures such as
groynes, breakwaters and seawalls have had to be built to
check marine erosion. However, these are not only ex-
tremely expensive to build and maintain, but often defeat
the object of the exercise, since by checking erosion in
one place they may lead to its increase elsewhere. Pre-
venting the longshore movement of the shingle, may starve
the shore on the downdrift side of the groyne of its sup-
ply of beach material, leading to a narrowing of the beach
and an increase in direct wave attack on the cliff behind.
[ 33 ]
Modification of the Atmosphere
Global heat balance has changed over the last few
decades. It is certainly evident that pollution has marked
local effects on the atmosphere. Atmospheric changes
induced by man may be grouped into three categories:
the introduction of solids and gases not normally found
in the atmosphere; changes in the proportions of the natu-
ral component gases of the atmosphere; and alterations
of the Earths surface in such a way as to affect the atmo-
sphere. A fourth type of impact is the planned weather
modification.
Pollutants in the Atmosphere
Pollutants include particulate matter, both solid, and
liquid particles, and gaseous substances such as sulphur
dioxide (SO2), oxides of nitrogen (NO, NO2, NO3), carbon
monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbon compounds.
Isolated industrial activities frequently create a foot-
print of atmospheric pollution in areas of countryside
downwind from the industrial site. Mining and quarrying
activities also send large amounts of mineral dust into the
air. Even man-induced forest and grass fires as well as
bonfires, can greatly add to particulate pollutants at cer-
tain times of year.
Atmospheric pollutants are conducted upward from
the emission sources by rising air currents as part of the
normal convective processes. Larger particles settle un-
der gravity and return to the ground as fallout. Smaller
suspended particles are brought to the Earth by precipita-
tion as washout.
Pollutants are also eliminated from the air over their
source areas by winds which disperse the particles into
large volumes of clean air in the downwind direction. The
passage of a cold front accompanied by strong winds is
usually very effective in sweeping away pollutants from
an urban area, but during stagnant anticyclonic condi-
tions concentrations may rise to high values, sometimes
producing smog.
The primary pollutants undergo a number of chemi-
cal reactions, generating a secondary group of pollutants.
(SO2) combines with oxygen and suspended water drop-
lets to produce sulphuric acid. This acid is harmful to
organic tissues and is also very corrosive. Photochemical
reactions are brought about by the action of sunlight: for
example, sunlight acting on nitrogen oxides and organic
compounds produces ozone (O3). Another toxic chemical
produced by photochemical action is ethylene.
Many pollutants are irritant to the eyes and danger-
ous to the respiratory system. Ozone in urban smog has a
severe effect on plant tissues; atmospheric sulphuric acid
has wiped out Echen growth in many urban areas of Brit-
ain. Lead and other toxic metal particles are a particular
cause of concern for human health. Limestone structures
suffer greatly in certain British cities.
Mans contribution to atmospheric particles may
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009
have far-reaching effects on tropospheric processesfor
example, on the rain-making mechanismbut perhaps little
effect on processes in the stratosphere.
Changes in Atmospheric Gas Levels
Carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxygen (O2) are the most
critical from an environmental viewpoint, for both are in-
extricably involved in the biochemical cycles between at-
mosphere and the surface of the Earth. Although nitrogen
comprises four fifths of the atmosphere, its inert chemical
nature relegates it to a minor role in this respect. Oxygen
and carbon dioxide are naturally added to the atmosphere
by outgassing from the Earths interior. The work of plants
has been essential in removing carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere and storing it as coal and other fossil organic
substances.
Large-scale combustion of hydrocarbon fuels re-
quires a large quantity of oxygen to be withdrawn from
the atmosphere and converted into carbon dioxide and
water vapor. Thus, lowering the oxygen content of the
atmosphere to levels which might have a detrimental ef-
fect on animal life.
Changes in water vapor levels brought about by
man through combustion and alteration to the vegetation
cover could in theory markedly affect global radiation and
heat balances emission of water vapor and various other
substances by jet aircraft. These emissions occur in the
stratosphere, where the water vapor content is normally
very small. The condensation trails (contrails) of aircraft
can often be observed to spread laterally and develop
into cirrus clouds. These clouds are highly reflective and
can have an effect on the Earths albedo.
Alterations to the Earths Surface
Meteorological processes close to the ground are
extremely sensitive to the character of the Earths surface
and mans alteration of this through deforestation, agri-
cultural practice and urbanization has had several impor-
tant effects. Closely built urban areas develop their own
heat island on calm nights in summer. Equally impressive
are the changes in the heat budget brought about when
an irrigated area is created in an arid region. The albedo of
a light-colored desert area is about 25-30 per cent; there is
very little water for evaporation so that all the incoming
radiation is available for the direct heating of the air. With
irrigation, the albedo drops to 10-15 per cent, and the in-
coming energy is used up almost entirely in evaporating
water. Thus direct heating of the air above the irrigated
area is very slight, and day-time temperatures become mark-
edly lower than in the surrounding desert.
Trees and hedges effectively break the wind, caus-
ing a simultaneous diminution in evaporation and in the
carbon dioxide exchange close to the ground. Garden walls
or thick tree belts may so effectively still the air immedi-
ately to leeward as to cause frost pockets on cold nights.
[ 34 ]
 TOPIC-VIII
MODIFICATION OF ECOSYSTEMS
Simplified ecosystems disrupt nutrient cycling, in-
troduce alien species and eliminates others and cause pol-
lution.
Simplification
This comes about because mans prime concern is
to direct energy and material cycling in the system to-
wards himself, so that he can easily crop them. Species
other than the ones he wants to crop are regarded as weeds
or pests, and the attempts to eliminate them. Hence, re-
duction in species diversity, often to a single species popu-
lation, is a notable characteristic of mans impact on eco-
systems. Food webs are also made much simpler in this
process.
Primitive shifting agriculture in tropical rainforests
represent only a temporary simplification and cropping of
the natural system as grazing economies exhibit a much
greater degree of ecosystem simplification. Selective graz-
ing by the domesticated species leads to the eradication
of the most palatable plant species, allowing tougher
grasses or xerophytic plants to predominate, thus simpli-
fying and downgrading the pasture. Modern arable farm-
ing represents perhaps the most extreme form of simplifi-
cation, producing a highly artificial type of ecosystem.
A single species population offers great opportu-
nity for the development and spread of disease, pests and
parasites. The potential for survival in ecosystems is much
enhanced in multi-species population; the greater the spe-
cies diversity in any assemblage, the better the chance
will be of balance interrelationship between organisms.
Man-created monocultures are thus ecologically unstable;
loss of soil fertility quickly sets in, with all the dangers of
soil erosion. Intensively managed monocultures can be
very high-yielding, but only at the expense in the long run
of drawing on energy supplies from non-renewable
sources, the fossil fuels.
Eutrophication
Ecosystems cannot operate without efficient nutri-
ent cycling. A major consequence of mans simplification
of ecosystems is that he inevitably destroys major nutri-
ent reservoirs, notably the natural vegetation and the soil
system.
When chemical fertilizers are applied to the land,
many of the elements contained in them are retained by
the soil, adding to the clay-humus complex. However, cer-
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009
tain ions are not retained, and among them is nitrate, an
important constituent of most fertilizers. Nitrate is being
added to the soil from fertilizers and nitrogen-fixing plants
at a much faster rate than it can be broken down by deni-
trifying agents in the soil. Being soluble, it is rapidly
leached out into rivers and lakes. Here, the increased ni-
trogen input permits the accelerated growth of plants, al-
gae and other phytoplankton: this chemical enrichment
resulting in increased productivity is called eutrophica-
tion. Unfortunately, in extreme form the outcome is ulti-
mately harmful since the plants and organisms die and
decompose at such a rapid rate that oxygen levels fall
until aquatic life becomes impossible. A severe example of
eutrophication has occurred in recent years in Lake Erie,
North America, where deep layers of decaying organic
matter have covered large stretches of the shoreline. Simi-
lar problems of eutrophication arise with the phosphates
contained in detergents, fertilizes, and normal sewage ef-
fluent.
Effect on Individual Species
The extinction or reduction in numbers of plant and
animal populations is a well-known consequence of mans
impact on the environment. Often the species become
endangered not so much by hunting or conscious elimi-
nation, but by the disruption and fragmentation of habi-
tats. Large predators require an extensive area of special-
ized habitat in which to breed and hunt. The accidental or
purposeful introduction of alien species into ecosystems
has caused disruptions. Some animals and plants, because
of their greater genetic adaptability and high reproduc-
tive rates have often made places for themselves at the
expense of native species.
Under natural conditions, ecosystems have been in
a state of ecological equilibrium. With the increasing im-
pact of man, their essential characteristics are altered, so
that now signs of severe imbalance or a declining effi-
ciency are beginning to be observed in
many of them. This is shown, for example, by the progres-
sive devastation of formerly good fertile
agricultural or grazing land through over-intensive
use; in the reduction of species when secondary forest
replaces primary forest; in a general loss of
biological productivity; and in an increasing amount of
pollution.
[ 35 ]
 TOPIC-IX
ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION
Environment in general refers to the surroundings
but in geographical perspective environment includes
abiotic or physical and biotic components of the life sup-
porting layer- the BIOSPHERE.
Natural environmental system has inbuilt self regu-
lating mechanism known as HOMEOSTATIC MECHA-
NISM through which any change in he natural ecosys-
tem/environmental system is counterbalanced by re-
sponses of the system to the change and ultimately eco-
system stability or environmental equilibrium is restored. Any
change in the environment brought by the natural pro-
cesses is suitably compensated by changes in other com-
ponents of the environment. Thus, there is reciprocal re-
lationship between various components of the environ-
ment. The physical processes create suitable habitats for
biological communities on the one hand; biological com-
munities (mostly man) modify the environment on the other
hand.
ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION refers to the
deterioration in its physical component brought in by the
biological processes mainly by human activities to such
an extent that it cannot be set right by the self regulatory
mechanism or homeostatic mechanism of the environment.
Environmental degradation simply means overall
lowering of environmental qualities because of adverse
changes brought in by human activities in the basic struc-
ture of the components of the environment to such an
extent that these adverse changes adversely affect all bio-
logical communities in general and human society in par-
ticular. Environmental degradation leaves direct impact
on the ecology and thus is caused ecological imbalance
because of marked reduction in the ecosystem and eco-
logical diversity. In fact, ecological imbalance is the indi-
cator of environmental degradation because it becomes
difficult to perceive environmental degradation directly in
TOPIC-X
DEFORESTATION
Forests are main component of the biotic compo-
nents of the natural environmental system and the stabil-
ity of the environment and ecosystem/ecological balance
largely depend on the status of the forests of the region
concerned.
According to the report of the Forest Survey of In-
dia, the total forested cover is only 20-24 per cent of the
total geographical area of India but this claim has been
refuted by several sources based on satellite imageries
and only 13 per cent of the total geographical area of the
country has been reported under different categories of
forest covers. If we believe the report of the Forest Sur-
vey of India as stated above, 7,00,000 km2 or 70 million
hectares of land should be afforested so as to put 33 per-
cent of the total geographical area of the country under
forest cover as per requirement of the ecological prin-
ciple.
(i) CONVERSION OF FOREST LAND INTO AGRI-
CULTURAL LAND -Rich and extensive grasslands of Rus-
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the initial stages.
To most of the people environmental degradation
and pollution are synonym, as both are concerned with
the lowering of the quality of the environment. But a dis-
tinction between these two aspects of the lowering and
deterioration of the quality of the environment may be
drawn on the basis of causative factors and scale of dete-
rioration of environmental quality in terms of magnitude/
intensity and covered area. Broadly, environmental pollu-
tion means lowering of the quality of environment at local
scale caused exclusively by human activities whereas
environmental degradation means lowering of environ-
mental quality at local,
regional and global scales by both NATURAL
PROCESSES and HUMAN ACTIVITIES.
1. EXTREME EVENTS AND HAZARDS
(A) Terrestrial Natural Hazards
(B) Atmospheric Natural Hazards
(a) Atmospheric disturbances such as tropical cy-
clones (e.g. typhoons, tornadoes, hurricanes etc.), (b) at-
mospheric lightning, (c) forest fires.
(C) Cumulative Atmospheric Hazards
(a) Floods, (b) droughts.
2. MAN INDUCED HAZARDS
(A) Physical Man-induced Hazards
Large-scale landslides, deliberate forest fires etc.
(B) Chemical and Nuclear Hazards
a. Release of toxic elements
b. outburst of lethal gases from
c. nuclear explosions etc.
(C) Biological Hazards Induced by Man
Increase or decrease of population of species in a
given habitat.
sian steppes, American prairies, South American pam-
pas, South African Velds and New Zealandean Downs
have been extensively converted into agricultural farms
and these areas have now become major granaries of the
world.
(ii) SHIFTING OR JHUMING CULTIVATION is ma-
jor cause of forest loss in the hilly and mountainous areas
of south and south east Asia.
(iii) TRANSFORMATION OF FORESTS INTO PAS-
TURES
Especially in Mediterranean and temperate areas,
mainly in North America, South America and Africa.
(iv) OVERGAZING of forests of moderate cover by
animals mainly in the tropical and subtropical and arid
and semi-arid areas has resulted into large-scale degrada-
tion of natural vegetation if not the complete destruction
of forests.
The Savanna grasslands have been completely de-
stroyed partly by conversion of grasslands into agricul-
[ 36 ]
tural farms by man partly by overgrazing.
(v) FOREST FIRES whether natural or manmade are
effective destroyers of forest covers.
(vi) LUMBERING for domestic and commercial pur-
poses is the real cause of large-scale destruction of forest
covers.
(vii) MULTI-PURPOSE RIVER PROJECTS require
larger areas to be submerged for the storage of huge vol-
ume of water in the reservoirs constructed behind the
dams. Thus, submergence of forested
riverine areas completely destroys the natural forests.
(viii) BIOLOGICAL FACTORS also help in
destroying the natural vegetations. Application of chemi-
cal fertilizer, pesticides and herbicides in the
agricultural fields nearer to the forests has driven out mi-
cro-organisms such as insects and termites towards the
adjoining forests where these cause serious damages to
the plants.
ADVERSE EFFECTS OF DEFORESTATION
Deforestation gives birth to several problems en-
compassing environmental degradation through acceler-
ated rate of soil erosion, increase in the sediment load of
the rivers, siltation of reservoirs and river beds, increase
in the frequency and dimension of floods and droughts,
changes in the pattern of distribution of precipitation, in-
tensification of greenhouse effects, increase in the de-
structive force of the atmospheric storms etc; economic
loss through damages of agricultural crops due to in-
creased incidence of floods and droughts, decrease in
agricultural production because of loss of fertile top soils,
decrease in the supply of raw materials to the industries
and building materials (timber) to the urban and rural ar-
eas, marked decrease in fodder to animals etc. and social
problems in the form of economic poverty, crimes and in-
creased legal litigation.
As already stated forests are natural umbrella for
ground surface from erosion caused by falling raindrops
and control radiation balance of the earth and the atmo-
sphere by consuming increased amount of carbon dioxide
released from ever increasing human volcanoes (chim-
neys of the factories) and thus prevent the earth from
becoming to hot.
Intercepted rainfall reaches the ground surface
slowly in the form of AERIAL STREAMLETS through
the leaves branches and stems of trees.
Accelerated rate of soil erosion through rainsplash,
rainwash and sheetwash, rill and gully erosion consequent
upon deforestation, increases sediment load of the rivers.
Deforestation also results in the increase of the con-
centration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere because
forests consume carbon dioxide during the process of
photosynthesis for the deforestation atmosphere.
Increased rate of soil erosion caused due to defor-
estation result in colossal loss of fertile top soils and ag-
ricultural land which ultimately causes marked reduction
in agricultural production.
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009
Through deflation and desertification, desert
spreads. The destruction and alteration of habitats due to
deforestation causes ecological imbalance in the region
concerned.
CONSERVATION MEASURES
The protection and conservation of forest resources
are not only desirable but are also necessary for the eco-
nomic development of a nation and maintenance of envi-
ronmental and ecological balance from local through re-
gional to global levels.
Integrated Conservation Research (ICR), an ecologi-
cal group of U.S.A., has launched massive programmes of
forest conservation in collaboration with UNESCOs MAN
AND BIOSPHERE (MAB) programme.
The first and foremost task to conserve forests is to
protect the existing forests from merciless and reckless
cutting of trees by greedy economic man. This task may
be achieved through government legislation and by arous-
ing public interest in the importance of the forest resources.
The National Forest Policy of India has also laid
down certain basic principles for proper management and
conservation of the forest resources of the country such
as (i) classification of forests according to functional as-
pects into protected forests, reserved forests, village for-
ests etc. (ii) expansion in the forest cover by planting
trees in order to ameliorate the
physical and climatic conditions for the welfare of the
people, (iii) provision for ensuring progressive increasing
supplies of fodder for animals and timber for
agricultural implements and firewood to local inhabitants
nearer to the forests, (iv) opposition to reckless extension
of agricultural land at the cost of forest land, (v) extension
of forested area by massive plan of tree plantation on a
large-scale at war-footing so as to bring 33 percent of the
countrys geographical area under forest etc.
Important measure of effective conservation
of natural forest is to adapt scientific and judicious method
of cutting of trees by following selective
approach. Only mature and desired trees should be cut
and unwanted trees of low economic value should be
avoided.
To cover more and more wasteland and already de-
forested land with forests through vigorous planning of
afforestation. Forests should not be replaced by commer-
cially important fruit orchards. For example, cultivation of
apples in many parts of the Himalayas in general and
Himachal Pradesh (India) in particular has done great dam-
age to the original stands of natural forests. Apple culti-
vation causes deforestation in two ways viz. (i) Apple
cultivation requires clearance of land from vegetal cover
and (ii) Huge quantity of wood is required for packing of
apples every years.
The Integrated Conservation Research, an U.S. eco-
logical research group, has suggested elaborate
programmes for the betterment of forests. These
programmes include (i) agroforestry, (ii) ethnobotany and
(iii) natural history-oriented tourism.
[ 37 ]
 TOPIC-XI
POLLUTION
Man causes environmental instability and hence
environmental degradation by (i) destroying completely
or partly, natural vegetation or original species or by re-
placing them by other vegetation or animal species, (ii) by
introducing exotic plants or animals to any area where
such biotic communities were not present previously, (iii)
by altering or modifying one or more components of natu-
ral environment (land use changes, for example), (iv) by
introducing foreign substances through the use of chemi-
cal fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides, (v) by increasing
or decreasing the original proportion of atmospheric gases,
(vi) by manipulating environmental processes (such as
cloud seeding for inducing precipitation, cloud dispersal,
prevention of hailstorms etc.)
J. Poelmans- Kirschen (1974) has recognized the
following reasons for environmental degradation and re-
sultant environmental degradation and resultant environ-
mental crisis
(i) Accelerated growth of production potential
within the last 25years.
(ii) Accelerated rate of scientific and technological
discovery and development.
(iii) Exponential increase in world population.
Environmental degradation and environmental cri-
sis may be ascribed to (i) the exponential growth in human
populations, (ii) accelerated pace of scientific and tech-
nological development. (iii) ambitious developmental
projects aimed at fast economic development, (iv) fast
expanding industries, sprawling urban growth and agri-
cultural development, (v) philosophical and religious out-
look of the society, (vi) cruel behavior of man with the
natural environment, (vii) ignorance and lack of environ-
mental perception and lack of public awareness towards
environmental problems, (viii) poverty, (ix) affluence and
richness, (x) unscientific and illogical exploitation and uti-
lization of natural resources etc.
The teleological/religious approach religious faith
of man being superior to nature and teleological school
emanated from the teachings of Judo-Christian religious
tradition preached that man is superior to all creatures
and every thing is created for his use and enjoyment.
THE ECONOMIC DETERMINISTIC VIEWPOINT
The basic thesis of the growth (affluence) school is
that because economic growth is required for political,
social and economic stability, the quality of environment
normally assumes lower priority in formulating planning
proposals and in long-term planning because the deterio-
ration of the environment is generally protracted and so-
cially less oblique than a deterioration in the economy
(C.C. Park, 1980).
AIR POLLUTION
Air is a mixture of gases and moisture with some
inert materials. Air pollutants are the materials that exist
in such concentrations as to cause unwanted effects. On
ground, air pollution may be described as the imbalance
in the quality of air which causes ill effects. When the rate
of pollution exceeds or when the self-purifying capacity
decreases, accumulation of pollutants causes serious
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009
public health problems. Pollutants can be conveniently
classified into two main groups:
* Gaseous pollutants
* Particulate pollutants
Gaseous Pollutants
These pollutants include substances that are gas-
eous in nature at normal temperature and pressure. Va-
pors of the compounds whose boiling point is below 2000C
care also included in this category. The most important
gaseous pollutants are carbon monoxide, oxides of sul-
phur, hydrogen sulphide, hydrocarbons, oxides of nitro-
gen, ozone and other oxidants. Some primary pollutants
are:
Carbon monoxide
Carbon monoxide is released into the atmosphere
mainly from the automobile exhaust. Next to carbon diox-
ide, carbon monoxide is the most abundant pollutant to
show wide diurnal variations in the urban atmosphere.
Concentrations of carbon monoxide vary depending upon
the density of motor traffic.
Sulphur dioxide
Sulphur dioxide is one of the principal contaminants
of air. It has its origin is the combustion of sulphur-bear-
ing fossil fuels. It is also present in appreciable quantities
in air where coal is used as a fuel, e.g. electric power plants.
Sulphur dioxide is also released from smelter where sul-
phur-bearing ore is roasted, e.g. copper, lead and zinc
smelting industries. Oil refineries, sulphuric acid manu-
facturing industries, fertilizer industries, and paper and
pulp industries emit significant amounts of sulphur diox-
ide. Smelting operations cause heavy damage to agricul-
tural and forest areas. Since sulphur dioxide is readily ab-
sorbed by water surfaces, soil and vegetation; deteriora-
tion and corrosion affect metals, papers, paints, leather,
textiles, cement and other building materials.
Hydrogen sulphide and organic sulphide
Generally, sulphides cause odour nuisances when
present even in very low concentrations. However, they
are not released in appreciable quantities by industrial
operations since the effluents are treated before exposure
to the atmosphere. Natural gas refining, manufacture of
coke, and paper, distillation of tar and petroleum, manu-
facture of viscose rayon and some other chemical pro-
cesses produce hydrogen sulphide and mercaptons. The
effluents from the above processes are burnt or absorbed
in purifiers, hence serious problems do not occur. How-
ever, hydrogen sulphide is reported to have killed many
municipal workers engaged in sewage work.
Hydrogen fluoride
Hydrogen fluoride and other volatile fluorides are
considered serious pollutants even when present in con-
centrations of 0.001 ppm by volume. Fluorides are liber-
ated mainly from aluminium-smelting industries. Manu-
facture of phosphate fertilizers, ceramics and certain
foundry operations contribute to fluorides.
Hydrogen fluoride and silicon tetrafluoride are
toxic for certain plants in concentrations lower than 0.1
parts per billion. This accumulates in leaves of plants and
[ 38 ]
causes animal fluorosis. Leaves and flowers of many plants
are extremely susceptible to fluorides. Hence, this is a
major problem for agricultural units located in the vicinity
of aluminium processing industries. Moreover, fluorides
have the capacity to etch glass and can therefore cause
considerable material destruction.
Oxides of nitrogen
The primary source of oxides of nitrogen is automo-
bile exhaust. This is produced as by-product in some chemi-
cal industries, such as in the manufacture of nitric acid,
sulphuric acid by chamber process, and manufacture of
nylon intermediates. It is reported that the products of
combustion of natural gas contain upto 50 ppm of nitro-
gen. A report by E.L. Hall indicates that internal combus-
tion engines and industrial furnaces may release upto 500
ppm of oxides of nitrogen. The oxides of nitrogen are the
second most abundant atmospheric pollutants and are
extremely dangerous to human health.
Aldehydes and organic acids
These are present in lower concentrations in
the atmosphere. Incomplete combustion of petroleum fu-
els and incomplete oxidation of lubricating oils
form aldehydes and organic acids. Combustion of natural
gas may also lead to formation of these materials.
In contrast to these primary pollutants, there are
secondary pollutants which are formed in the atmosphere.
Evidences and experiments indicate that exhaust gases of
automobiles have particular importance in the formation
of secondary pollutants. For example, nitrogen oxides pro-
duced in the combustion of petroleum and other fuels
emitted in the atmosphere yield ozone in the presence of
sunlight.
The ozone produced reacts with hydrocarbons to
form a series of compounds, such as aldehydes, ketones,
organic acids, acyl nitrates and peroxyl compounds. This
type of photochemical reaction usually occurs in smog.
The word smog denotes a mixture of smoke and fog.
During smog, concentrations of ozone and oxidant mate-
rials are found to be high. According to the Haagen-Smit
theory, ultraviolet rays in the sunlight break the nitrogen
dioxide molecule to form nitric oxide and atomic oxygen.
Theses products react with molecular oxygen to form
ozone.
Particulate Pollutants
Air-borne particulate materials consist of both solid
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and liquid particles. They vary in size, ranging from 0.01
micron to 20 microns. Particles having a diameter of 20
microns are relatively large. Particles with the least diam-
eter are present in aerosols. The particulate pollutants
may be classified according to their nature and size, as
follows:
Dust
Dust is formed by solid particles with their size rang-
ing from 1 micron to 100 microns. However, dust particles
with a size of 0.1 micron are also present in the atmo-
sphere. Dust particles are: (i) entrained by process gases
directly from the materials being handled or processed,
e.g. coal; (ii) the offspring obtained directly from the par-
ent material when it undergoes a mechanical operation,
e.g. sawdust from wood works; and (iii) entrained materi-
als used in mechanical operations, e.g. sand from sand
blasting.
Fume
The size of these particles is less than 1 micron.
Fumes are formed from particles of metals and metallic
oxides by condensation of vapours by sublimation, distil-
lation, calcinations, and by other chemical processes and
chemical reactions.
Mist
Condensation of vapour forms a liquid particle
known as mist which is less than 10 microns in size.
Spray
Liquid particle obtained from the parent liquid by
the mechanical disintegration processes, such as atomi-
zation, is known as spray.
Smoke
This includes solid and liquid particles of size rang-
ing from 0.05 to 1.0 micron and obtained by incomplete
combustion of carbonaceous materials and formed by
destructive distillation. Though gaseous pollutants, such
as hydrocarbons, oxides of sulphur and oxides of nitro-
gen are produced by incomplete combustion, only the
solid and liquid particles are termed as smoke.
Particulate contaminants contain about twenty-two
metallic elements. The most abundant elements are sili-
con, calcium, sodium, aluminium and iron. Considerable
amounts of lead, zinc, copper, magnesium and manganese
are also present.
[ 39 ]
Sources of Pollutants
Man-made sources of pollutants can be classified
into stationary combustion, transportation, industrial pro-
cess and solid waste disposal sources.
Stationary combustion processes yield mainly par-
ticulate pollutants, such as fly ash and smoke, and oxides
of sulphur and nitrogen.
Coal and oil which contain considerable amounts of
sulphur, release appreciable quantities of sulphur dioxide.
High temperature processes such as thermal fixation of
atmospheric nitrogen yield larger quantities of oxides of
nitrogen. Carbon monoxide is also emitted on combus-
tion. However, complete combustion yields only carbon
dioxide and not carbon monoxide. The other contaminants
that are produced by combustion include acids and alde-
hydes.
Automobiles which have internal combustion en-
gines are the primary transportation sources. Smoke is
produced primarily from the incomplete combustion of
carbonaceous materials. Smoke contains gaseous pollut-
ants, like carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons and oxides of
nitrogen.
Industrialization and industrial processes- Cement
industries and steel industries are of immense concern
because of the difficulty in controlling the emission. Solid
waste disposal is major source of air pollution in urban
areas. Backyard burning and open burning of solid wastes
results in emission of smoke and gaseous pollutants, such
as carbon monoxide, etc.
Nuclear materials when released into the air are po-
tentially more hazardous. Nuclear weapon testing, nuclear
reactors, chemical plants, research institutions and hospi-
tals contribute radionuclides like carbon-14, krypton-85,
strontium-90, iodine-131 and caesium-137 which are of
grave concern.
Effects of Air Pollution
The effects of air pollution can be studied under the
following heads:
Effects on human health
Effects on animals
Effects on plants
Effects on materials
Effects on atmosphere
Effects on human health
Air pollution is detrimental to human health. It af-
fects the respiratory system with both gaseous and par-
ticulate pollutants.
Gaseous pollutants: Carbon monoxide is an asphyx-
iant gas and when absorbed into the lungs, it combines
with haemoglobin in the blood to form carboxyl haemo-
globin, thus reducing the haemoglobin available to carry
oxygen to the body.
Persons suffering from diseases associated with the
decreases of oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood, such
as anaemia, may be affected quickly.
Sulphur dioxide is the most serious and widespread
air pollutant. Lower levels of sulphur dioxide concentra-
tion cause temporary spasm of the smooth muscle of the
bronchioles. Higher concentration induces increased mu-
cus production. The cilia which protect the respiratory
system are also affected by sulphur dioxide. It reacts in
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009
the atmosphere to form other undesirable compounds,
such as sulphuric acid. Sulphuric acid droplets attached
to soot particles may pass through the nose and damage
the lungs.
Ozone has been a strong irritant as it reaches the
lungs much faster than the oxides of sulphur. Even very
low concentrations of ozone cause pulmonary oedema and
haemorrhage.
Nitric oxide is a non-irritant gas. Nevertheless, pul-
monary irritant and excess concentration may cause pul-
monary haemorrhage. Organic sulphides are toxic and
posses a strong odour that creates odour problems in the
city.
The aldehydes and acids formed cause irritation to
they eye, nose and throat. Among the aldehydes, formal-
dehyde and acrolein are the most important. Acrolein also
causes irritation to the mucus membrane, leading to
bronchio-constriction.
Hydrocarbons cause lung cancer. Lead emitted from
automobile exhausts is a cumulative poison which is dan-
gerous, particularly to children since it can cause brain
damage.
Lung cancer, bronchitis, emphysema and asthma are
some of the chronic diseases caused due to exposure to
polluted air. Lung cancer is caused mainly due to polluted
air because:
Carcinogens are found in the polluted air.
Lung cancer mortality is higher in urban areas
than in rural.
Compounds extracted from contaminated air pro-
duce cancer in bio-assay animals.
Irritant pollutants affect the protective action of
cilia and mucus flow
Particulate pollutants: Nasal passages prevent
coarser particles larger than 5 microns from entering into
the respiratory system. Particles with a size lesser than 5
microns penetrate and enter the lungs rapidly.
Aerosols of the size of about one micron and less
may reach the alveoli of the lungs. The amount of particu-
late deposition not only depends on the size of particles
but also on there factors, such as the respiratory frequency
and tidal volume. Respiratory frequency denotes breaths
per unit time. Tidal volume is the volume moved in and out
of the lungs with each breath. Higher respiratory frequen-
cies lessen the percentage of deposition and lower fre-
quencies increase the percentage of deposition.
Soluble aerosols are absorbed into the blood from
the alveoli. Insoluble aerosols in the aqueous fluids are
carried to the lymphatic stream to be deposited in pulmo-
nary lymphatic depot points or in the lymph glands.
Lead, the most serious pollutant released from auto-
mobile exhausts, particularly affects childrens brain. It
also interferes with the development and maturation of
red blood cells.
Beryllium in the form of its compounds can cause
berylliosis. It induces pulmonary granulomatous reaction.
Thus beryllium interferes with the diffusion of gases from
the lungs to the blood.
Other particulate pollutants, such as asbestos, silica
and some forms of carbon are capable of exerting a nox-
ious (fibrotic) local action in interstitial areas of the lungs
[ 40 ]
and in the lymphatic tissues.
Radioactive pollutants: Tragic industrial calamity
at Bhopal in December 1984, when the deadly gas (methyl
isocyanate) from the chemical plant operated by Union
Carbide escaped into the atmosphere, three most famous
episodes occurred in the Meuse valley of Belgium in 1930,
in Donora, Pennsylvania in the USA in 1948 and in Lon-
don in 1952.
Effects on animals
Chronic poisoning results from ingestion of forage
previously contaminated with atmospheric pollutants.
Among the metallic contaminants, arsenic, lead and mo-
lybdenum are important. Air contaminated with ozone has
irritant qualities and is responsible for pulmonary changes,
oedema and haemorrhage in dogs and rabbits.
Animals are susceptible to fluorosis though air-
borne fluorides do not attack animals directly. When for-
age crops contaminated by fluoride-containing materials
are eaten continuously by the animals, symptoms of fluo-
rosis appear.
Since fluorine is a protoplasmic poison, it causes
hypoplasia of dental enamel and the intake of higher
amounts of fluorine results in an abnormal growth of bones.
Diarrhea, weight loss, lowered fertility, and reduced milk
production are some of the other effects of fluorides.
Effects on plants
There are three principal pollutants of prime con-
cern in agriculture: sulphur dioxide, fluorine compounds
and smog. Sulphur dioxide gas is absorbed through the
stomata into the esophyll of the leaves. When the ab-
sorption exceeds a particular level, the cells become inac-
tive and are killed, resulting in tissue collapse and drying
of leaves. When only a few cells are injured, that portion
of the leaf becomes brownish red in colour or the original
green colour becomes leached. This effect is known as
chlorosis. Cotton, wheat, barley and apple are some of
the plants most sensitive to sulphur dioxide. In addition
to necrosis (collapse of leaf tissue) and chlorosis, sulphur
dioxide also interferes with the respiration and photosyn-
thesis of plants. The toxicity of sulphur dioxide is attrib-
uted to its reducing properties.
Acute fluoride lesions on plants are caused by the
aerial contamination of fluorides. The lesions are similar
to those caused by sulphur dioxide. Particulate and gas-
eous fluorides accumulate on forage to such an extent as
to build up concentrations in excess of 30 to 50 ppm on
the inside and outside of the leaves. Leaf-fluoride con-
centration of 50 to 200 ppm usually results in injury.
A particular type of injury to maize consists of a
kind of mottled interveinal chlorosis. The leaves of apple,
apricot, fig, peach, prune and members of the Citracea
family are susceptible to injury by air-borne fluorides.
Fluorides seem to interfere with the photosynthesis
and respiration on plants. Exposure to air containing ozone
results in lesions on plants. The lesions, usually confined
to the upper surfaces of the leaves, are characterized by
uniformly distributed white or brown flecks and irregu-
larly distributed blotches. Ozone flecking is observed on
grape, citrus and tobacco plants.
Smog also causes injury to plants. Smog which con-
tains ozone, peroxy acyl nitrates and other photochemical
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009
oxidants is reported to produce early maturity or senes-
cence in plants. A six-hour exposure to PAN (peroxy acyl
nitrates) concentrations as low as 0.01ppm causes inju-
ries to species, such as romain lettuce, pinto bean and
petunia.
Chlorine is about three times as phytotoxic as sul-
phur dioxide. Ammonia has less phytotoxic and causes
injury to tomato when present in amounts above 40ppm.
Hydrogen sulphide is less phytotoxic and causes slight
injuries to radish, tomato, cucumber, soybean, etc. Ethyl-
ene causes epinasty and inhibition of mutation in tomato
and sweet pea.
Effects on materials
Air pollutants also cause damage to property and
materials. The pollutants most destructive to materials are
smoke, grit, dust and oxides of sulphur. Sulphur dioxide is
the most damaging of all gaseous pollutants. It changes
with moisture and air to sulphurous and sulphuric acids
which are more corrosive. Moisture, temperature, sunlight
and air movement influence the attack rate of pollutants.
Moisture is the most important, without which there can-
not be minor corrosion even in the most severely polluted
environments.
Aluminium and aluminium alloys, copper and cop-
per alloys, iron and steel are corroded when exposed to
contaminated air. Hydrogen sulphide reacts with lead paint
to form lead sulphide, thereby producing a brown to black
discoloration. Building materials are corroded and disfig-
ured by polluted air in a number of ways in addition to
normal weathering. Sooty deposits disfigure buildings by
adhesion. During high winds, larger particulates result in
a slow erosion of surfaces. Since the oxides of sulphur
react with limestone to form calcium sulphate, a slow loss
of substance takes place in rain-washed areas and an un-
sightly blistering occurs in more sheltered areas. Though
the damage caused by air pollution to materials is not so
serious, aesthetic considerations make air pollution a nui-
sance.
Effects on atmosphere
Carbon dioxide absorbs heat strongly and the ra-
diative cooling effect of the earth gets decreased. The
present amount of carbon dioxide will be doubled in the
future to result in increase of the earths surface tempera-
ture by about 1.3oC.
In contrast to the rise in temperature produced by
carbon dioxide, dust particles reduce the temperature of
the earths surface. The dust particles released into atmo-
sphere become the nuclei for water vapour to condense
or freeze to form rain. As a result the skies become cloudier.
Moreover, solar radiations are screened directly by dust
particles to enter into the atmosphere. Hence, a relative
decrease in the temperature of the atmosphere results. A
10 per cent increase in atmospheric turbidity causes a
decrease of 0.8 per cent in the total amount of energy
absorbed by the atmospheric system which results in cool-
ing the climate by about 1oC.
Prevention and Control
Pollution could be prevented without undue cost
by careful planning and siting of industries, better design
equipment and better operation of the equipment. There
are three major means of controlling pollution:
[ 41 ]
 * Fuel selection and utilization
* Process changes or equipment
* Site selection and zoning
Fuel selection and utilization: The primary fuels
used are coal sand oil. Smoke, grit and sulphur dioxide are
the major pollutants from the combustion of these fuels.
Though the combustion of both coal and oil can be con-
trolled to prevent smoke, control is generally easier with
oil than with coal. Moreover, the danger of emitting smoke
is greater with smaller installations that with larger ones
when coal is used as fuel. To eliminate these effects, oil
can be used instead of coal. But, the amount of sulphur
dioxide emitted is higher with oil. Hence, substituting coal
with oil is not sufficient to prevent smoke. Further, the
quantity of oil needed will then be greater. Therefore, other
methods have to be adopted.
Modern power stations and industries largely use
coal as fuel. The coal used is varied in composition. The
variable properties include chemical composition, volatile
content and the caking properties. These properties af-
fect the combustion to a considerable extent. In order to
control smoke production, the coal is pulverized and then
used. However, there remains the problem of grit emis-
sion. Irregularities in the fuel bed result in inefficient com-
bustion. Combustion efficiency is increased nowadays
by replacement of hand firing with mechanical stokers.
Mechanical firing calls for selectivity in choice of coal.
When oil is used as fuel, it is essential that the ratio of air
to fuel is maintained so as to provide only a slight excess
of air over that required theoretically for complete com-
bustion, in order to prevent smoke emissions. When coal
tar is used, the same measures used for oil burning should
be adopted. The main factor that affects the combustion
of coke is its size. Hence, the size must be considered
while selecting a suitable coke-burning appliance.
Process changes or equipment: This can be broadly
divided into two categories:
Control of aerosol emissions
Control of gaseous pollutants
Control of aerosol emissions: More and more new
equipments have been designed at present to control aero-
sol emissions. They can be classified as arresters and
scrubbers.
Arresters can further be classified into three sub-
groups; inertial separators, filters, and precipitators.
Inertial separators include all dry-type collectors
which render inertia of the dispersoid to effect particulate
gas separation. Two types of equipments are now in use
cyclonic separators and trajectory separators. The cyclonic
separator is one of the least expensive and most impor-
tant type of dispersoid collector. It produces a continu-
ous centrifugal force which exerts greater inertial effects
on the dispersoid. Cyclonic separators have been widely
employed for industrial dust collection. They are used for
control of gas-borne dispersoids in the industrial pro-
cesses, like manufacture of cement, mineral processing,
paper and pulp industries, feed and grain processing and
wood-working industries.
Filters are employed to collect extremely fine par-
ticulates which in no way affect the conditions of tem-
perature and humidity. Initially it is developed to remove
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009
solid dispersoids from the carrier gas by filtration of the
gas through a porous medium, such as cloth or fibre. Next
to cyclonic separators, filters constitute the most effec-
tive means of controlling atmospheric pollutants.
The electrostatic precipitator is considered to be
the most effective device for preventing emission of dust
from fuel gases and is the standard equipment for large
power stations. The basic principle is to pass the disper-
soid-laden carrier gas between two electrodes to which
an unidirectional high voltage potential is applied. The
radius of curvature of one electrode (discharge electrode)
is many times smaller than that of the second electrode
(collecting electrode). Owing to greater differences in po-
tential and radius of curvature, a corona discharge is es-
tablished in the region of the discharge electrode, result-
ing in powerful ionizing field. Consequently the disper-
soids in the carrier gas become charged and migrate to the
oppositely charged collecting electrode. After deposition,
the particles can conveniently be removed by mechanical
processes.
Scrubbers are the least used devices for removing
particulate matter since they are better suited for removal
of gases and vapours. Scrubbers may be classified as wet
washers, impingement scrubbers, gravity spray towers,
cyclonic scrubbers, disintegrator scrubbers, and spray
dedusters.
Control of gaseous pollutants: The techniques
employed for removal of gaseous pollutants differ mark-
edly from that of aerosols. Control equipment can be clas-
sified as combustion, absorption and adsorption equip-
ment.
Combustion is applicable to pollutant gases which
are oxidisable. The pollutants are exposed to a high tem-
perature (650oC) in the combustion process. Petro-chemi-
cal, fertilizer and paint and varnish industries advanta-
geously use combustion type of control equipment,
though their cost is high.
Absorption is a diffusional process in which trans-
fer of gas molecules into a liquid phase takes place. An
absorbent should have a greater absorbing capacity with-
out build up of considerable back pressures. The absorp-
tion equipments are classified as spray chambers, packed
towers and bubble cap or sieve plate contractors. The
spray chamber consists of an empty chamber in which the
gas is allowed to pass through curtains of liquid spray. In
packed, towers, the absorbent flows downwards through
a bed of packing material, while the gases move upwards
and an intimate contact between the absorbent and gases
occurs. In bubble-cap containers, gases pass upwards
through a series of plates on which the absorbent exists.
Adsorption is the only means in controlling air pol-
lution which occurs due to some gases, vapours and in-
flammable compounds which cannot be treated or removed
by other means. Adsorption is a surface phenomenon and
it needs the presence of large solid surface areas. Toxic
and odoriferous compounds can be efficiently removed
by adsorption.
Control of emission from motor vehicles
The automobile exhausts deposit hydrocarbons,
carbon monoxide and oxides of nitrogen in air. In the pres-
ence of sunlight, photochemical reaction takes place be-
[ 42 ]
tween certain hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen to form
secondary pollutants. Emissions are reported to occur from
the crankshaft also.
At present many techniques for control of emission
have been developed. These techniques include tune-ups,
catalytic reactors and engine modification. A tune-up is
one which has significant effect on emission compounds.
For example, a high air-fuel ratio will reduce the concen-
trations of both carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons. The
catalytic reactor oxidizes carbon monoxide to carbon di-
oxide and thereby oxides of nitrogen are converted to ni-
trogen. However, catalytic reactors have some disadvan-
tages. They oxidize and are easily fouled by lead. Engine
modifications have some marked advantages. The modi-
fied engines contain two compartments in the cylinder by
which a broad flame is produced for efficient burning of
the fuel. However, these changes are not sufficient.
Reduction of concentrations of sulphur dioxide
At present, there are no satisfactory methods to
prevent the emission of sulphur dioxide from the burning
of sulphur-bearing fuels. Hence, very high smoke stacks
are built to ensure adequate dissipation of the sulphur
dioxide and adequately low concentration at ground lev-
els. In order to protect human health, power stations are
constructed far from towns in some countries. Researches
are conducted throughout the world to develop methods
by which sulphur dioxide in fuel gases can be absorbed
without any cooling of the gases, so that rise of the plume
is not adversely affected.
Control by site selection and zoning
Site selection is the process of locating a single in-
dustrial plant. Site selection results in production of a
single source of pollution as compared to numerous emis-
sion sources. Zoning is a control measure based upon the
knowledge of mechanics of the atmosphere which acts as
the transfer medium. Siting of factories and dwellings and
zoning of areas should take into account the meteorologi-
cal conditions, particularly the micro meteorological con-
ditions. However, other factors also come into the picture.
Hence, in selecting a site an industrialist must take into
account the factors, such as facilities for supply of raw
materials, transport, labour and markets for products.
Legal Controls
Technical and scientific knowledge alone is not suf-
ficient in controlling air pollution. Cleansing of air is pos-
sible only by legal application of technical knowledge. As
suggested by the World Health Organization (WHO), ad-
ministrative control of atmospheric pollution can be most
effectively developed into appropriate laws at national
level through the formation of a committee representing
public health administration, industrial hygiene, fuel us-
age, agriculture, science, industry and town planning. Such
a committee recommends the necessary legal instruments
suited to its unique country problem. Further, WHO for
guidance and that the legislation should be directed to-
wards:
Control of sources of pollution by specifying the
types of industrial and other processes which
should operate under supervision by control
authorities, and the types of emission which
should be kept to minimum;
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009
Institution of town-planning practices in which
due attention is given to planning and zoning of
industrial sites for the purpose of reducing air
pollution, provided that such action does not
make the conduct of industry prohibitively costly
or impossible;
Provision of regulations controlling the types of
fuel to be burned in installations where combus-
tion emissions are not otherwise controllable.
WATER POLLUTION
Adverse change in the composition or condition of
water such that it becomes less suitable for the purposes,
for which it would be suitable in its natural state, is re-
ferred to as water pollution. The changes include physi-
cal, chemical and biological changes. Water pollution nowa-
days is considered not only in terms of public health but
also in terms of conservation, aesthetics and preserva-
tion of natural beauty and resources.
Sources
Most industrial effluents are discharged into rivers.
These contain both organic and inorganic hazardous ma-
terials and non-biodegradable ones too. Industrial efflu-
ents, when discharged through the sewage system, poi-
son the biological purification mechanisms of sewage treat-
ment and these sewages on subsequent discharge result
in pollution of rivers.
The next principal contributor is municipal sewage.
Since population growth is increasing the quantity of
waste, water pollution is also increasing in addition to the
production of large quantities of sewage. Sewage con-
tains decomposable organic matter and exerts an oxygen
demand on the receiving waters. Treatment of sewage
deposits the suspended materials at the bottom, known
as sludge, and the liquid waste contains ions of sodium,
potassium, calcium, ammonium, manganese, chloride, ni-
trite, nitrate, bicarbonate, phosphate and sulphate in dis-
solved condition. The common organic materials found in
sewage are soaps, synthetic detergents, fatty acids, es-
ters and proteinous matters such as amines, amino acids,
amides and amino sugars. In addition, it also contains
numerous micro-organisms, some of which may be patho-
genic in character.
Next is the waste from agricultural practices. Drain-
age from silage and manure slurry from intensive hus-
bandry causes heavy pollution of some water courses.
Plant nutrients, insecticides and pesticides are also intro-
duced into water courses by agricultural practices. Sedi-
ment from land erosion containing mostly inorganic mate-
rials is also classified as a pollutant.
Underground water pollution occurs by the sub-
stances leached from refuse and spoil heaps, from fertiliz-
ers spread over the land and from silage making. The pol-
lution of water may also arise from the disposal of indus-
trial wastes in disused mine-shafts and quarries. It is
deemed that the pollution affecting underground aquifers
is more serious than it would be in a surface water course
due to the impossibility of treating the polluted water.
Since saline waters are drawn into the aquifer, over-pump-
ing in coastal areas is considered to cause groundwater
pollution.
[ 43 ]
 Pollution of coastal waters occurs due to the dis-
charge of sewage and industrial effluents, sewage and
rubbish from ships, transportation of oil, and exploration
and exploitation of the sea-bed and ocean floor. However,
the tendency of self-purification of the sea is high due to
different factors, such as dilution, temperature, etc; hence,
pollution of the sea is not considered as serious as river
pollution.
Based on the contaminants, water pollution may be
caused by materials or by biological organisms.
Acids : Mineral acids are produced during the manu-
facture of chemicals, fertilizers, batteries, DDT, viscose
processing, electro-plating, brewing, textiles, mining, iron
and copper pickling. Organic acids are discharged in the
manufacture of rayon, fermentation, distilling, dyeing,
manufacture of leather, chemicals, etc. The main constitu-
ent of acid wastes is sulphuric acid. In addition to this,
nitric acid, hydrochloric acid and phosphoric acid are also
seen.
These acids cause damage to metals or concrete
structures, pumps etc. by their corrosive activity. More-
over, they produce hydrogen sulphide gas when they
come in contact with the sludge and mud of rivers. Acidic
pollutants also destroy micro-organisms and thus inhibit
self-purification of the stream. Fish and other aquatic ani-
mals are adversely affected by a sudden change in pH
conditions of the river which may be acidic or alkaline.
Alkalis: Chemical manufacturing wastes, kier li-
quors, wool scouring wastes, tannery wastes, cotton mer-
cerizing wastes are the principal contributors of alkalis.
The alkali wastes raise the pH values upto 12. They be-
have similar to acids in destroying
bacterial and other microorganisms. Strong alkalis
produce asphyxiation by the coagulation of gill
secretions in fish.
Coal: Coal is a common substance and is found in
the effluents of coal-washing plants in a finely divided
form.
Dyes: The dyes are prepared from coal-tar hydro-
carbons, such as benzene, naphthalene, anthracene, tolu-
ene, xylenes, etc. Moreover, they also add to the BOD
(biochemical oxygen demand) of water. The colours im-
parted to water may be removed by treatment with acti-
vated carbon or other chemical agents.
Fats, soaps, and waxes: Fats are insoluble in water
but soluble in organic solvents, such as ether, chloro-
form, etc. Fats and soaps are discharged from wool scour-
ing, oil and fat refining, soap manufacturing and launder-
ing processes. Fats, the higher fatty acids, undergo de-
composition to lower fatty acids when subjected to mi-
crobial action. These lower fatty acids produce unpleas-
ant, rancid odours.
Gaseous pollutants: Includes ammonia, free chlo-
rine, hydrogen sulphide, ozone and phospine. Ammonia
is liberated during the manufacture of chemicals, fertiliz-
ers, gas and coke. Free chlorine results from the process
of textile bleaching, paper mills and laundries. Hydrogen
sulphide occurs due to the bacterial action and pH alter-
ations during the discharge of viscose rayon wastes and
sulphate and sulphite-containing materials. Ammonia
seems to be an internal poison to fish. According to Ellis,
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009
the maximum permissible concentration of ammonia is 2.5
ppm, above which it is lethal to fish.
Hydrogen sulphide has an obnoxious and strong
smell. Hydrogen sulphide is a local irritant and acts as a
respiratory depressant, causing conjunctivitis, bronchial
irritation and oedema of the lungs in man.
Pesticides: Organo-chlorine compounds (chlori-
nated hydrocarbons) and organo-phosphorus com-
pounds are two important classes of biocides. DDT,
trichloroethane, BHC (gammexane-hexa or lindane). All
biocides behave similar to DDT and a study of DDT holds
good for all biocides. DDT is the most widespread man-
made molecule in the environment.
It is partially soluble in water and evaporates into
air, resulting in atmospheric pollution. Winds, rains and
rivers are the carriers of DDT to all corners of the planet.
The DDT from air and water accumulates in animal tissue,
humus, soil or mud in concentrations thousands of times
higher than that found in water through the food-chain.
DDT is fatal to fish, crustaceans and shell-fish. Residues
of DDT in soil disappear slowly and the period is esti-
mated to be roughly about fifteen years. It is reported that
DDT is continuously recycled in living systems.
Fertilizers and Farm Wastes
Fertilizers are generally retained in the soil by the
crops, but some nitrates are liable to be washed out due to
the negligence in applying fertilizers to arable lands, par-
ticularly in a wet spring. The nitrates cause undesirable
effects on rivers and lakes. The quantity of organic mate-
rial produced by cattle and pigs is high. Faecal matter is
mainly composed of phosphates. Excess amounts of ni-
trates in conjunction with phosphates cause many un-
wanted nuisances, for example, when the amount of phos-
phorus (as phosphate) and nitrate as nitrogen exceeds
one part and thirty parts per hundred million parts of wa-
ter, eutrophication may occur.
Toxic metals: Mining processes, discharge of in-
dustrial effluents containing metallic solutions, dumping
of solid wastes which contain metal salts and certain agri-
cultural practices, such as the use of mercury-based bio-
cides, introduce toxic metals into water course. Battery
manufacturing, pain manufacturing, electroplating, vis-
cose-rayon manufacturing, copper pickling, galvanizing
and rubber processing industries are some important in-
dustries which discharge effluents containing consider-
able amounts of heavy metals.
The metallic contaminants destroy bacteria and
other organisms which act on water to purify it. In addi-
tion, aquatic plants and animals are also killed.
Oils: Replacement of coal by the oil fuel has in-
creased the problem of pollution. It has a tendency to
spread over the surface of water; diffusion of oxygen into
water is inhibited and reaeration of water is affected. Oil is
pushed to the shores by water currents and winds. Thus
beaches are spoiled and bathing becomes impossible. A
report from Britain indicates that sea-birds around Britain
are badly affected by oil pollution.
The soluble oils are classified as cutting oils and
degreasing oils. Cutting oils are homogenous mixtures
of oil emulsified in water with the aid of an emulsifying
agent. A little amount of alkali and cresol are also added.
[ 44 ]
All these soluble oils form milky emulsions in water which
are very stable and not easily destroyed. Oils enter drains
and ditches, where sewage works clog up and cause river
pollution.
Proteins and Carbohydrates
Faeces and household wastes in sewage are the
principal contributors of proteins and carbohydrates to a
water course. Glucose, sucrose, starch, dextrin, cellulose,
glycogen and alginic acid are some of the carbohydrates.
Sugar and glucose factories sweet manufacturing indus-
tries, dairies, breweries, wood processing industries, food
processing unites and textile mills contribute sugars and
starches. Proteins, a group of organic nitrogenous com-
pounds of high molecular weight, are distributed widely
in plant life and animal kingdom. The main components of
proteins are amino acids.
Egg albumin, gelatine, casein, keratin, glutenin are
some examples of proteins. They undergo putrefaction
by bacterial action to release primarily sulphur and phos-
phorus compounds. The released sulphur compounds on
further action by bacteria produce sulphuretted gases,
such as hydrogen sulphide.
Plastics and Rubbers
Plastics are resins of phenol and formaldehyde.
When plastics are burnt, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB)
escape into the environment. Rubber is discharged from
rubber manufacturing and processing industries. Rubber
is a polymerized product obtained from isoprene, a hydro-
carbon.
Dissolved Solids
Chlorides, sulphates, nitrates, bicarbonates and
phosphates of sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium,
iron and manganese, and some of the fluorides are soluble
in water. Water-softening plants and drainage from salt
works contribute many of these salts to rivers and streams.
Fluorides and nitrates are toxic to man above a certain
level. Fluoride is present in almost all water supplies.
Waster discharge adds to the concentration of fluoride. If
the concentration of fluorides in drinking water is less
than 0.5ppm, dental caries may appear; if the concentra-
tion exceeds about 1.5ppm, mottling of teeth occurs. The
control and action of knee and bone joints are affected
due to skeletal fluorosis.
Nitrates generally occur is trace quantities in sur-
face waters. The nitrate content of groundwater is appre-
ciable and is mostly derived from nitrogenous organic
matter of animal origin. When the water is used for po-
table purposes the amount of nitrate should not exceed 20
ppm. A range of concentration between 20 to 40 ppm causes
methaemoglobinaemia in infants.
Certain soluble salts of iron and aluminium react
with the natural bicarbonate alkalinity to form insoluble
hydroxides.
Synthetic Detergents
Toxicity of synthetic detergents is due to their non-
biodegradability. The intoxicity is completely attributed
to the alkyl benzene sulphonate which is the active ingre-
dient.
The most widely used detergents are anionic (about
95 per cent); the remaining usage is attributed to nonionic
detergents. The active ingredients, not easily degradable,
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009
produce nuisances at sewage works by causing foam and
froth. As these compounds produce foam even in very
low concentrations, aeration is not possible.
Mercury and mercuric compounds: Natural waters
contain only a few parts per billion of mercury. Mercury
enters the biosphere as a waste product from a number of
industrial activities. A major source is the production of
chlorine where mercury is used as an electrode in the elec-
trolysis of brine. Paper and pulp mills, oil refining units,
plastic and battery manufacturing industries also contrib-
ute to mercury pollution.
Cadmium and cadmium compounds: Cadmium ranks
next to mercury in its toxicity. The principal contributor of
cadmium is the electroplating industry. Cadmium tends to
concentrate in the liver, kidneys, and thyroid of human
beings and animals. Once it enters the body, it is likely to
remain. Consumption of cadmium salts causes cramps,
nausea, vomiting and diarrhea.
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs): these are used
commercially in plasticizers, dielectrics, and lubricants and
are concentrated in the food-chains of marine ecosystems.
PCBs are similar to DDT and can cause similar physiologi-
cal reactions. They are released into the environment when
certain plastics are burned, e.g. DDT, PCBs can cause thin-
ning of the shells of bird eggs.
Phenols and phenolic compounds: Phenols are com-
mon constituents of many important trade wastes. These
compounds produce characteristic tastes in water when
present even in very low concentrations. Concentrated
solutions of phenol lead to severe pain, renal irritation,
shock and possible death.
Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons: Many poly-
nuclear aromatic hydrocarbons are found in water and in
other environmental media. They are less soluble in water
but their solubility is increased by the presence of anionic
detergents. The stability of polynuclear aromatic hydro-
carbons is affected by light and oxygen. The health sig-
nificance of trace of carcinogenic polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons in fresh water is not yet known.
Aldehydes: The important compounds are acetalde-
hyde, benzaldehyde, formaldehyde, furfural and vanillin
which cause odour in water and are toxic to fish. The
growth of algae is inhibited by vanillin.
Biological Pollutants
Biological pollutants may conveniently be classi-
fied into two groups as primary and corollary pollutants.
Primary pollutants comprise biota that are added to water
directly as a result of mans activities, e.g. pathogenic bac-
teria or viruses from sewage. Corollary pollutants are the
indigenous living materials that interfere with the benefi-
cial use of water, e.g. weeds in irrigation ditches. Corollary
pollutants, although not added directly to the water course
by man, are attributable to human endeavor. While pri-
mary pollutants have a short life; corollary pollutants have
a long life.
Bacteria: Have an extraordinarily broad range of
biochemical activity. Bacteria perform an important role in
the life processes on earth by concentrating the elements
essential to life itself for use by other species and other
forms.
Bacteria are categorized as saprophytic and patho-
[ 45 ]
genic. Saprophytic bacteria are harmless and beneficial
while pathogenic bacteria are harmful. Cholera, dysentery,
typhoid fever, gastroenteritis are the most common and
severe. Diseases, such as leptospirosis, brucellosis, and
tularemia are less common.
Viruses: Seventy-six viruses are pathogenic to man.
Among them, enteroviruses, adenoviruses, polioviruses,
infections hepatitis viruses, and coxsackie viruses are the
most common and are present in polluted waters and sew-
age.
The following heads to understand the subject more
clearly.
Water pollution: municipal
Water pollution: industrial
Water pollution: agricultural
Water Pollution : Municipal
Both big cities and small need a water supply that is
adequate quantitatively and qualitatively. Wherever there
is a water supply, there should be means of disposal of
water wastes also. Since many new towns have arisen
and the existing towns have grown, sewer systems and
sewage treatment plants are necessary.
Water Pollution : Industrial
Industrial activities generate a wide variety of waste
products which are generally discharged into water
courses. Some of these wastes are poisonous and the
effects of others are obscure. Although some of the wastes
have been known since antiquity, many of them are quite
recent. As technology develops, newer types of wastes
are formed. Organic compounds constitute a larger pro-
portion of these wastes and are destroyed slowly by bac-
teria. Unpleasant odours and tastes are produced which
are carried along the water course for considerable dis-
tances.
Paper and Pulp mills:
Textile industries:
Food processing units:
Chemical industries:
Metal industries:
Petroleum industries: Oil refineries and petrochemi-
cal plants produce a mixture of wastes containing hydro-
carbons, phenolic compounds and numerous organic and
inorganic sulphur compounds. They impart objectionable
tastes and odours to the receiving waters.
Harmful Effects of Industrial Effluents
Industrial effluents impart colour and turbid-
ity to the receiving waters.
They undergo putrefaction to form evil
odours and objectionable tastes. Moreover,
the effluent itself may cause unsavory tastes
and odours because of the constituents
present in them.
Acids and alkalis present in the effluent make
the water corrosive.
Heavy metals and other toxic materials may
kill fish and other aquatic life, animals and
vegetables.
The toxic substances may kill bacteria and
the natural purification processes of the
streams are thus inhibited.
Some of the trade wastes may contain patho-
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009
genic bacteria, for example, tannery wastes
may contain the pathogen anthrax bacilli.
(However, almost all trade wastes are reported
to be free from pathogens.)
Heated effluents discharged into rivers may
cause harmful rise in the temperature of the
stream and there is a possibility of the eco-
system of the water course being altered.
Certain mineral constituents can cause ex-
cessive hardness of water, rendering the wa-
ter unsuitable for both domestic and indus-
trial purposes.
Water Pollution: Agriculture
Modern techniques employed in agriculture and use
of newer chemicals has contributed much to environmen-
tal pollution, particularly to water pollution. The effects of
pollution by agriculture have been dealt with from time to
time in other chapters.
SOILAND LAND POLLUTION
Soil pollution usually results from the disposal of
solid and semi-solid wastes in agricultural practices and
insanitary habits. Fallout from atmospheric pollution also
contributes to soil pollution. The problem of land pollu-
tion differs from water and air pollutions in the respect
that pollutants remain in place for relatively longer peri-
ods.
The problem of soil pollution may be studied under
the following heads:
Industrial and Urban Wastes
Disposal of industrial solid wastes is a major source
of soil pollution discharged from coal and mineral mining,
metal processing and engineering industries. They con-
tain toxic metals such as lead, copper, etc. Urban wastes
comprise booth commercial and domestic wastes includ-
ing dried sludge of sewage. In general, all the urban solid
wastes are referred to as refuse. The refuse contains
garbage (food wastes), rubbish materials such as papers,
glasses, metallic cans, plastics, fibre residues from home
fuels, street sweepings, rubbles and abandoned vehicles.
It has been reported that about 50 per cent of the raw
materials ultimately become waste products in industry
and about 15 per cent of it is toxic or deleterious.
Industrial solid wastes are also tipped on the land
and the disposal of all types of solid wastes results in
increasing soil pollution. As a result, hazardous chemi-
cals can enter into surface or ground water and poison
the soil or crops.
About twenty-five human diseases are associated
with solid wastes. There is an increase in the number of
rats and flies due to dumping of wastes, as they are carri-
ers of insects and other bio-organisms responsible for
plague.
Agricultural Practices
Fertilizers: fertilizers are retained by the soil and
the crop efficiently but there is a possibility for the nitrate to be
washed out due to the careless appliances which may
affect the quality of lowland lakes or rivers. When the
fertilizers are contaminated with other synthetic organic
chemicals, the soil water gets polluted.
Pesticide: Among pesticides the most important are
the chlorinated hydrocarbons, e.g. DDT, BHC, endrin, al-
[ 46 ]
drin, dieldrin and lindane and organophosphorus com-
pounds, such as parathion and malathion. The remnants
of these pesticides may be absorbed by soil particles
which contaminate root crops grown in soils. Lindane has
been reported to taint carrots.
Soil conditioners, fumigants and other chemical
agents: Organic compounds, containing lead, mercury and
arsenic when applied to land, accumulate in the soil per-
manently and introduce these toxic metals into plant prod-
ucts.
Farming: Wastes from cattle-sheds and poultry have
increased. When the wastes are dumped into heaps, they be-
come good breeding grounds for flies, insects and rodents
which are carriers of pathogenic organisms.
Radioactive Materials
Radioactive materials from atmospheric fallout in
nuclear explosions and from the radioactive wastes
(nuclear testing laboratories and industries) accumulate
in the soil. Wastes from nuclear reactors contain ruthe-
nium-106 and rhodium-106, iodine-131, barium-140 and
lanthanum-140, and cerium-144 with promethium-144 in
addition to the primary nuclidesstrontium-90 and cae-
sium-137. Both strontium-90 and caesium-137 are also pro-
duced from nuclear fission. Strontium-90 has a half-life of
twenty-eight years and that of caesium-137 is thirty years.
Rain causes strontium-90 and caesium-137 to be depos-
ited on the soil where it is held firmly by electrostatic
forces. Heavy rains and soil erosion carry these away
with silt and clay. A recent report indicates that certain
plants, such as lichen, can accumulate caesium-137 and a
concentration of radionuclides in animals occurs when
these plants are fed. All the radionuclides deposited on
the soil emit gamma radiations.
Cosmic radiations and explosion of hydrogen weap-
ons induce neutron-proton processes by which nitrogen
produces C-14. Carbon-14 has been given particular im-
portance since it participates in the carbon metabolism of
plants. It is introduced into plants and thereby to animals.
Biological Agents
The excreta of humans, animals and birds are the
major source of soil pollution by biological agents. Di-
gested sewage sludge which is used as manure also causes
soil pollution.
Control
To make the disposal of wastes economical, recy-
cling of materials is necessary. Disposal of waste may be
studied under three heads;
Collection of wastes
Disposal of wastes
Recovery of resources
Collection of wastes: About 80 per cent of the total
of solid waste management is spent for collection only.
To save time and money, transfer stations must be con-
structed at various points in a city so that more refuse is
brought to the nearest station from where it is taken away
for ultimate disposal after cramming. Another possible way
is the use of pneumatic pipes. Though initial cost and
labour is more, pneumatic pipes are more efficient for the
collection and disposal.
Disposal of wastes: Land-fill and incineration are
some of the best possible ways of disposal. The land-fill
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009
operation consists of depositing the refuse, compacting
and covering it with soil to a certain height. Actually this
is a biological method of treatment. The organic materials
in the municipal refuse undergo anaerobic decomposition
to form carbon dioxide, methane, ammonia and some hy-
drogen sulphide.
Since incineration is the final solution for solving
the solid waste problem, cost of the operations is high.
Moreover, incineration reduces only about 30 per cent of
the total volume of the waste; the residue obtained on
incineration has to be disposed. Secondly, incineration
creates air pollution problems. Pyrolysis (combustion in
the absence of oxygen) is also an acceptable means of
disposal.
Recovery of resource: Recovery of resources, also
known as recycling, is the most desirable means of solid
waste management in future. Recycling has two advan-
tages: conservation of existing natural resources, and
sufficient reduction in the volume of refuse to be dis-
posed. Some of the recyclable matters are paper, glass,
metals and organics.
Organics are subjected to a process known as
composting. This is a method of aerobic decomposition
of solid wastes in contrast to land-fill. The final product
obtained is termed as compost which is an excellent soil
conditioner. However, in developed countries, inorganic
artificial fertilizers are cheaper and the use of compost is
much less.
To conclude, soil pollution, often termed as the third
pollution, is definitely a problem equal in magnitude to
that of air and water pollution. About 90 per cent of the
pollution of soil is caused by solid wastes. Hence, biode-
gradable materials need to be developed in future to avert
soil pollution.
RADIOACTIVE POLLUTION
Man has been exposed to low levels of ionizing ra-
diations from natural sources throughout his evolution.
But, it is only after the advent of nuclear weapons that the
exposure levels have increased.
H.P. Jammet defined radioactive pollution of the
environment as the increase in natural background
radiation emerging from the activities of man involving
the use of naturally occurring or artificially
produced radioactive materials. Naturally occurring radia-
tions are:
Cosmic radiations from the outer space reaching
the earths surface;
Terrestrial radiation from natural radio-isotopes
present in the earths crust.
Cosmic-ray bombardment of the atmosphere con-
tinuously produces a few radioactive materials of short
half-life. Among them the important nuclides are carbon-
14 and hydrogen-3, by the splitting of atoms when they
are struck by high-energy cosmic ray particles. Both these
are oxidized to carbon dioxide and water as they enter into
the biosphere and hydrosphere.
The primary sources of natural radiations are the
ores of uranium and thorium which contain a wide variety
of radioactive nuclides. They differ in chemical nature,
half-life and type and energy of radiations. However, they
are linked genetically into three series, each resulting from
[ 47 ]
an element of very long half-life. The three series are:
uranium-radium series, thorium series and uranium-ac-
tinium series.
Man-made radiations originate from activities of man
involving the use of radioactive materials. Radio-nuclides
are used in the production of nuclear fuel and nuclear
weapons, and electricity. They are extensively used as
tracers in various fields.
Ore Processing
The primary natural materials used in nuclear pro-
cesses are uranium and thorium. Uranium-238 and tho-
rium-232 are used as artificial fission materials. The only
element in which natural fission occurs is uranium-235.
Mining and refining of these materials are the first steps
in nuclear technology.
Of all the daughter elements, those of relatively long
half-life include thorium-230, radium-226 and lead-210 in
the uranium-radium series, and radium-228 and thorium-
228 in the thorium series.
The necessary isotopes of uranium and thorium are
segregated from other radioactive materials by the gas-
eous diffusion method or by some other process. Depend-
ing upon the process used, the unnecessary radioactive
materials are separated in various chemical forms.
Of all the radioactive nuclides, radium-226 is most
harmful in a water environment due to its longer half-life.
Operation of Reactors and Nuclear Fuels
A partial transformation of primary fuel into sec-
ondary occurs in the fission process with the simulta-
neous appearance of fission products. Fission products
of heavy metals include all the elements from atomic num-
ber 30 (zinc) to atomic number 64 (gadolinium). These el-
ements have excess neutrons as soon as they are formed
and rapidly change into more stable elements by radioac-
tive decay, emitting beta and gamma radiations.
The heat liberated during fission and activation pro-
cesses are converted into electricity in the thermal pro-
cess, using coolant systems and heat exchangers. Two
types of wastes are found in these processes: fission prod-
ucts, remaining in both the primary and secondary fuels
and extraneous activation products in the coolant. Fis-
sion is said to release radioactive gases, such as xenon
and krypton into the atmosphere.
Nuclear Weapon Testing
The tests including fission and fusion processes
employ uranium-235 and plutonium-239 as fission materi-
als and hydrogen or lithium as fusion materials. Explosion
a non-moderate chain reaction, in the due course results
in the appearance of a very large neutron flux which makes
the surrounding matters radioactive.
Radioactive materials primarily resulting in such an
explosion are fission products, such as strontium-90 cae-
sium-137, iodine-131.
Due to the force of explosion and accompanying
high temperature, the radioactive products are transformed
into gases and ejected high into the atmosphere as fine
particles, resulting in atmospheric pollution. These par-
ticles are subsequently carried out or otherwise settle
down on soil and wastes due to rains and get dispersed
over the surface.
As radioactivity in the soil is available to plants, it
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009
enters the food-chain, resulting in the possibility of even-
tual ingestion by humans such as strontium-90 caesium-
137, iodine-131.
Due to the force of explosion and accompanying
high temperature, the radioactive products are transformed
into gases and ejected high into the atmosphere as fine
particles, resulting in atmospheric pollution. These par-
ticles are subsequently carried out or otherwise settle
down on soil and water due to rains and get dispersed
over the surface.
As radioactivity in the soil is available to plants, it
enters the food-chain, resulting in the possibility of even-
tual ingestion by humans.
Radio Tracers
Radio tracers are extensively used in medicine, in-
dustry, agriculture and biology to determine the course of
14
chemical and biochemical reactions. Among them, C and
125
I are the most important tracers.
When waste waters containing radio tracers are dis-
charged into sewers and rivers, some isotopes, such as
radioiodine and radio-phosphorus, accumulate in biologi-
cal slimes and sludges.
Effects
The fate of a radioactive contaminant is also depen-
dent on ecological conditions. An exchange between ra-
dioactive contaminants and biological environment oc-
curs after radioactive pollution of the environment. Bio-
logical organisms including human beings are subjected
to contamination either by consumption or inhalation of
radioactive contaminants.
Radioactive pollution causes deposition of the con-
taminants on ground and surface waters. The water con-
sumed by plants acts as a medium for radioactivity. Fur-
ther, radioactive contamination is passed on to vegeta-
tion and animals through the nourishment from soil and
water. After nourishment, fate of the contaminant solely
depends on the biological cycle that varies from organism
to organism and on successive exchanges between veg-
etable and animal species. It is reported that secondary
concentrations occur during these exchange.
Man is considered to be the final prey for radioac-
tive contamination and is at the end of all reactions and
interactions. Direct contamination occurs through expo-
sure to radiations by the radioactive particles in air, radio-
active gases, and absorption of contaminants by the res-
piratory tract. Indirect contamination occurs by consump-
tion through the food-chain.
Radiations can cause cancers, abnormal births and
mutations in man. Though these effects are common in
plants and animals, such abnormalities are eliminated by
evolutionary processes of natural selection, i.e., survival
of the fittest.
The International Commission of Radiological Pro-
tection assessed the maximum permissible weekly dose
for a radiation worker as 0.3 rem. The maximum permis-
sible total dose for complete life-time has been fixed as
200 rem which corresponds to 0.1 rem per week or 5 rem
per year for continuous exposure. In any case, the total
accumulated radiation shall never exceed 5 rem per year
beyond the age of eighteen, nor shall the dose in any
thirteen-week period exceed 3 rem.
[ 48 ]
THERMAL POLLUTION
Thermal pollution does not refer to the impairment
of purity by the addition of foreign matter but denotes the
impairment of the quality of environmental air or water by
raising (or lowering, sometimes) its temperature.
The discharge of hot trade effluents from indus-
tries, factories and mills and large volumes of warm cool-
ing water from electricity-generating stations may cause
a temperature rise of several degrees in a river or canal.
About 80 per cent of the total water withdrawn for indus-
trial operations is used for cooling only. The water drawn
is discharged substantially unchanged except for an in-
crease in temperature.
Among the industries that contribute to thermal
loading of surface waters, nuclear power plants and ther-
mal power stations are of prime concern. Normally, the
discharged water from the steam/electric power industry
has a higher temperature ranging from 6o to 10oC than the
receiving water.
Another contributor to thermal pollution is munici-
pal sewage. Domestic sewage is usually discharged into
rivers, streams or canals with or without treatment. The
sewage normally has a higher temperature than the re-
ceiving water. When sewage is discharged into water, not
only does the stream temperature rise to a measurable
extent but also there are some other effects. The organic
matter present in the sewage and other oxidisable matter
utilize the dissolved oxygen present in the surface water
for oxidation. When the temperature of the receiving wa-
ter is raised, the dissolved oxygen level decreases. De-
mand for oxygen increases and anaerobic conditions set
up, resulting in the release of foul gases. Aquatic organ-
isms which depend on the dissolved oxygen of the sur-
face water die. The same is the case with heated industrial
effluents that contain organic matter.
Thermal pollution is a potential hazard to fish par-
ticularly. The temperature changes not only affects fish
but the aquatic eco-system. Any disruption of the food-
chain, for example, may upset the entire system.
Life in an aquatic eco-system is greatly influenced
by the growth of algae. Excess nutrients from wash-out
waters from farmlands combined with thermal pollution,
causes an excessive algae growth with consequent accel-
eration of eutrophic and other undesirable effects.
NOISE POLLUTION
Noise can be defined as the unwanted sound or
sound without agreeable musical quality. Sound is caused
by the vibration of molecules and is the periodic mechani-
cal disturbance in fluids and solids. Noise radiates from
vibrating surfaces and vibrating gases.
Sound travels in pressure waves and the sound
pressure can be described in two measures: the frequency
of the waves that determines the pitch of the sound, and
the amplitude (or magnitude) which is a measure of the
loudness. The frequency of sound is expressed in terms
of cycles per second; the unit of amplitude is decibel (dB).
Man-made noise arises primarily from industry and
transport. The sound level of some music transmitted
through amplifiers is also of considerable importance.
Modern civilization creates more and more noise and now
noise has become a major environmental pollutant. It has
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009
increased in factories, in hospitals, at building sites and in
the countryside. The power of our industrial machinery
has increased enormously. It is reported that noise inside
factories can become a health hazard, causing deafness.
Industrial noise, particularly from mechanical saws and
pneumatic drills is unbearable and a nuisance to the pub-
lic.
The main menace of noise, however, is transport.
The number of road vehicles, particularly diesel engine
vehicles has increased enormously. Larger and faster jet
aircraft have been built over the years. Air traffic has in-
creased to such an extent that nobody likes a new airfield
in his neighborhood. An important aspect of aeroplane
noise is the sonic boom. It occurs when an aircraft like
Concorde flies supersonically overhead. The sonic boom
causes significant damage to property besides giving a
fright to animals. It creates mental anguish too. Noise from
aircraft is causing much more disquiet than road trans-
port.
Noise from road transport, particularly that from
heavy diesel vehicles and motor bicycles is most annoy-
ing. Most people consider it as one of the adverse factors
in their environment.
Effects
Impairment of hearing is caused by damage to some
part of the auditory system. Chronic damage to the air
cells in the inner ear is also caused. Prolonged exposure
to noise of a certain frequency pattern leads to temporary
or permanent hearing loss.
Noise has its ill effects also on other bodily func-
tions, such as the cardiovascular system. According to
Kryter (1970) noise causes heart output to decrease with
greater fluctuation in arterial blood pressure and vaso-
constriction of peripheral blood vessels. Changes in
breathing amplitude have also been reported due to im-
pulsive noise.
Optical system is also a prey to noise pollution.
Pupillary dilation, impairment of night vision, and decrease
in the rate of colour perception are some of the effects.
Noise also causes irritation and affects sleep and
work performance. Moreover, as noise causes headaches
and irritability, work which needs a high degree of skill is
considerably affected.
Prevention and Control
Noise is that form of pollution which causes great
concern to the public. Necessary arrangements have to
be made and steps taken to control noise pollution. Some
preventive measures are discussed in the following pages.
Industrial noise control
Reduction of noise at source: This may be
achieved by replacement of noise-producing
machines or equipments with quiet alternatives;
for example, noise from a fan can be reduced by
increasing the number of blades or by decreas-
ing the rotational speed without reduction in
air flow.
Sound proofing: For example, the noise pro-
ducing machinery or equipment may be cov-
ered with insulating material.
Protection devices may be used: For example,
the employee who is the recipient of noise may
[ 49 ]
 wear earmuffs.
Acoustic zoning in necessary to prevent propa-
gation of noise through air or solids.
Community noise control
Community noise includes noise from air traffic, road
transport and construction.
The British Government has introduced laws regard-
ing the level of noise and airlines are being subjected to
international regulations. A Noise Advisory council has
also been set up. In the United States, the Federal Avia-
tion Administration has set some limits on aircraft engine
noise which forces the designers to produce less noisy
engines. With regard to sonic boom, it is purely a problem
that must eventually be subject to international agree-
ment.
Road transport produces the most annoying forms
of noise. The vehicular noises can be classified as ex-
haust noise, engine intake noise, tyre noise and aerody-
namic noise. To reduce pollution by vehicle noise, research
TOPIC-XII
DESERTS AND DESERTIFICATION
Many of the features of wind erosion and deposi-
tion are most readily observed in deserts. A desert is a
region with so little vegetation that no significant popula-
tion can be supported on that land. It need not be hot or
even, technically, dry. Ice sheets are a kind of desert. In
more temperate climates, deserts are characterized by very
little precipitation, but they may be consistently hot, cold,
or variable in temperature, depending on the season or
time (exclusive of polar deserts).
A variety of factors contribute to the formation of a
desert. One is moderately high surface temperatures. Most
vegetation, under such conditions, requires abundant rain-
fall and/or slow evaporation of what precipitation does
fall. The availability of precipitation is governed, in part,
by the global air circulation patterns.
Warm air holds more moisture than cold. Similarly,
when the pressure on a mass of air is increased, the air can
hold more moisture. Air spreading outward from the equa-
tor at high altitudes is chilled and at low pressure, since
air pressure and temperature decrease with increasing al-
titude. Thus, the air holds little moisture. When that air
circulates downward, at about 30 degrees north and south
latitudes, it is warmed as it approaches the surface and
also subjected to increasing pressure from the deepening
column of air above it. It can then hold considerably more
water, so when it reaches the earths surface, it causes
rapid evaporation. Many of the worlds major deserts fall
in belts close to zones of sinking air at 30 degrees north
and south of the equator.
Topography also plays a role in controlling the dis-
tribution of precipitation. A high mountain range along
the path of principal air currents between the ocean and a
desert area may be the cause of the latters dryness. As
moisture-laden air roam over the ocean moves inland
across the mountains, it is forced to higher altitudes, where
the temperatures are colder and the air thinner (lower pres-
sure). Under these conditions, much of the moisture origi-
nally in the air mass is forced out as precipitation, and the
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009
is being done to develop quieter types of diesel engines.
The second possible way is routing away of highways
from populated areas. Noise can also the baffled with bar-
riers, such as walls, etc. The fourth way is introduction of
new regulations which includes lowered speed limits and
special designing for non-stop operation.
Control of other types of noise
These noises can be controlled by muffling. Our
home environment also has many noises, like cleaning,
washing operations, toilet flushing, radio, television,
games, garbage disposal, etc. which produce noises rang-
ing from 75 dB to 120 dB. These can be reduced by con-
trolling the reception by the occupants. Construction
noise must only be controlled by local ordinances. Town
and country planning help in reduction of the transmis-
sion of noise.
out of the mountains. In effect, the mountains cast a rain
shadow on the land beyond. Rain shadows cast by the
Sierra Nevada Mountains of California and, to a lesser
extent, by the southern Rockies contribute to the dryness
of the western United States.
Because the oceans are the major source of the
moisture in the air, simple distance from the ocean (in the
direction of air movement) can be a factor contributing to
the formation of a desert. The longer an air mass is in
transit over dry land, the greater chance it has of losing
some of its moisture through precipitation. On the other
hand, even coastal areas can have deserts under special
circumstances. If the land is hot and the adjacent ocean
cooled by cold currents, the moist air coming off the ocean
will be cool and carry less moisture than warmer air over
an ocean. As that cooler air warms over the land and be-
comes capable of holding still more moisture, it causes
rapid evaporation from the land rather than precipitation.
This phenomenon is observed along portions of the west-
ern coasts of Africa and South America.
Climatic zones shift over time. In addition, topogra-
phy changes, global temperatures change, and plate mo-
tions move landmasses to different latitudes. Amidst these
changes, new deserts develop in areas that previously
had more extensive vegetative cover. The term desertifi-
cation, however, is generally restricted to apply only to
the relatively rapid development of deserts caused by the
impact of human activities.
The exact definition of the lands at risk is difficult.
Arid and semi-arid lands are commonly defined as those
with annual rainfall of less than 60 centimeters (24 inches);
though the extent to which vegetation will thrive in low-
precipitation areas also depends on such additional fac-
tors as temperature and local evaporation rates. Many of
the arid lands border true desert regions. Desertification
does not involve the advance or expansion of desert re-
gions as a result of forces originating with the desert.
Rather, desertification is a patchy conversion of dry-but
[ 50 ]
habitable land to uninhabitable desert as a consequence
of land-use practices (perhaps accelerated by such natu-
ral factors as drought).
Causes of Desertification
Vegetation in dry lands is, by nature, limited. At the
same time, it is a precious resource, which may in various
cases provide food for people or for livestock, wood for
shelter or energy, and protection for the soil from erosion.
Desertification typically involves severe distur-
bance of that vegetation. The environment is not a resil-
ient one to begin with, and its deterioration, once begun,
may be irreversible and even self-accelerating.
On land used for farming, native vegetation is rou-
tinely cleared to make way for crops. While the crops thrive,
all may be well. If the crops fail, or if the land is left
unplanted for a time, several consequences follow. One,
as in the Dust Bowl, is erosion. A second, linked to the
first, is loss of soil fertility. The top most soil layer, richest
in organic matter, is most nutrient-rich and also is the first
lost to erosion. A third result may be loss of soil structural
quality. Under the baking sun typical of many dry lands,
and with no plant roots to break it up, the soil may crust
over, becoming less permeable. This increases surface
runoff, correspondingly decreasing infiltration by what
precipitation does fall and thus decreasing reserves of
soil moisture and ground water on which future crops
may depend. All of these changes together make it that
much harder for future crops to succeed, and the prob-
lems, intensify.
Similar results follow from the raising of numerous
livestock on the dry lands. In drier periods, vegetation
may be reduced or stunted. Yet, it is precisely during those
TOPIC-XIII
THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT
The term had its origin from the practice in cold
countries of encasing vegetation in glass chambers to
protect them from frost. The transparent glass roof and
walls of the greenhouse allow the suns rays to pass
through and strike the ground. The reflected radiation is
of longer wavelength than the incident radiation. A sig-
nificant portion of the former is absorbed by the glass. As
long wavelength radiation (infrared radiation) generate
heat, this results, in rise in temperature inside the green-
house.
An effect similar to the green house effect is re-
sponsible for keeping the earths surface warmer than it
would otherwise be. The suns rays strike the surface of
the earth and the long wavelength radiation emitted by
the earth are absorbed by atmospheric gases, thereby con-
tributing to the rise in temperature.
Greenhouse effect was recognized by Fourier as early
as 1827. Fourier maintained that the atmosphere acts like
the glass of a greenhouse by letting through the incident
light rays of the sun and retaining the infra-red rays, which
are reflected back to the ground.
According to one estimate, in the absence of natu-
ral concentrations of greenhouse, gases, the average tem-
perature of the earths surface would be -190C instead of
the present value of 150C and the earth would be a frozen
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009
periods that livestock, needing the vegetation not only
for food but also for the moisture it contains, put the great-
est grazing pressure on the land. The soil may again be
stripped bare, with the resultant deterioration and reduced
future growth of vegetation as previously described for
cropland.
Natural drought cycles thus play a role in desertifi-
cation. However, in the absence of intensive human land
use, the degradation of the land during drought is typi-
cally less severe, and the natural systems in the arid lands
can recover when the drought ends. On a human time
scale, desertificationpermanent conversion of marginal
dry lands to desertsis generally observed only where hu-
man activities are also significant.
Impact of Desertification
Desertification is a cause for concern as it effec-
tively reduces the amount of arable (cultivatable) land on
which the world depends for food. An estimated 600 mil-
lion people worldwide now live on the arid lands. All of
those lands, in some measure, are potentially vulnerable
to desertification. More than 10 percent of those 600 mil-
lion people live in areas identified as actively undergoing
desertification now. Some projections suggest that, by
the end of this century, one-third of the words once-ar-
able land will be rendered useless for the culture of food
crops as a consequence of desertification and attendant
soil deterioration. The recent famine in Ethiopia may have
been precipitated by a drought, but it will be prolonged
by desertification brought on by overuse of land
incapable of supporting concentrated human or
animal populations.
lifeless planet. Working along these lines, the Swedish
chemist Svante Arrhenius was able to show, in 1896, that
it was the carbon dioxide (CO2) present in the earths at-
mosphere which helped the atmosphere retain the long
wavelength radiation and thus warm up the earth.
Arrhenius discovered that carbon dioxide, which
makes up only a tiny fraction of the atmosphere, could
trap enough of the escaping heat (wavelengths of 12-16.3
microns) to warm up the surface of the planet. Further-
more he realized that the burning of coal, oil and natural
gases, was raising the concentrations of carbon dioxide
and he predicted that a doubling of the gas could warm
the planet by more than 100F, a prediction that is consid-
ered reasonable by modern-day scientists.
Greenhouse Gases
The greenhouse gases of greatest concern are car-
bon dioxide, water vapour, methane, chlorofluorocarbons,
nitrogen oxides, and tropospheric ozone.
Carbon Dioxide: (CO2) In 1958, Charles Keeling and
Roger Revalle documented a steady rise in carbon dioxide
due to human activities from 315 parts per million (ppm)
thirty years ago to 350ppm today. Using these data as
well as evidence from tree rings and ice cores, climatolo-
gists estimate that the level of carbon dioxide before the
dawn of the Industrial Revolution was about 280 ppm.
[ 51 ]
Humans have already increased the levels of CO2 by 25 per cent and are expected to double the CO2 levels by the year
2075.
CO2 emission estimatesa (global) (1950-88)
Year Total Fuels Cement Gas Per
flaring capitab
Gaseous Liquid Solid
1950 1638 97 423 1077 18 23 0.7
1960 2586 235 850 1419 43 39 0.9
1970 4090 515 1838 1571 78 87 1.1
1980 5263 724 2409 1921 120 89 1.1
1982 5093 732 2178 1993 121 70 1.1
1988 5893 919 2392 2385 150 48 1.2

CO2 emission estimatesa (India) (1950-88)

Year Total Fuels Cement Gas Per
flaring capitab
Gaseous Liquid Solid
1950 18.4 16.0 2.0 0.0 0.4 0.0 0.1
1951 19.2 16.6 2.1 0.0 0.4 0.0 0.1
1955 23.5 19.4 3.5 0.0 0.6 0.0 0.1
1956 24.4 19.9 3.8 0.0 0.7 0.0 0.1
1957 27.3 22.2 4.3 0.0 0.8 0.0 0.1
1960 33.2 26.8 5.3 0.0 1.1 0.0 0.1
1961 35.9 29.0 5.8 0.0 1.1 0.0 0.1
1970 53.3 37.7 13.1 0.3 1.8 0.4 0.1
1971 56.2 38.7 14.1 0.3 2.0 0.4 0.1
1980 95.5 69.7 22.4 0.7 2.4 0.3 0.1
1981 102.7 74.1 24.1 0.8 2.8 0.9 0.1
1988 163.8 117.4 35.3 3.5 5.5 2.0 0.2

Estimated sources and sinks of CO2

Sources/Sinks Range (TgC/year)
Sources
Ocean 102700-106500
Land 8700-120000
Fossil fuel 4500-5500
Land use conversion 0-2600
Oceans 106000-108000
Land 100000-140000
Source: A Primer on Energy, Dept. of Energy, USA [Tg=Teragrams=1012g]

The forests contain about 400-500 billion tones of carbon or roughly two-third of the amount present in the
atmosphere which is about 700 billion tones. The northern temperate forests also sequester a good amount of excess
atmospheric CO2 (Sedjo1992). The role of biomass in sequestering atmospheric carbon dioxide has been detailed by
Rossillo et al. (1922). The perfect balance of the carbon cycle and the role of ocean as a major shock absorber warrants
detailed study.

Global methane emission estimates

Sources/ sinks Best estimate Range
(106 ta-1) (106 ta-1)
Source
Natural wetlands 15 100-200
Rice paddies 110 25-170
Enteric fermentation (animals) 80 65-100
Gas drilling, venting,
transmission 45 25-50
Biomass burning 40 20-80
Termites 40 10-100
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009 [ 52 ]
 Landfills
Coal mining
Oceans
Fresh waters
Reaction with OH
Source: Houghton at al. 1990
Methane (CH4): Methane can also effect the tro-
pospheric ozone distribution. A model named IMAGE (In-
tegrated Model to Assess Greenhouse Effects) predicts
that a 10 per cent cut in CH4 emissions, besides stabiliz-
ing carbon dioxide emission by the year 2025, can lead to
stable CH4 levels in the atmosphere. CH4 is currently in-
creasing at a rate of 1 per cent per year and is responsible
for about 20 per cent of current increases in the commit-
ment to global warming. Paddy fields, existing predomi-
nantly in tropical developing countries, yielding about 90
per cent of global rice production, contribute vast quanti-
ties of methane to the global methane flux. These allega-
tions have been hotly contested by the developing coun-
tries and this has persistently been a bone of contention
in the North-South dialogue on global warming.
Indian scientist Sinha has claimed that the estimates
of IPCC on methane production in developing countries
are as much as 15 times higher than actual (Down to Earth,
1995).
The emissions from landfills and coal seams also
contribute to the methane levels all over the world. CO2
40 20-70
35 19-50
10 5-20
5 0-100
500 400-600
and CH4 are known to be produced during bacterial de-
composition of flooded peat and forest biomass. Hydro-
electric reservoirs are also considered an important source
of methane. A 10-20 per cent cut would suffice to stabilize
concentration at current levels due to methanes relatively
short atmospheric lifetime, assuming that this life-time re-
mains constant and that the natural emissions do not
change.
Nitrous oxide (N2O): The concentration of nitrous
oxide has increased by 5-10 per cent since pre-industrial
times. The exact cause cannot be pinpointed but the use
of nitrogenous fertilizers, land-clearing, biomass-burning
and fossil fuel combustion may all have contributed. Each
additional molecule of N2O has over 200 times as much
impact on climate as an additional molecule of CO2. Ni-
trous oxide also contributes to the stratospheric ozone
depletion. N2O is currently increasing at a rate of 0.25 per
cent per year, which represents an imbalance of about 30
per cent between total emissions and total losses. N2O
increases are responsible for roughly 6 per cent of the
current increase in the commitment to global warming.

Global N2O emission estimates

Sources/ sinks Range (106ta-1)*
Source
Oceans 1.4-2.6
Soils (tropical forest) 2.2-3.7
Soils (temperate forests) 0.7-1.5
Fossil fuel combustion 0.1-0.3
Biomass burning 0.02-0.2
Fertilizer (including ground water) 0.01-2.2
Sinks
Removal by soils Unknown
Photolysis in the stratosphere 7-13
Atmospheric increase 3-4.5
Source: Houghton at al. 1990
more than four per cent per year since 1978 represent-
Halocarbons: Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are well-
ing about 15 per cent of the current increase in the com-
known as the depleters of stratospheric ozone but they
mitment to global warming. It is estimated that 75 per cent
are also significant as greenhouse chemicals. The most
and 85 per cent cuts respectively, are required in the emis-
common species of CFCs are CFC-12 (CC12F2) and CFC-
sions of CFC-11 and CFC-12 to stabilize the atmospheric
11, (CCI3F). Their atmospheric concentrations in 1986
concentrations to their present levels. However, because
were 392 and 266 parts per trillion by volume. While these
of contributions from several other compounds, in order
concentrations are tiny when compared with that of CO2,
to stabilize the total greenhouse warming potential from
CFCs have as much as 20,000 times more impact on cli-
all halocarbons, a phase out of fully halogenated com-
mate per additional molecule that CO2. Further the atmo-
pounds (those that do not contain hydrogen), freeze on
spheric concentration of CFCs is increasing very rapidly
the use of methy1 chloroform and a limit on the emissions
of partially halogenated substitutes would be required.
Table : Emission of Green House Gases (GHG)
(in million tonnes), 1995
Developed Countries Developing Countires
1 U.S.A. 1,433 1. China 846
2. Russia 414 2. India 250
3. Japan 308 3. South Korea 104
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009 [ 53 ]
 4. Gemany 241 4. South Africa 95
5. U.K. 151 5. Mexico 94
6. Cananda 115 6. Iran 76
7. Italy 107 7. Brazil 65
8. Poland 95 8. Saudi Arabia 63
9. Ukraine 92 9. Indonesia 62
10. France 91 10. Kazakhastan 48
11. Australia 87 11. Taiwan 48
12. Spain 60 12. Turkey 38
Other gases influencing composition: Increas- to the high concentrations of the gas, other greenhouse
ing emission of carbon monoxide (CO) and nitrogen ox- gases (GHGs) are a thousand to ten thousand times more
ides (NOx) are also adversely influencing the chemistry effective than CO2 and are consequently dangerous even
of the atmosphere. This change in atmospheric chemistry at their present trace levels of concentration.
alters the distribution of ozone and the oxidizing power of The concept of relative GWPs (Global Warming
the atmosphere, changing the atmospheric lifetime of the Potentials) has been developed to evaluate the relative
greenhouse gases. radiative effect (and, hence, the potential climate effect) of
Many of the greenhouse gases that induce tro- equal emissions of each of the GHGs. The GWPs take into
pospheric warming through the greenhouse effect are account the differing residence time of gases in the atmo-
highly stable and may be retained in the atmosphere for sphere and define the time-integrated warming effect due
decades or even for a century or more. Though the role of to an instantaneous release of a unit mass (1 kg) of a given
CO2 in global warming appears substantial at present due GHG in todays atmosphere, relative to that of CO2.

TOPIC-XIV
GLOBAL WARMING
The 1980s saw the four warmest years recorded in droughts and heat spells have occurred from time to time
the last 110 years. The first seven months of 1988 were in the past. Estimate that a warming of 1oF has already
hot enough to break all record and caused some to de- occurred during the last century.
clare the greenhouse effect was now being felt. Serious
The relative cumulative climate effect (1990) of man-made emission
GWP 1990 Relative contribution
(100yr emissions over 100 years
horizon) (Tg)
Carbon dioxide 1 26000 61%
Methane 21 300 15%
Nitrous oxide 290 6 4%
CFCs varies 0.9 11%
HCFC-22 1500 0.1 0.5%
Others varies 8.5%
GWP = Global Warming Potential

Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009 [ 54 ]

 If greenhouse gases increase and all other factors
remain the same, the earth will warm up. Computer models
to make rough predictions of how much warming will oc-
cur and where and when it should become noticeable. A
major shortcoming of the computer models however has
been that they have focused almost entirely on the
atmospheres response to the rising levels of CO2, ne-
glecting the oceans. Although slower to react to change
than our gaseous atmosphere, the oceans are nonethe-
less active components of the globes climatic system and
can influence long-term temperature variations. The
oceans most important effect in this case is their ability to
absorb, release and redistribute heat. Thus, the response
of the oceans to increased greenhouse gases is a critical
unknown in most climate models.
In 1975, Syukuro Manabe and Richard Wetherald of
the National Oceanic and Atmosphere Administrations
Geophysical Fluid dynamics lab were the first to create a
three dimensional climate model to study the greenhouse
effect. The ocean component in their model was a swamp
a stagnant, wet surface that absorbed and released heat
and moisture. The swamp model calculated the oceans
surface temperature by balancing such factors as solar
radiation, infra-red radiation to and from the earth, evapo-
ration and heat transfer between sea and air. Other impor-
tant ocean processes such as currents and salinity, sea-
sonal changes and stored heat were not factored at all.
The late 1970s saw the development of models that
treated the upper ocean as though its layers were mixed
together. These models assumed an ocean that was a slab
150 ft deep. This approach allowed for heat storage in the
summer, and release to the atmosphere in winter, thus re-
producing seasonal features at least.
The basic physics of ocean circulation first explained
by count Rusuford (Benijanin Thompson) in 1800 is only
now being incorporated into coupled atmosphere-ocean
climate models. The polar to equatorial currents and ocean
circulation, where cold, highly saline water sinks and warm
fresh water floats on the surface, is a complex way in which
local atmospheric conditions help to determine the tem-
perature and salinity of an oceans surface water. Thus,
the rapidly changing atmosphere works to influence the
formation of deep ocean currents that may take tens of
thousands of years to circulate. In 1984, James Hansen
(NASA Goddard Institute of Space Studies, New York de-
veloped an atmosphere-ocean climate model. Even though
his model did not explicitly calculate ocean currents, it
took into account the heat they transfer from the tropics
to the poles. This model again had limited usefulness,
because in reality the heat transfer would vary as the ocean
currents adjust to the altered atmospheric conditions.
Thus, only recently have climatologists attempted
to run atmospheric models simultaneously with dynamic
models of the ocean. These models can simulate tempera-
ture and salinity-driven deep ocean currents as well as
allow for upper layer wind-driven surface currents (such
as those created by Westerlies). One such model was de-
veloped and run at the National center for Atmospheric
Research in Boulder, Colorado. Starting of with present
levels of CO2 and at a 1 per cent rate of increase for the
next 30 years, they found that the lower atmosphere and
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009
the ocean surface gradually warmed up to a global aver-
age of 1oF (Washington 1992). But the warming was not
equally distributedsome regions, mainly the continen-
tal interiors, became as much as 7oF warmer. Towards the
end of the computer runs, however, a seemingly paradoxi-
cal cooling appeared in Northern Europe where tempera-
tures dropped by as much as 11oF during winter months.
These results are not seen in computer simulations that
use simple and mixed/ stratified layer ocean models. That
this cooling appears only in the model that incorporates
the effects of the ocean currents is reason to suspect that
the ocean circulation is lessened by increased CO2 con-
centration. But figuring out exactly which elements of our
climate simulation were responsible, would require exam-
ining how ocean currents affect the temperatures on land
in Northern Europe and them, how these currents might
have been altered by a generally warming climate.
Even the best among such models still oversimplify
ocean-circulation, precipitation, moisture-exchange near
the atmosphere-ocean- land interface, and the role of
clouds. At any given time for example, clouds cover 60 per
cent of the planet not only trapping heat radiating from its
surface, but also reflecting sunlight back into space. So, if
the oceans heat up and produce more clouds through
evaporation, the increased cover might act as a natural
thermostat and keep the planet from heating up. After fac-
toring more detailed cloud simulations into its computer
models, the British Meteorological Office recently showed
that current global warming projections could be cut in
half.
Oceans have a major effect upon climate, but scien-
tists have only begun to understand how. Investigators
at the US National Center for Atmospheric Research at-
tributed the North American drought in the summer of
1988 primarily to temperature changes in the tropical Pa-
cific involving a current called EI Nino not to the green-
house effect. As the oceans shuffle global climates into
new patterns, the warming produced by the greenhouse
effects may be even harder to detect and some areas may
actually coll. Some have suggested that if the earth had
no oceans at all we would have been able to measure the
greenhouse warming with certainty by now. Oceans not
only have the ability to alter climatic patterns, but they
can also slow down the warming effects, by absorbing a
great deal of heat. Because the Southern Hemisphere con-
tains substantially more amount of ocean than the North-
ern Hemisphere, it probably will not warm as rapidly. This
may seem like good news, but eventually the heat stored
in the oceans will affect our climate, perhaps not in a few
years but decades and centuries from now, given the time
scale of ocean circulation.
IMPACT OFA WARMEDEARTH
Changes in climate: The effects of a warmer atmo-
sphere on ocean currents, with the net result of causing
distinct climatic patterns the globe over have already been
discussed. The strengthening of the Indian monsoons
due to a warmer regime is also one of the proposed effects
(Ramanathan 1985); the results of which may manifest as
a greener country more like a tropical evergreen rain for-
est. However, as mentioned earlier, higher temperature,
coupled with increased precipitation will lead to a charac-
[ 55 ]
teristic shift from C4 to C3 plants (Sukumar 1993). The C3
plants (wheat, rice, legumes, oil seeds, cotton) show higher
CO2 assimilation, growth and yield in response to higher
CO2 concentration than the C4 crops (sugarcane, sorghum
or maize).
Warning against compelling evidences of a shift in
the Earths weather patterns and changes in climate, the
World Wide Fund for Nature recently released the State
of the Climate Report (1997), compiling a huge array of
global data which clearly signals that a change is already
underway. Stating that climate change was affecting ev-
ery region and most nations (The Hindu, 8 Oct. 1997), the
report said that 1995 was the hottest year in history and
1997 looks set to be a close second. The five hottest years
have all occurred in the 1990s. Excerpts from the report are
presented below.
The world is experiencing the biggest thaw since
the last Ice Age. Much of Siberia is three to five degrees
Celsius warmer than it was earlier this century. Europes
alpine glaciers have lost half their volume since 1850, gla-
ciers in the Peruvian Andes are retreating, and the US
government predicts there will be no glaciers left in the
Glacier National Park in Montana by 2030. In Antarctica,
some penguin populations have crashed and krill popula-
tionsa food-source for many marine animalshave de-
cline, seemingly killed by warmer waters.
Much of the tropics have become hotter and drier
especially in the already arid region stretching from West
Africa to Indonesia. In the 1990s, southern Africa suf-
fered crop failures, water shortages and the five driest
years of this century. The Gobi region of Mongolia has
been steadily getting less summer rainfall in the last 30
years. And the drying trend extends into Europe. Rainfall
is down by 20 per cent in the Mediterranean regions. Spain
had five years of continuous drought beginning in 1991.
In Greece, the flow of the nations longest river, the
Acheloos, declined by 40 per cent in four years.
The report also claims that the catastrophic fires
that raged in Indonesia (1997) with a crippling effect on
peoples health was a result of changing climate patterns,
particularly global warming.
Changes in sea level: Another effect that is expected
to occur is the rise in the sea-levels, due to the melting of
the polar icecaps. Some people have started to claim its
action right away; but how much of this can be attributed
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009
to global warming is not known. A number of models have
been developed to compute the magnitude of snow-melt
causing the rise in sea-level. Revelle (1983) derived a sea-
level rise of about 70 cm for a global warming of 6oK. A full
scale study done in Denmark went on to prove little, end-
ing with the conclusion that Denmark as such would be
only slightly affected by an average increase in global
temperatures (Fenger et al. 1993).
A rise in sea level represents a potential threat to
existing coastal, economic, social and environmental sys-
tems. According to a scenario developed by IPCC (Inter
Governmental Panel on Climate Change), global warming
is predicted to cause an increase of global mean sea-level
by 65 cm by the year 2100 (IPCC 1990). The primary effect
of rising sea-level will be increased coastal flooding, ero-
sion, storm surges and wave activity. These primary ef-
fects will lead to loss of ecosystems such as wetlands,
loss of coastal vegetation and habitats, salt-water intru-
sion into groundwater systems, and the loss of cultivable
land. Such changes would, in turn, translate into socio-
economic effects. This prospect assumes alarming sig-
nificance in the context of the South Asian countries, par-
ticularly with respect to island nations like Maldives. Such
islands which are barely two to four metres above sea
level could become extinct if the sea level rises as per the
forecasts. The entire coastline of South Asian countries,
which is thickly populated, would also face serious dis-
turbances. Sea level rise is likely to increase the vulner-
ability of this region to tropical storms, storm surges and
greater inundation. Some of the mangrove forests of this
region are likely to be completely decimated (Pachauri
1992).
Impact on forests: The Amazonian interior uses 80
per cent of incident radiation for evapotranspiration, the
rest 20 per cent being used to warm the air. If deforested,
the reduction in precipitation will lead to release of latent
heat. Thus, the regions outside the tropics will receive
less heat and become cooler.
Impact on agriculture: The global warming will in-
evitably change the climate and affect food production,
particularly in the tropical countries of Africa, South
America and Asia, where the productivity is already poor
(Parry 1990). Contrary to this, a uniform or general rise in
global temperatures may shift the vegetation belts to
higher latitudes, especially shifting of the temperate wheat
[ 56 ]
zones further north. Poorer soils can reduce productivity.
Yet evidence also exists that increased CO2 accelerates
growth of trees. Pine trees that have barely survived on
the timberline of Californias mountains are growing luxu-
riantly now (Friedmann 1985). Since rapid plant growth
can remove CO2 faster from the atmosphere, it can slow
the climatic impact of the greenhouse effect. Agricultural
scientists generally take a favorable view of the increase
in CO2. Not only will more CO2 make crops grow faster
and larger but they will also become more drought resis-
tant because higher CO2 concentrations also improve the
efficiency with which plants use water.
Impact on ecosystems: Effects on animal life are more
or less ambiguous. Sex ratio biases in certain reptiles like
turtles could occur. However, more detailed research needs
to be put in before any conclusions can be drawn.
POLICIES NEEDED
Many countries have levied CO2 taxes. Norway
charges 20$/ tonne of C, Sweden charges 150$/ tonne C;
yet if we have to stabilize global CO2 levels, a global aver-
age of 210$ has to be charged (USEPA 1989). Biomass
conservation and farming can sequester a good deal of
CO2 (Rosillo Calle et al. 1992). We also have to stop defor-
estation, at least lower the rates of deforestation of tropi-
cal rain forests and grow or afforest at least 30 million ha
in developing nations and 40 million ha in industrial na-
tions. Of course the major conventions, treaties, and pro-
tocols continue side by side. Many of the policies could
be deleterious to the furthering of development in many
Third World Countries. In fact there is the major danger of
the developed nations making use of the wolf, wolf strat-
egy to achieve a new world order of Environmental Impe-
rialism.
The Montreal protocol signed by 40 countries in
September, 1987, embodies the strategy to eventually
phase out chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) by the year 2000.
In the Indian context, the Montreal protocol seeks to phase
out production of CFCs in the developing countries by
the year 2010 (a grace period of 10 years). The cost of
switching over to CFC substitutes is estimated to be be-
tween Rs 35,000 million and Rs 60,000 million depending
TOPIC-XV
THE OZONE HOLE
Ozone is found primarily in the stratosphere within
the 10-50 km range in altitude. This stretch is referred to as
the ozonosphere.
Ozone is an allotrope of oxygen consisting of three
atoms of oxygen bound together in a non-linear fashion.
The chemical symbol of ozone is O3. The configuration of
the ozone molecule and its chemical properties are such
that ozone efficiently absorbs ultraviolet light, thus act-
ing like a sun-screen. In doing so, ozone protects oxygen
at lower altitudes from being broken up by the action of
ultraviolet light and also keeps most of the ultraviolet ra-
diation from reaching the earths surface. Hence, ozone
plays a significant role in protecting the environment even
though it constitutes less than one part per million of the
gases in the atmosphere.
The ozone hole does not literally mean a gaping
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009
on the time-lag for the change-over. India cannot have ac-
cess to the technology to produce the replacement refriger-
ants as it has been patented by Dupont and a few other
multinational corporations.
The agreement adopted at the UN climate confer-
ence (Berlin, April 1995) includes a tool to give poorer
countries their best access to rich nations technologies,
which can be transferred to the developing world, with
benefits for both parties and the global environment.
The Third Conference of the parties to the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change was
recently held (December 1997) at Kyoto, Japan. As a re-
sult of the deliberations, the USA, the European Union
and Japan have committed themselves to cuts of seven,
eight and six per cent of the 1990 levels of six greenhouse
gases over the next 15 years: hydrofluorocarbons,
perfluorocarbons, sulphur hexafluoride, carbon dioxide,
nitrous oxide and methane. It may be noted that prior to
the Kyoto convention only the last three gases were iden-
tified for emission control. Another aspect of the Kyoto
Protocol is that the right to emissions trading was included
in the final treaty. Perhaps the summits greatest achieve-
ment was its eloquent reiteration that global warming is
not just a figment of a science-fiction writers imagination,
but a painfully real problem.
On the scientific side, tremendous research with re-
markable achievements in alternative energy sources; less
polluting, more efficient systems, is going on. Nothing
much is being done to actually reduce atmospheric CO2
levels. Sequestering CO2 in new forest growth can offset
anthropogenic emissions by fixing carbon in plant tissue.
Long-term sequestration requires that forests are periodi-
cally harvested for lumber and wood products that remain
in service and do not return CO2 to the atmosphere by
combustion. Simple prudence and being more efficient can
alter matters to an extent, but the rising trend of CO2 emis-
sions is something about which not much can be done
now. Global warming responses should be linked to exist-
ing programmes for energy conservation, soil and water
conservation, sustainable agriculture and sustainable ur-
ban development.
hole in the atmosphere of the earth. It implies that there is
a significant decrease in the concentration of ozone in a
particular region of the atmosphere. The best example of
such an ozone hole is the ozonosphere over the Antarctic
which has only about 50 percent of the ozone that origi-
nally occurred there; hence the name ozone hole.
How was ozone formed?
Evolutionary geologists have estimated that the
ozone layer as we now have, has been formed very slowly
over a period of 2500 million years. Several factorsgeo-
logical, hydrological, biological and lithological aspects
of evolution have contributed to the formation of the
ozone layers.
Hv + O2 ? O + O
(energy)
These free individual oxygen atoms combine with oxygen
[ 57 ]
molecules (O2) to form ozone (O3).
O + O 2 ? O3
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE OZONE LAYER
Ozone absorbs most of the harmful ultraviolet rays
of the sun, thus preventing them from reaching the earths
surface. The harmful effects of ozone layer depletion on
human beings is due to the action of these ultraviolet rays
on eyes and skin, causing sun-burns, cataract, skin caner,
etc. The UV rays cause direct damage to the genetic mate-
rial or DNA of animal cells. Exposure of mammals to UV
light has been shown to act on the immune system, thereby
making the body more susceptible to diseases.
Thus, it is obvious that the ozone layer acting as a
sunscreen prevents the harmful UV rays from reaching
the earths surface directly, thereby helping in reducing
the risks of mutation and harm to plant and animal life.
This fact underlines the significance of the ozone layer.
FACTORSACCELERATING OZONE DEPLETION
The main factors responsible for ozone depletion
are generally by-products or emissions from industries.
The main sources are: Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs):
These molecules are made up of chlorine, fluorine and
carbon. Some of the common CFCs and their commercial
names are given below (Isaksen 1992).
Dichlorodifluoro methane (Freon 12)
Trichlorofluoro methane (Freon 11)
Chlorodifluoro methane (Freon 22)
Dichlorotetrsafluoro ethane (Freon 114)
Trichlorotrifluoro ethane (Freon 113)
The properties of CFCs like non-corrosiveness, non-
inflammability, low toxicity and chemical stability are very
are used as refrigerants, propellants in aerosol sprays,
foaming agents in plastic manufacturing, fire extinguish-
ing agents, solvents for cleaning electronic and metallic
components, for freezing foods etc.
Unlike other chemicals, CFCs cannot be eliminated
from the atmosphere by the usual scavenging processes
like photodissociation, rain-out and oxidation. In fact, the
residence time of CFCs in the atmosphere is estimated to
be between 40 and 150 years. During this period, the CFCs
move upwards by random diffusion, from the troposphere
to the stratosphere.
The CFCs enter the atmosphere by gradual evapo-
ration from their source. CFCs can escape into the atmo-
sphere from a discarded refrigerator. Since the CFCs are
thermally stable, they can survive in the troposphere. But
in the stratosphere, they are exposed to UV radiation. The
molecules of CFCs exposed to UV radiation break up, thus
freeing chlorine atoms. A free chlorine atom reacts with an
ozone molecule (O3), forming an oxygen molecule (O2)
and a molecule of chlorine monoxide (ClO). The molecules
of chlorine monoxide further combine with an atom of oxy-
gen. This reaction results in the formation of an oxygen
molecule (O2) and reformation of the free chlorine atom
(Cl).
Cl +O3 ? ClO+ O2
ClO+ O ? Cl+ O2
Net reaction: O3+ O ? O2 + O2
The depletion of O3 is catalytic, the element that
destroys O3 being reformed at the end of the cycle (Toon
1991). A single chlorine atom destroys thousands of ozone
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009
molecules before encountering reactive nitrogen or hy-
drogen compounds that eventually return chlorine to its
reservoirs (Stolarski 1988). Nitrogen oxides: The sources
of oxides of nitrogen are mainly explosions of thermo-
nuclear weapons in the atmosphere, industrial emissions
and agricultural fertilizer. Nitric oxide (NO) catalytically
destroys ozone.
NO + O3 ? NO2 + O2
NO2 + O ? NO + O2
Nitrous oxide (N2O) is released from soils through
denitrification of nitrates under anaerobic conditions and
nitrification of ammonia under aerobic conditions. This
N2O can gradually reach the middle of the stratosphere,
where it is photolytically destroyed to yield nitric oxide
which in turn destroys ozone (Sethi 1991). Other
substances:Bromine containing compounds are called
halons and HBFCs, i.e. hydrobromofluorocarbons (both
used in fire extinguishers) and methyl bromide (a widely
used pesticide). Each bromine atom destroys hundreds of
times more ozone molecules than does a chlorine atom.
Carbon tetrachloride (a cheap, highly toxic solvent) and
methyl chloroform or 1,1,1-trichloroethane (used as a clean-
ing solvent for clothes and metals, and as a propellant in
a wide range of consumer products, such as correction
fluid, dry-cleaning sprays, spray adhesives and other aero-
sols).
Role of polar stratospheric clouds in zone depletion
There are three types of stratospheric clouds. They
are:
a) Nacreous clouds: These clouds extend from 10
to 100 km in length and several kilometers in thickness.
They are also called mother-of-pearl clouds due to their
glow with a sea-shell like iridescence.
b) The second type of clouds contain nitric acid
instead of pure water.
c) The third type of clouds have the same chemical
composition as nacreous clouds, but form at a slower rate,
which results in a larger cloud with no iridescence.
The chlorine, released by the breakdown of CFCs
exists initially as pure chlorine or as chlorine monoxide
but these two forms react further to form compounds that
are stable.
Cl + CH4 ? HCl + CH3
ClO + NO2 ? ClONO2
The stable compounds HCI and CIONO2 are reser-
voirs of chlorine, and therefore for chlorine to take part in
reaction of any sort, it has to be freed.
Susan Solomon and co-workers from NOAA
Aeoronomy Laboratory and scientists from Harvard Uni-
versity, suggested in 1986, that a correlation existed be-
tween the cycle of ozone depletion and the presence of
polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) i.e., the ice particles of
the clouds provided substrates for chemical reactions
which freed chlorine from its reservoirs. Usually the reac-
tion between HCI and CIONO2 is very slow but this reac-
tion occurs at a faster rate in the presence of a suitable
substrate which is provided by the stratospheric clouds
at the poles.
[ 58 ]
 The reaction is
HCI + CIONO3 ? Cl2 + HNO3
It results in the formation of molecular chlorine and
nitric acid.
The molecular chlorine formed in the above reac-
tion can be broken down to atomic chlorine and the ozone
depletion reaction would continue.
The PSCs not only activate chlorine, but they also
absorb reactive nitrogen. If nitrogen oxides were present
they would have combined with chlorine monoxide to form
a reservoir of chlorine nitrate (CIONO2).
THE OZONE DEPLETION THEORIES
One principal group of theories has suggested that
atmospheric motions alone cause the ozone hole. The pro-
ponents of these theories hold that the air circulation pat-
terns over the poles may have gradually changed over
time so that the upward moving winds might now blow
over Antarctica during the spring. These winds, it has
been conjectured, would replace ozone-rich stratospheric
air with ozone-poor air from the troposphere. Scientists
form Ames Research Centre and Leroy National Centre
for Atmospheric Research have shown that these hypoth-
eses are incorrect. According to the dynamic models pro-
posed by the advocates of the circulation theories, high
concentration of trace gases originating from the ground
should be present at the altitude of the ozone hole. How-
ever, investigations showed only low levels of trace gases.
A second class of theories proposes that chemical
reactions deplete ozone. One early hypothesis suggested
that reactive nitrogen compounds, normally the most im-
portant agents for destroying ozone in the lower atmo-
sphere, might exist at elevated concentrations near the
ozone hole. The enhancement was presumed to result from
the combined effects of increased solar activity and atmo-
spheric circulation. The theory proposes that the enhanced
solar activity produces reactive forms of nitrogen over
the South Pole at high altitudes. The downward motion of
air carries the reactive nitrogen into the lower stratosphere,
where investigations reveal a decrease in the concentra-
tion of ozone.
Crofton B. Farman found that the reactive forms of
nitrogen are also low in the ozone hole, hence disproving
this theory.
Farman and his colleagues proposed an alternative
chemical interpretationone that has now gained wide
acceptance. Based on the mid-1970s work by Mario J.
Molina, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
and F. Sherwood Rowland of the University of California
at Irvine; the theory suggests that chlorine compounds
might be responsible for the ozone hole. Chlorine prima-
rily enters the atmosphere as a component of chlorofluo-
rocarbon (CFC) produced by different industries. Winds
throughout the troposphere uniformly distribute CFC
molecules released from a single point. After decades, the
molecules eventually reach the middle stratosphere. The
UV light then tears them apart. Chlorine reservoirs them-
selves do not destroy the ozone layer. In these com-
pounds, chlorine remains inert and cannot react with the
ozone. Early models concluded that CFCs should not have
a major effect on the4 ozone layer. Evidently some mecha-
nism in the Antarctic stratosphere was freeing more of the
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009
chlorine from its inert reservoirs.
Susan Soloman and her co-workers at the NOAA
Aeronomy Laboratory and Michael B. Metlroy and his
co-workers at Harvard University attempted to explain the
probable mechanism involved. In 1986, they suggested
an observed correlation between ozone depletion and the
presence of polar stratospheric clouds, implying that
chemical reactions on the ice particles
in the clouds freed chlorine from the reservoirs.
Initially the cloud theory was accepted with hesitation as
clouds in the stratosphere were thought to be
uncommon. However, further research work confirmed the
presence of three types of polar stratospheric clouds
(PSCs): nitric acid trihydrate, slowly cooling water-ice and
rapidly cooling water-ice clouds (nacreous) which can act
as key components in the
Antarctic ozone depletion. The PSCs can activate
chlorine on their surface as well as use up reactive nitro-
gen, which would otherwise transfer chlorine
to its reservoirs. Slowly cooling water-ice and
nitric acid trihydrate clouds can entirely deplete the strato-
sphere of nitrogen (Toon and Turco 1991).
Studies by the UARS (Upper Atmospheric Research Sat-
ellite) have also confirmed the presence of
fluorine in the stratosphere which corroborates the role of
CFCs in ozone depletion. Although the presence
of chlorine in the stratosphere can be attributed to
volcanic eruptions, salt sprays and the like, apart
from the presence of CFCs, the source of fluorine
in the stratosphere must be solely attributed to the CFCs.
ENVIRONMENTALEFFECTS OF OZONE DEPLETION
AN OVERVIEW
A change in the composition of the stratosphere
becomes relevant to society only if it has noticeable ef-
fects. Hence, the assessment of effects has a major role in
the problem of ozone depletion.
Decreases in the quantity of total-column ozone, as
now observed in many places, tend to cause increased
penetration of solar UV-B Radiation (290-315nm) to the
earths surface. UV-B radiation is the most energetic com-
ponent of sunlight reaching the earths surface. It has
profound effects on human health, animals, plants, micro-
organisms, materials and on air quality. Thus, any pertur-
bation which leads to an increase in UV-B radiation de-
mands careful consideration of the possible conse-
quences.
Changes in ultraviolet radiation
The amount of UV radiation filtering through the
atmosphere to the earth increases with the thinning of the
ozone layer. Measurements show that maximum UV levels
at the South Pole are reached well before the summer sol-
stice.
Global ozone measurements from satellites over 1979-
93 show significant UV-B increases at high and mid-lati-
tudes of both hemispheres, but only small changes in the
tropics. Such estimates however assume that the cloud
cover and tropospheric pollution have remained constant
over these years. Under the current CFC phase-out sched-
ules, global UV levels are predicted to peak around the
turn of the century in association with peak loading of
chlorine in the stratosphere and the concomitant ozone
[ 59 ]
reduction. The recovery to pre-ozone depletion levels is
expected to take place gradually over the next 50 years.
Effects on human and animal health
Potential risks include an increase n the incidence
of and morbidity from eye diseases, skin cancer and infec-
tious diseases. Quantitative estimates of risk are available
for some effects (e.g., skin cancer), but others (e.g., infec-
tious diseases are currently) associated with pollution with
considerable uncertainty.
UV radiation has been shown in experimental sys-
tems to damage the cornea and lens of the eye. Chronic
exposure to UV-B (a high, cumulative, lifetime dose) is
one of the several factors clearly associated with the risk
of cataract of the cortical and posterior sub-capsular forms.
Some components of the immune system are present
in the skin, which makes the immune system accessible to
UV radiation.
Effects on terrestrial plants
Physiological and developmental processes of plants
are affected by UV-B radiation, even by the amount of UV-
B in present-day sunlight. Plants also have several mecha-
nisms to ameliorate or repair these effects and may accli-
mate to a certain extent to increased levels of UV-B. Nev-
ertheless, plant growth can be directly affected by UV-B
radiation.
Response to UV-B also varies considerably among
species and also cultivars of the same species. In agricul-
ture, this will necessitate using more UV-B tolerant culti-
vars and breeding new ones. In forests and
grasslands, this is likely to result in changes in the com-
position of species; therefore there are implications for
the biodiversity in different ecosystems. Increasing CO2
also interact with UV-B. Such reactions are not easily pre-
dicted, but are of obvious importance in both agriculture
and in non-agricultural ecosystems.
Effects on aquatic ecosystems
More than 30 per cent of the worlds animal protein
for human consumption comes from the sea, and in many
countries, particularly the developing countries, this per-
centage is significantly higher.
In addition, the oceans play a key role with respect
to global warming. Marine phytoplanktons are a major
sink for atmospheric carbon dioxide, and they have a de-
cisive role in the development of future trends of CO2
concentrations in the atmosphere.
Phytoplanktons form the foundation of aquatic food
webs. Marine phytoplanktons are not uniformly distrib-
uted throughout the oceans of the world. The highest
concentrations are found at high latitudes while, with the
exception of upwelling, areas on the continental shelves,
the tropics and subtropics have 10 to 100 times lower con-
centrations. In addition to nutrients, temperature, salinity
and light availability; the high levels of exposure to solar
UV-B radiation that normally occur within the tropics and
subtropics may play a role in phytoplankton distributions.
Researchers have measured the increase in, and
penetration of UV-B radiation in Antarctic waters, and have
provided conclusive evidence of direct ozone-related ef-
fects within natural phytoplankton communities. Making
use of the space and time variability of the UV-B front
associated with the Antarctic ozone hole, researchers as-
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009
sessed phytoplankton productivity within areas under the
hole compared to that in areas outside the hole. The re-
sults show a direct reduction in phytoplankton produc-
tivity due to ozone-related increases in UV-B. One study
has indicated a 6-12 per cent reduction in phytoplankton
productivity in the marginal ice zone.
Solar UV-B radiation has been found to cause dam-
age in the early developmental stages of fish, shrimp, crab,
amphibians and other animals. The most severe effects
are decreased reproductive capacity and impaired larval
development. Even at current levels, solar UV-B radiation
is a limiting factor, and small increases in UV-B exposure
could result in a significant reduction in the size of the
population of organisms commonly consumed by humans.
Effects on bio-geochemical cycles
In terrestrial ecosystems, increased UV-B could
modify both the production and decomposition of plant
matter with concomitant changes in the uptake and re-
lease of atmospherically important trace gases. Decom-
position processes can be accelerated when UV-B photo-
degrades surface litter, and retarded when the dominant
effect is on the chemical composition of living tissues,
resulting in reduced bio-degradability of buried litter. Pri-
mary production can be reduced by enhanced UV-B lev-
els, but the effect is variable between species and even
cultivars of some crops. Likewise, photo-production of
CO from plant matter is species-dependent and occurs
more efficiently from dead than living matter.
In aquatic ecosystems, reductions in current levels
of solar UV-B result in enhanced primary production, and
Antarctic experiments under the ozone hole demonstrated
that primary production is inhibited by enhanced UV-B.
UV radiation can reduce bacterioplankton growth
in the upper ocean layer with potentially important effects
on marine bio-geochemical cycles. Solar UV radiation
stimulates the degradation of aquatic dissolved organic
matter (DOM) resulting in loss of UV absorption and for-
mation of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC), CO, and or-
ganic substrates that are readily mineralized or taken up
by aquatic micro-organisms. Aquatic nitrogen cycling can
be affected by enhanced UV-B through inhibition of nitri-
fying bacteria and photodecomposition of simple inor-
ganic species such as nitrate. The marine sulphur cycle
may be affected by UV-B radiation resulting in possible
changes in the sea-to-air emissions of COS and
dimethylsulphide (DMS), two gases that are degraded to
surface aerosols in the stratosphere and troposphere, re-
spectively.
Effects on air quality
Reduction in stratospheric ozone and the concomi-
tant increase in UV-B radiation penetrating to the lower
atmosphere result in higher photodissociation rates of key
trace gases that control the chemical reactivity of the tro-
posphere. This can increase both production and destruc-
tion of ozone (O3) and related oxidants such as hydrogen
peroxide (H2O2), which are known to have adverse ef-
fects on human health, terrestrial plants, and outdoor
materials. Changes in the atmospheric concentrations of
the hydroxyl radical (OH) may change the atmospheric
lifetimes of climatically important gases such as methane
(CH4) and the CFC substitutes. Increases in OH concen-
[ 60 ]
trations cause a nearly proportionate decrease in the
steady-state tropospheric concentrations of CH4 and CFC
substitutes such as the HCFCs and HFCs.
Increased tropospheric reactivity could also lead to
increased production of particulates such as cloud con-
densation nuclei, from the oxidation and subsequent
nucleation of sulphur, of both anthropogenic and natural
origin (e.g., carbonyl sulphide and dimethylsuphide).
While these processes are still not fully understood, they
exemplify the possibility of complex feedbacks between
stratospheric ozone reductions, tropospheric chemistry
and climate change.
Effects on materials
Synthetic polymer, naturally occurring biopolymers,
as well as some other materials of commercial interest are ad-
versely affected by solar UV radiation. The application of
these materials, particularly plastics, in situations which
demand routine exposure to sunlight is only possible
through the use of light-stabilizers and/or surface treat-
ment to protect them from sunlight. Any increase in solar
UV-B content due to partial ozone depletion will therefore
accelerate the photogradation rates of these materials,
limiting their life outdoors. Shorter UV-B wavelength pro-
cesses are mainly responsible for photo-damage ranging
from discoloration to loss of mechanical integrity. Strenu-
ous and concerted efforts should be undertaken globally
in a sustained manner for the protection of the ozone layer
umbrella which wards off harmful UV-B radiation.
THE HOLE PREDOMINANTLYAT THEANTARCTIC?
1. The Antarctic stratosphere is much colder. The
low temperature enables the formation of Polar Strato-
spheric Clouds (PSCs), below 20 km.
2. Ozone absorbs sunlight, causing the character-
istic increase in temperature with increase in altitude in
the stratosphere. If ozone is being depleted, the air is
cooler, further adding to the favorable conditions for the
formation of PSCs and stabilization of the vortex. The
vortex is ring of rapidly circulating air that confines the
ozone depletion.
3. The longevity of the Antarctic vortex is another
factor, enhancing favorable conditions for the depletion
of ozone. The vortex remains, in fact, throughout the po-
lar winter, well into mid-spring whereas the vortex in the
Arctic disintegrates by the time the polar spring (March
April) arrives.
Typical happenings in the winter months leading to
the ozone hole over the Antarctic:
June: Antarctic winter begins, the vortex develops
and the temperature falls enough for the clouds to form.
July and August: PSCs denitrify and dehydrate the
stratosphere through precipitation; hydrochloric and chlo-
rine nitrate react on cloud surfaces to free chlorine, and
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009
winter temperatures drop to their lowest point.
September: Sunlight returns to the centre of the vor-
tex as the austral spring begins and PSCs disappear be-
cause of increasing temperature; CIO-CIO and CIO-BrO
catalytic cycles destroy ozone.
October: Lowest levels of ozone are reached.
November: Polar vortex breaks down, ozone-rich air
from the mid-latitudes replenishes the Antarctic strato-
sphere and ozone-poor air spreads over the southern hemi-
sphere.
Arctic ozone hole
Of late, the ozone hole has been increasingly evi-
dent over the Arctic as well. The Arctic ozone hole which
swept across Britain in March 96 was the deepest ever
seen in the northern hemisphere. Scientists claim that it
had been caused, in part, by a dramatic cooling of the
upper atmosphere in the northern latitudes over the past
two years.
OZONE DEPLETION CONTROL STRATEGIES
The Vienna Convention for the protection of the
ozone layer was established in 1985, under the United
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). The conven-
tion was held for the promotion of exchange of informa-
tion, research and systematic observations to protect the
human environment and health.
The Montreal Protocol: it was signed by 40 coun-
tries in September 1987. An agreement was reached be-
tween the manufacturers and consumers on the issue of
CFCs. The CFCs were classified under two groups, I and
II. The consumption and production of the CFCs in the
groupII category were to be stopped at once.
In the case of CFCs in group I, it was agreed upon to
implement
a freeze on consumption at 1986 levels by 1990
a cut to 80 per cent by 1994
a further cut to 50 per cent by 1999
production could be raised by 10 per cent till 1990
but production had to be reduced to 90 per cent by 1994
and to 65 per cent by 1999.
Although reluctant initially, India and China, two
potentially important CFC consumers, have finally signed
the Montreal Treaty. In the Indian context, the Montreal
Protocol seeks to phase out production of CFCs in devel-
oping countries by the year 2010. The cost of switching
over to CFC substitutes is estimated to be between Rs
35,000 and Rs 60,000 million, depending on the time taken
for the change over.
In June 1990, 93 countries signed a United Nations
agreement to stop producing CFCs by the end of the 1990s.
The main reason for this agreement
was the establishment of a US $ 240 million buffer fund to
help developing countries develop alternatives to CFCs.
[ 61 ]
 TOPIC-XVI
HAZARDOUS WASTES
A per the definition of the Resource Conservation
and Recovery Act (RCRA) of USA, hazardous waste is a
solid, liquid or gaseous waste, or combination of wastes,
that because of its quantity, concentration or character-
istics may cause or significantly contribute to an increase
in mortality or an increase in serious irreversible or in-
capacitating reversible illness and pose a substantial
present or potential hazard to human health or the envi-
ronment when improperly treated, stored transported,
disposed of or otherwise managed.
In short a hazardous waste is one which is poten-
tially harmful to the eco-system unless properly managed.
The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has
defined a waste to be hazardous under the legislation if it:
i) exhibits characteristics of ignitability, corrosivity,
reactivity and/ or toxicity;
ii) is a nonspecific source waste (generic waste from
industrial processes);
iii) is a specific source waste (from specific indus-
tries);
iv) is a specific commercial chemical product or in-
termediate;
v) is a mixture containing a listed hazardous waste;
or,
vi) is a substance that is not excluded from regula-
tion under
Hazardous materials are those which are toxic, per-
sistent, ignitable, corrosive, bio-accumulative, infectious
or pathogenic.
Examples include wastes from plastic, pesticide, her-
bicide, medicine, paint and petroleum industries.
IMPACT OF HAZARDOUS WASTES ON THE ECOSYS-
TEM
A few classic cases in point highlighting the danger
posed by hazardous wastes are enumerated below:
Love Canal: An area of about 16 acres in Niagara
Falls was used from 1942 to 1953 as a dump-site for ap-
proximately 22,000 tonnes of chemicals (Health 1983). The
area was capped with clay and later houses and a school
were built up to the edge of the site.
In 1978-79 over 200 families were evacuated as po-
tential teratogenic, mutagenic and oncogenic chemicals
were identified from the area leading to increased abor-
tions and birth defects.
Delhi: Nearer home a noxious nightmare assailed
the residents of Kardampuri colony in East Delhi in the
wee hours of 13 November 1994. Toxic fumes from a heap
set aflame by a local junk dealer created the panicky exo-
dus. The people complained of severe breathing distress,
irritation and pain in the throat, vomiting, and dizziness.
Many people, including infants were seriously affected
and a few succumbed to the poisoning. Tests revealed
that the chemicals responsible were cyanide, cadmium,
selenium and arsenic. Traces of lead, aluminium and cop-
per were also found. It is widely suspected that the burn-
ing of metals like cobalt and manganese along with pesti-
cides like organophosphates and carbonates caused the
noxious fumes.
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009
HEALTH HAZARDS
The evaluation of the health effects of hazardous
wastes depends upon three basic problems:
i) availability of toxicologic data on chemicals;
ii) toxicity of mixtures of chemical wastes and the
physical, chemical and biological factors that in-
fluence toxicity; and
iii) estimation of the level and duration of exposure
to the population.
The toxic effects induced by hazardous wastes can
be differentiated into two different groups: responses that
result from genetic effects and those associated with tar-
get organs.
In addition to epidemiological methods used in as-
sessing health effects, several basic issues need to be
reconciled prior to data interpretation. These include la-
tency period, multiple causative factors, population di-
versity and mobility, and socioeconomic and urbaniza-
tion conditions.
HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT
Appropriate management techniques have to take
into account the various options based on the nature,
quantity and location of the waste. The desirable options
for managing hazardous wastes are listed below, on prior-
ity basis. Figure 4.1 is a schematic representation of the
prioritized options.
i) Minimization of the amount generated by modi-
fying the industrial processes involved.
ii) Transfer of the waste to another industry that
can utilize it.
iii) Reprocessing of the waste to recover energy or
materials.
iv) Separation of hazardous waste from non-hazard-
ous waste at the source and its subsequent con-
centration, which reduces the handling, trans-
portation and disposal costs.
v) Incineration of the waste or its treatment to re-
duce the degree of hazard, and
vi) Disposal of the waste in a secure landfill, one
that is located, designed, operated and monitored
in a manner that protects life and environment
(Wentz 1989). Let us examine the different dis-
posal and treatment methods currently in use.
Landfills
Landfills for the disposal of hazardous wastes
evolved from sanitary landfills.
Land treatment
This is a biological method in which, hazardous
wastes are deposited either on the land or injected just
beneath it and degraded naturally by aerobic organisms.
Oxygen levels may be maintained by periodic ploughing.
Deep-well injection
The use of injection wells for industrial waste dis-
posal began around 1950. In a typical injection well, depths
to the disposal zone commonly range between 600 to
1800m but may be shallower or deeper.
Incineration
The safest and most effective alternative to land-
[ 62 ]
based disposal of hazardous wastes is incineration. Many
organic toxic wastes are broken down to harmless CO2
and H2O at high temperatures. Small amounts of HCI, SO2,
dioxins etc, may be produced depending on the efficiency
of the incinerator. These can be removed using special
TOPIC-XVII
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT
The entire world is facing multifarious problems of
environmental degradation due to technological and in-
dustrial development as well as on explosive growth of
population which has causes enormous strain on envi-
ronmental resources. Therefore there is an urgent need
for maintaining a balance between the capacity of envi-
ronment and the quantum of sustainable utilization. There
is now a growing concern about environmental Impact
assessment (EIA) all over the world, especially after the
U.S. National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 in which
emphasis has been given that all federal agencies should
prefer an EIA on all major developments before approval
be given to developers.
EIA is the prior assessment of the future impact of
the consequences of any decision on the quality of the
human environment, on which man largely depends for
his well-being. There is no universal definition of EIA.
According to Gregory and Walling (1981), EIA refers to
the studies which attempt to produce estimates of future
environmental changes attributable to a proposed action,
and attempt to suggest the likely impact of these changes
(environmental changes to be brought in by human ac-
tions) on mans future well-being.
In simple words, EIA is an approach which seeks
to improve development by a priori assessment. Some of
the major characteristics of EIA include the following:
1 It is a systematic evaluation of all significant
environmental consequences an action is likely
to have upon the environment.
2. It is a structured, systematic, and comprehen-
sive approach.
3. It is a process which forces developers to recon-
sider proposals.
4. It is process leading to a statement to guide deci-
sion makers.
5. It is a process which has the potential to increase
developers accountability to the public.
6. It should be subject to independent, objective
review of results.
7. It should include clear statement of identified
impacts as well as possible alternative develop-
ment options.
A project can produce impacts upon a given envi-
ronment under three circumstances:
1 In the first instance, impacts may arise from
project location.
2. Some impacts may take place during the con-
struction of the project. These impacts can pro-
duce temporary or permanent changes in the en-
vironment.
3. After completion of the project, the manner of
envisaged uses of it may cause impacts upon
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009
equipment. High incinerator temperatures result in an in-
creased emission of heavy metals.
Incineration at sea: This is attractive because of its
low cost, roughly half that of incineration on land.
environment.
All the expected impacts are to be stated in the EIA
report. The essential steps in an EIA as given by the NEPA
are given below:
1. Describe the present environment.
2. Describe the project, including purposes and
needs.
3. Describe the effects of the project.
4. Describe the impactsshort term as well as long
term.
5. Suggest and compare alternatives.
6. Provide a projection of the future of the site with
and without the project.
7. Suggest mitigating activities (remedial measures).
Methodologies for Environmental Impact Assessment
Individuals as well as scientific research organiza-
tion have devised alternative methodologies and proce-
dures for formulating environmental impact assessment.
Principles and procedures of Environmental Impact As-
sessment on Problem of Environment by Scientific Com-
mittee on Problems of the Environment, Paris (SCOPE), in
1975 and Leopold Matrix for Environmental Impact As-
sessment by Luna Leopold et al. (1971) deserve special
mention.
Leopold laid down the following procedures for
environmental impact assessment:
1. Statement of objectives of the proposed devel-
opment plan.
2. Technical possibilities of achieving the objec-
tives.
3. Proposed action and alternatives for achieving
the stated objectives.
4. Report on the character of the environment be-
fore action begins.
5. Principle of alternative engineering proposals
submitted as reports, along with analysis of mon-
etary costs and benefits of each engineering al-
ternative.
6. Proposed plan and the report on the present en-
vironment which helps evaluation of the likely
environmental impact of the proposal.
7. Assessment of environmental impacts of each
alternative plan.
8. Environmental Impact Statement, summarizing
the whole analysis and enlisting final recommen-
dations and the relative merits of each alterna-
tive.
Leopold has also presented a matrix for the assess-
ment of environmental impacts of proposed plan. The
matrix is known as Leopold Matrix. It involves 100
projects actions along the horizontal axis and 88 environ-
mental characteristics and conditions which are liable to
[ 63 ]
be affected by project actions listed in the horizontal axis in the vertical axis of the matrix.
Leopold Matrix for Environmental Impact Assessment

Part AEnvironmental Conditions and Part BProject Actions

Characteristics
(Vertically arranged) (Horizontally arranged)
A. Physical and Chemical A. Modification of Regime
Characteristics
1. Earth a. Exotic flora and fauna introduction
a. Mineral resources b. Biological controls
b. Construction materials c. Modification of habitats
c. Soils d. Alteration of ground cover
d. Landform e. Alteration of ground water
hydrology
e. Force fields and f. Alteration of drainage
background radiation
f. Unique physical features g. River control and flow modification
2. Water h. Canalization
a. Surface i. Irrigation
b. Ocean j. Weather modification
c. Underground k. Burning
d. Quality l. Surface or paving
e. Temperature m. Noise and vibration
f. Recharge B. Land Transformation and
Construction
g. Snow, ice and permafrost a Urbanization
3. Atmosphere b. Industrial sites and buildings
a. Quality (gases, particulate) c. Airports
b. Climate d. Highways and bridges
c. Temperature e. Roads and trails
4. Processes f. Cables and lifts
a. Floods g. Transmission lines, pipe lines,
corridors
b. Erosion h. Barriers & fencing
c. Deposition (sedimentation, i. Channel, dredging & straightening
precipitation) j. Channel revetments
d. Solution k. Canals
e. Absorption (ion exchange, l. Dams and impoundments
f. Compaction m. Piers, sea walls, marinas, sea
terminals
g. Stability (slides, slums) n. Offshore structures
h. Stress-strain (earthquake) o. Offshore structures
i. Air Movements p. Recreational structures
B. Biological Conditions q. Blasting and drilling
1. Flora r. Cut and fill
a. Trees s. Tunnels & underground structures
b. Shrubs C. Resource Extraction
c. Grass a. Blasting and drilling
d. Crops b. Surface excavation
e. Microflora c. Sub surface excavation
f. Aquatic plants d. Well drilling and fluid removal
g. Endangered species e. Dredging
h. Barriers f. Chear cutting and lumbering
i. Corridors g. Commercial fishing & hunting
2. Fauna D. Processing
a. Birds a. Farming
b. Land animals & reptiles b. Ranching and grazing
c. Fish and shellfish c. Feed lots
d. Benthic organisms d. Dairying
e. Insects e. Energy generation
f. Micro-fauna f. Mineral processing
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 g. Endangered species g. Metallurgical industry
h. Barriers h. Chemical industry
i. Corridors i. Textile industry
C. Cultural Factors j. Automobiles and aircrafts
1. Land use k. Oil refining
a. Wilderness and open space l. Food
b. Wetlands m. Lumbering
c. Forestry n. Pulp and paper
d. Grazing o. Product storage
e. Agriculture E. Land Alteration
f. Residential a. Erosion control and terracing
g. Commercial b. mine sealing and waste control
h. Industrial c. Strip mining, rehabilitation
i. Mining and Quarrying d. Landscaping
2. Recreation e. Harbor dredging
a. Hunting f. Marsfill and drainage
b. Fishing F. Resource Renewal
c. Boating a. Reforestation
d. Swimming b. Wildlife stocking and management
e. Camping and hiking c. Ground water recharge
f. Picnicking d. Fertilization application
g. Resorts e. Waste recycling
3. Aesthetic and Human G. Changes in Traffic
Interest
a. Scenic views vistas a. Railways
b. Wilderness qualities b. Automobiles
c. Open space qualities c. Trucking
d. Landscape design d. Shipping
e. Unique physical features e. Aircraft
f. Parks and reserves f. River/canal navigation
g. Monuments g. Pleasure boating
h. Rare/unique species or h. Trails
ecosystems
i. Historical/archaeological i. Cables and lifts
sites
j. Presence of misfits j. Communication
k. Pipeline
4. Cultural Status H. Waste emplacement/Treatment
a. Cultural patterns a. Ocean dumping
b. Health and safety b. Land fill
c. Employment c. emplacement of tailings, spoil
and over burden
d. Population density d. Underground storage
5. Man-made Facilities e. Junk disposal
and Activities
a. Structures f. Oil well flooding
b. Transportation network g. Deep well emplacement
c. Utility networks h. Cooling water discharge
d. Waste disposal i. Municipal waste discharge& spray
irrigation
e. Barriers j. Liquid effluent discharge
f. Corridors k. Stabilization and oxidation ponds
6. Ecological Relationships l. Septic tanks
e.g.
a. Salinization of water m. Stack and exhaust emission
resources
b. Eutrophication n. Spent lubricants
c. Diseaseinsect vectors 1. Chemical Treatment
d. Food chains a. Fertilization
e. Salinization of b. Chemical stabilization of soils
surfacial material
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 f. Brush encroachment c. Chemical stabilization of soils
g. Others d. Weed control
Others e. Insect control (Pesticides)
J. Accidents
a. Explosions
b. Spills and leaks
c. Operational failures.
Other
Source : L.B. Leopold, et. Al. (1971) : A Procedure for Evaluating Environmental Impact, U.S. Geological Survey,
Circular.
Evaluation of Environment Impact of Proposed Action Plan was of the opinion that Tehri dam requires serious are
(based on Leopold Matrix) consideration. In case of failure of Tehri Dam, the flood
Leopold has suggested a ranking system based on waters would reach Rishikesh and Haridwar in about an
1-10 scale to evaluate relative magnitude and relative im- hour and wipe out Devprayag, Rishikesh, and Haridwar
portance of the impacts of proposed action plans. The by more than 70 metre high waves of water. Meerut and
procedure of Environmental Impact Assessment by Buland Shahr will be destroyed by a 10 metre and 7 metre
Leopold suffers from the following lacuna: flood waters. The flood waters would reach Kanpur,
1. If requires an exhaustive paper work. Allahabad and Patna. However, the worst calamity will be
2. The scheme is confusing and difficult to the Narora Atomic Power station. Radiation will hit Delhi,
understand. Agra, Mathura, etc. The radioactivity will get into the food
3. It has bias towards physical-biological chain and the entire Ganga plain will die. The dam, thus,
environment. will be an ecological disaster, and a geo-physical hazard.
The Tehri Dam (Uttarakhand, India) : A Case Study in 2. Environmental Considerations: The Tehri dam
Environmental Impact Assessment project is likely to cause crucial environmental problems
The Their Dam in Tehri District of Uttarakhand is such as siltation of the reservoir, ecological destruction,
one of the most controversial projects in the world. Ever submergence of mountain valley ecosystem, recession of
since its inception it has been under severe attacks from mountain glaciers, etc. Siltation caused by enormous
the environmentalists. amount of debris contributed by soil erosion, and land-
Salient Feature and Objectives of the Project slides in the upper catchment area will reduce the life ex-
The Tehri dam has been constructed on the Ganga pectancy of the dam from 100 years (as envisaged by the
river below the confluence of its two head streamsthe project authorities) to around 60 years (according to the
Bhagirathi and the Bhilangana. The 260.5m high dam is cost-benefit analysis study by Dr. Vijay Paranjape). Con-
the highest rock-fill dam in India. The installed capacity of struction of roads also disturbs the stability of hill side,
power generation is 2400MW. Its reservoir impounds 245 inflicts serious damage to the hydraulic system and re-
million cubic meters of water. The reservoir submerged an moves the protective vegetal cover from the vulnerable
area of 465 sq. kilometers. The project will provide 300 slopes. Landslides and rockfalls recur during rains.
cusecs water to Delhi. It displaced 125,000 people as 172 The submergence of 467 sq. km. of area in the
villages and Tehri town submerged under the Tehri reser- Bhagirathi Valley due to impounding of water in the reser-
voir. The life span of the dam is expected to be 100 years. voir will cause ecological disaster as several species of
Objections to the Project plants and animals have perished due to the destruction
1. Safety Consideration: The Himalayan region is of their natural habitats. The rate of recession of moun-
geologically active and consists of poorly consolidated tain glaciers will also be augmented which will accelerate
highly folded sediments. The risk of geological origin such the process of siltation of the reservoir.
as earthquakes, landslides, rock falls and special dynam- 3. Rehabilitation Considerations: The Tehri dam
ics of river course are difficult to predict. Tehri dam project project was likely to displace at least 125,000 inhabitants
was structurally secure to withstand an earthquake of in- of 112 villages and Tehri town. The project had a provi-
tensity 7 on the Richter scale. The approximate energy sion for rehabilitation of ousters from the dam area, but
released by an earthquake of 7 magnitude is equivalent to not for those families living in the marginal areas of moun-
the explosive power of 90,700 tonnes of TNT, and that of tain slopes or in the enlarged flood plains. No land capa-
8.5 magnitude is 2,86,15,850 Tonnes TNT. Even a layman bility studies were done in the resettlement areas. No com-
can see that a structure designed can hardly withstand prehensive rehabilitation plan was prepared for the fami-
the pressure of earthquake of 8.5 magnitude. Prof. J.N. lies affected by the Koteshwar dam down stream. Mass
Burne of the Nevada University, U.S.A., had remarked displacement of human beings was perhaps the most sen-
the proposed Tehri dam location is one of the most haz- sitive issue of the project, as it involved many socio-eco-
ardous from the point of earthquake. No large rock fall nomic problems. Rehabilitation of ousters in the plains
dam of the Tehri type has ever been tested by the shaking has deprived them of forest produce, fuel wood, drinking
on earthquake in this area could produce. Thus we have and irrigation water, etc. The hill environment has condi-
little basis for the confidence as to how the dam would tioned their life which is bound to be affected. The oust-
perform. For people downstream, the risk factor is also ers will lose their community life, methods of recreation
extreme. and enjoyment, and their cultural heritage.
Another seismologist Prof. Kellis-Borak, Moscow, Conflicts concerning rehabilitation could be avoided
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if the affected population is exposed to both positive and
negative impacts before project was executed. The con-
flict between those who enjoy the benefits and those who
are kept away from the benefits within the society has
culminated in a feeling that development interventions
ignore the values which sustained local people and their
environment for generation. It is perhaps basically this
feeling that got expressed in the form of peoples move-
ment. The Chipko leader Sundarlal Bahugana was leading
opposition to the Tehri dam since its very inception and
successfully prevented development and the protest of
people.
Now that the project is complete, the question natu-
rally arises what benefits will accrue to the hill people who
have made sacrifices for the project? It was said that they
will get cheap electricity and water for irrigation. But this
is not true. The resources of the poor are being trans-
ferred to the rich. Previously they enjoyed free irrigation,
drinking water, fire wood, and fodder. Now they have to
pay for everything.
Sardar Sarovar Project (Gujarat)
Sardar Sarovar Project is another example of contro-
versial multi-purpose river project. In fact, it is more con-
troversial than the Tehri dam project, environmentally,
economically, socially, and politically.
Chief Features and Objectives
Sardar Sarovar Project is one of the four major
projects under the Narmada valley project, the worlds
biggest river valley project. The Narmada project, a key to
Indian economic development was the huge task of har-
nessing the sub-continents gigantic water resources, to
break the centuries-old cycle of droughts and floods that
stood in the way to modern agriculture.
The SSP was conceived in 1947, but its foundation
was laid down in 1961. This resulted into disputes about
the sharing of the benefits of the project between the states
of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Gujarat. It may be
pointed out that the Narmada rises in the Amarkantak hills
in Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Gujarat to empty
into the Arabian Sea, after covering a distance of 1312 km.
and encompassing an area of 98,796sq km.
The state of Gujarat has a poor resource base. It has
low rainfall and saline coastal area. Most of the state is a
water scarcity zone, adversely affected by recurrent
droughts. Agriculture is precarious on account of vagar-
ies of erratic rainfall. Besides, there is a shortage of drink-
ing water.
The SSP has an installed power generation capacity
of 1450 MW. It will provide irrigation facilities to 1,792,000
hectares of land.
Objections to the Project
Environmentalists and activists have raised objec-
tions against the project on four major grounds
environment, safely, economic viability, and rehabilitation.
Environmental Consideration: The SSP will cause
immense environment degradation and ecological imbal-
ance because of submergence of 42,061 hectares of for-
estland in Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. It
would lead to massive extinction of native species of wild-
life. Besides, the water logging from canal irrigation in the
coastal district of Gujarat would aggravate the problem of
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009
salinization. Stagnant water of reservoirs and water log-
ging would spread water-borne diseases. Above all, the
hydro static pressure of enormous volume of water of the
reservoir would destabilize the rocks below and would
cause severe earthquakes.
Economic Viability: The project authorities claimed
that the construction of dams on the Narmada River shall
result in flood control, large scale pisciculture and tour-
ism. However, flash floods are likely to increase as a result
of the project. The planning commission has decided the
benefit-cost ratio of the projects as 1:1.5, that is for every
rupee spent, there must be a return of Rs. 1.5. However,
the actual benefit-cost ratio of the SSP is 1 : 0.24 only.
Rehabilitation Consideration: When completed, the
dam will flood out more than 237 villages in three states.
The project will displace 90,000 people, more than half of
the ousters will be scheduled tribes. Even if land could be
found form them, their way of life will be completely de-
stroyed. The total land required for rehabilitation will be
at least 30,000 hectares. Gujarat government announced
Narmada Award formulated a resettlement policy that
gives every ouster, land or landless, minimum of 2 hect-
ares of irrigable land, while Maharashtra and Madhya
Pradesh, where a majority of those affected are located,
recognize only landed ousters for entitlement. Thus ma-
jority of the ousters have become environmental refugees
who have been forced to migrate to the nearby town or
city to seek daily wage labour.
The World Bank financed the project and appointed
Bradford Morse as Chairperson of an independent re-
view of the SSP, in 1990. The team traveled extensively in
the area affected and submitted the final report in June
1992. The Morse report stated, We think the Sardar
Sarovar Projects as they stand are flawed, that resettle-
ment and rehabilitation of all those displaced by the
projects is not possible under the prevailing circumstances
and that the environmental impacts of the projects have
not been properly considered or adequately addressed.
The report further stated, Even if the dam is built, there is
no certainty that the benefits will reach the drought prone
areas of Kutch and Saurashtra. The report recommended
that the government should stop work on the dam, and
then complete all the necessary studies including alterna-
tives to the project. The Bank must immediately step back
from the project and look at it afresh. Whatever the Bank
decides to do must be with the full participation of the
people.
The Archaeological Survey of India states that more
than a hundred monuments will be submerged and lost
for ever. In addition, more than 132 pre-historic sites,
which are literally a gold mine for archaeologists will be
lost. It may be possible to transplant some of the temples
and monuments physically but in the cause of pre-his-
toric sites the loss will be permanent.
The SSP covers four statesGujarat, Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra and Rajasthan. It involves displace-
ment of the more than 42000 families. Madhya Pradesh
will suffer the largest displacement of people to the future
of 33,014 families, followed by Gujarat (4700 families) and
Maharashtra (3500 families), most of whom are in fertile
tribal belts.
[ 67 ]
 Gujarat has been demanding that the height of the
dam be raised to 138.71 metre without further delay.
Madhya Pradesh, on the other hand, has been demanding
that the already displaced people be first rehabilitated.
The Supreme Court in 2000 gave the nod for the
Construction of the Controversial SSP immediately upto a
height of 90 metres and thereafter up 138 metres in stages
on getting proper sanction from the Environment sub-
group of the Ministry of Environment and Forests. The
Narmada Bachao Andolan said that the judgment was il-
TOPIC-VII-A
ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION
Along with the spread of environmental awareness
and activism into a broader spectrum of society in the
1960s, came the emergence of environmental education
as a discrete entity. Many scholars attempted to define
this emerging discipline. William Stapp, (1969), past presi-
dent of the North American Association for Environmen-
tal Education stated : Environmental education is aimed
at producing a citizenry that is knowledgeable concern-
ing the bio-physical environment and its associated prob-
lems, aware of how to help solve these problems, and
motivated to work toward their solution. This definition
called for appreciably more teaching and learning about
the environment and the education of all citizens includ-
ing children and adults. It gave as the goal of education,
the development of skills needed to solve environmental
problems and the motivation of people to be actively in-
volved in environmental problem solving.
Environmental education is one of the most impor-
tant aspects of environmental management. This mainly
concerns itself with the various aspects of environment
and ecology. The issue of environmental education has
been discussed at several national and international semi-
nars, workshops and conferences after the deliberations
at Fourex in 1971 and in United Nations Conference on
Human Environment at Stockholm in 1972. The outcome
of Stockholm Conference was the establishment of United
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). An International
Workshop on Environmental EducationThe Belgrade
Charter at Belgrade (Yugoslavia), was organized by
UNESCO in 1975, followed by another at Tbilisi (USSR) in
1977.
In a national seminar, organized by the Indian Envi-
ronmental society in collaboration with the International
Programme on Environmental Management at the Indian
National Science Academy, New Delhi, in 1979, emphasis
was given to incorporate Gandhian though and values as
a part of environmental education.
On the occasion of the First International Confer-
ence on Environmental Education held in New Delhi in
1980, the then Prime Minister Mrs. Indira Gandhi observed
that environmental education is to help arouse social con-
sciousness and make community aware of the fact that
the good of the individual and that of the community are
both harmed by ecological disruptions.
Most people recognize the urgent need for environ-
mental education, but only some have clear ideas about
what needs to be done. The chief objective of environ-
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009
logical, dangerous, anti-people, unjustifiable, reactionary
and hence unacceptable. Arundhati Roy, a passionate
campaigner against SSP said the judgment was shocking
and disgraceful because hundreds of families affected
by it have not been rehabilitated or given compensation.
Medha Patkar, the indomitable environment activist has
led the campaign against the Narmada dams.
mental education is that individual and social groups
should acquire awareness and knowledge, develop alti-
tudes, skills and abilities, and participate in solving real
life environmental problems. The perspective should be
integrated, inter-disciplinary and holistic in character. The
public in rural, tribal, slum and urban areas, women and
students and teachers in schools, colleges and universi-
ties, as well as planners and policy makers, programme
implementers, etc. need to be educated about environment.
There is need for a new approach to education which
cuts across various subjects at schools and higher level.
Environmental concerns are to be included in all subjects,
rather than to introduce a new subject.
A number of guiding principles for developing envi-
ronmental education at all levels-formal as well as non-
formal, were formulated at Tbilisi Conference (1977), men-
tioned as under :
Guiding Principles
1. To consider the environment in its totality (natu-
ral, artificial, technological, social, economic, po-
litical, moral, cultural, historical aesthetic).
2. To consider a continuous life process (from pre-
school to all higher levels-formal as well as non-
formal).
3. To be interdisciplinary in approach.
4. To emphasize active participation in prevention
and solution to environmental problems.
5. To examine major environmental issues from lo-
cal, national, regional and international point of
view.
6. To focus on current, potential environmental situ-
ations.
7. To consider environmental aspects in plans for
growth and development.
8. To emphasize the complexity of environmental
problems and need to develop critical thinking
and problem-solving skills.
9. To promote the value and necessity of local, na-
tional and international cooperation in the pre-
vention and solution of environment and differ-
ent approaches to teaching and learning about
environment.
10. To utilize diverse learning about environment and
different approaches to teaching and learning
about environment.
11. To help learners to discover the symptoms and
the real causes of environmental problem.
[ 68 ]
 12. To relate environmental sensitivity, knowledge,
problem-solving and values clarification at ev-
ery grade level.
13. To enable learners to have a role in planning their
learning experiences and provide and opportu-
nity for making decisions and accepting their con-
sequences.
Environmental Educational Programmes
Newman (1981) proposed a three-fold classification
of environmental education programmes based on differ-
ent disciplines.
1. Environmental studies : This is concerned with
the environmental disturbance and minimization of their
impacts through changes in the society (social sciences).
2. Environmental science : It deals with the study
of the processes in water, air, soil and organisms which
lead to pollution or environmental damage and to know a
scientific basis for establishing as standard, which can be
considered acceptably clean, safe and healthy for human
and the natural ecosystem (physical and natural sciences).
3. Environmental engineering : This is the study
of the technical processes which are used to minimize the
pollution and the assessment of impact of these on envi-
ronment (engineering science).
Environmental Education in India
In a vast country like India, environmental educa-
tion has to be essentially location-specific. At the first
level, school going children must be made aware of health,
family planning, nutrition, rural development, slum im-
provement, sanitation, hygiene, water and food contami-
nation, etc. Non-government organizations have to play
significant role.
Formal Environmental Education
The chief goals of environmental education must
be : (i) to improve the quality of environment, (ii) to create
an awareness among the people on environmental prob-
lems and conservation, and (iii) to create an atmosphere
so that people participate in decision-making and develop
the capabilities to evaluate the development programmes.
The spectrum of environmental education has three
major integrating and inter-related components :
(i) Awareness in the individual about the physical,
social and aesthetic aspects of environment.
(ii) Real-life situations that link environment to life
are location specific.
(iii) Conservation, and sustainable development,
where spot light would be on utilization and not on exploi-
tation.
Formal environmental education should be imparted
at all levels from primary to university. At the post gradu-
ate level, four major areas are recognized : (i) environmen-
tal engineering, (ii) conservation and management, (iii)
environmental health, and (iv) social ecology, including
social planning, cost-benefit, community organization and
services, psychology and counseling, environmental eth-
ics and related areas of humanities.
There are some institutes, centers, etc. assisted by
the Department of Environment which provide formal edu-
cation/training in environmental areas. The centre for En-
vironment Education, Ahmedabad, Indian Institute of For-
est Management, Bhopal, and Indira Gandhi National For-
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009
est Academy, Dehradun are some of the examples.
Non-Formal Environmental Education
It is designed for any age group, working in social,
economic, and cultural development of the community.
They form groups or clubs and arrange exhibition, public
lectures, meetings, environmental campaigns, etc. The
following constitute main content of this education : (i)
Adult education, (ii) Rural youth and non-student youth,
(iii) Tribals/forest dwellers, (iv) Children activities, (v) Eco-
development camps, (vi) Non-governmental organization,
(vii) Public representatives, (viii) Training executives/ad-
ministrators, (ix) Foundation courses, (x) Research and
development programmes (xi) Centres of excellence, (xii)
Development of trained manpower, (xiii) Development of
educational material and teaching aids, (xiv) World Envi-
ronment Day (June, 5), (xvi) National Environment Aware-
ness campaign/National Environment Month.
Environmental Information
Department of Environment setup a plan Programme-
Environmental Information System (ENVIS) in 1982. It is a
decentralized system using distributed network of data
bases for collection of environmental information. Its fo-
cal point consists of ENVIS centres on diverse areas of
environment, established in specialized and reputed insti-
tutions in the country.
Environmental Organizations and Agencies
There are a number of international and national
organizations agencies and programmes involved in dif-
ferent areas of environment, forestry, wildlife, etc. Some
of the important bodies are mentioned as under:
International Bodies
1. Earth Scan : an agency founded by UNEP in 1976
that commissions original articles on environmental mat-
ters.
2. Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species (CITES).
3. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) : an in-
dependent Federal Agency of the U.S. Government, es-
tablished in 1970.
4. Human Exposure Assessment Location (HEAL) :
a part of Health elated Monitoring Programme by who in
cooperation with UNEP.
5. International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU)
: a non-governmental organization based in Paris that en-
courages the exchange of scientific information and
programmes.
6. International Union for Conservation of Nature
and Natural Resources (IUCN) : an autonomous body,
founded in 1948, with its Headquarters at Morges (Swit-
zerland).
7. International Marine Consultative Organization
(IMCO).
8. South Asia Cooperative Environment Programme
(SACEP).
9. United Nations Educational Scientific and Cul-
tural Organization (UNESCO), set up in 1945, with its
Headquarters in Paris.
10. United Nations Environment Programmes
(UNEP): U.N. agency set up in 1972.
11. World Commission on Environment and Devel-
opment (WCED), set up in 1984.
[ 69 ]
 12. Earthwatch Programme : a worldwide
programme, established in 1972, under the terms of the
Declaration on the Human Environment.
13. Project Earth : developed in collaboration with
UNEP to inspire and educate young people world over on
crucial issues facing the Earths Environment.
14. Earthwalks : a series of expeditions designed to
focus international attention on environmental issues in
key geographic areas.
15. Man and Biosphere Programme (MAB) formerly
launched by UNESCO in 1971. It is the outcome of Inter-
national Biological Programme (IBP) that has already con-
cluded its activities.
Geography and Environmental Education
Right from the days of George Perkin Marsh geog-
raphers have been involved in environmental protection
and the creation of a concerned attitude towards the envi-
ronment. The book, Mans Role in Changing the Face of
the Earth presented by the followers of Sauer in his honor,
was part of this continuing interest. As Mikesell (1974,
p.2) wrote: developments in geography have been such
that the several phases of national preoccupation with
environmental problems have not produced a general
awareness of interests and skills. As part of such a real-
ization, on the part of the geographical profession in the
United States, the Commission on College Geography of
the Association of American Geographers (AAG) had set
up a Panel on Environmental Education, and established
a Task Force on Environmental Quality which reported
(Lowenthal, et al- 1973) that geographers were best quali-
fied to function as leaders in environmental education in
view of: (a) The breadth of their training which imparts
them the ability to handle and synthesize material from a
wide range of sources, (b) the geographers view of cau-
sation as multi-lateral and complex phenomenon, (c) the
geographers training in tapping or deriving information
from diverse sources, (d) Geographys focus on the spa-
tial distribution of phenomena on the earth surface, and
(e) The established tradition of environmental study in
the discipline.
TOPIC-XVIII
ENVIRONMENTAL LAW
The philosophy of appropriate approaches to re-
source development, pollution control, and land use has
changes, and the focus of environmental laws has shifted
in response.
Resource Law: Water
Given the importance of water as a resource and the
increasing scarcity of high-quality water, it is not surpris-
ing that laws specifying water rights are necessary. What
is perhaps unexpected is that the basic principles govern-
ing water rights vary nor only from nation to nation, but
also from place to place within a single country. Also,
quite different principles may be applied to surface-water
rights and groundwater rights, even though surface and
subsurface waters are inevitably linked through the hy-
drologic cycle.
Riparian Doctrine
The two principal approaches to surface-water rights
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009
More recently, Stoddart (1987) underlined that the
reason for the geographers failure to contribute to the
current debate on environmentalism in a meaningful way
has arisen from the fact that they have failed to recognize
what, according to Stoddart, should be the central intent
and indeed self-evident role in the community of knowl-
edge, that is: the study of Earths diversity, its resources,
mans survival on the planet. Such a role for geography
calls for a unified disciplineboth physical and human
in which our task as profession should be: To identify
geographical problems, issues of man and environment
within regions problems not of geomorphology, his-
tory or economics or sociology, but geographical prob-
lems: and to use our skills to work to alleviate them, per-
haps to solve them (Stoddart, 1987). For Stoddart, the
geographers focus on research in topics like the geo-
graphical influences on the cinema, or the distribution of
fast food outlets, and such other esoteric topics of little
relevance to societal problems of the day are wasteful
diversionsunnecessary fiddling with trifles. His mes-
sage to fellow geographers is loud and clear. Fiddle if
you must, but at least be aware that Rome is burning all
the while. The current position in the discipline is that:
While bridges have been built across the human-physical
geography interface, there has been no integration of the
study of the physical and social processes; for human
geographers their links with other social scientists are
much stronger than environmental scientists (Johnston,
1991)
Through its input in environmental educationcre-
ating informed attitudes about the environment, and the
ways and means of preserving the balance of nature
geography has the opportunity for contributing in the all-
important task of preparing the students as responsible
citizens. It is an area of study through which geography
can be projected as the integrated discipline focused on
the study of the earth as the world of man; but this would
require considerable effort at updating our physical geog-
raphy syllabi with much greater input of science.
in the United States are the Riparian Doctrine the Doc-
trine of Prior Appropriation. Riparian is derived from
the Latin word for bank, as in riverbank, and sums up
the essence of that doctrine: Whoever owns land adja-
cent to a body of surface water (lake, stream) has a right to
use that water, and all those bordering on a given body of
water have an equal right to that water. Provision is also
generally made to the effect that the water must be used
for natural purposes or beneficial uses and returned
to the body of water from which it came in essentially the
same amount and quality as when it was removed. The
Riparian Doctrine, for long the basis for English surface-
water law, likewise became the basis for assigning sur-
face-water rights in the eastern United States.
Doctrine of Prior Appropriation
In the western United States, where surface water is
typically in shorter supply, the prevailing doctrine is that
[ 70 ]
of prior appropriation. Under this scheme, whoever is first,
historically, to use water from a given surface-water source
has top-priority rights to that water. Users who begin to
draw on the same water source later have subordinate
rights, in the order in which they begin to use the water.
Ones water rights under this doctrine are established and
maintained by continuing to divert the water for benefi-
cial use. Future use is to be proportional to the quantity
used when the rights were established. An advantage of
this system is that it makes clearer who is entitled to what
in times of shortage. Ideally, it ought also to discourage
excessive settlement or development in arid regions; be-
cause latecomers have no guarantee of surface-water rights
if and when demand exceeds supply. In practice, however,
it does not appear to have served as such a deterrent.
Beneficial Use
What constitutes beneficial use of water also var-
ies regionally. Domestic water use is commonly accepted
as beneficial. So is hydropower generation, which, in any
event, does not appreciably consume water. Irrigation that
is critical to agriculture may be regarded as a legitimate
beneficial use, but watering ones lawn might not be. basic as not to have required explicit protection under the
Industrial water use is often a low-priority use. In some
areas, a hierarchy of beneficial uses has been established.
A typical sequence, from highest to lowest priority, might
be: domestic water use, municipal supply, irrigation, wa-
tering livestock, diversion of water for power generation,
use for mining or drilling for oil or gas, navigation, and
recreation.
Resource Law: Minerals and Fuels
Early Federal Legislation
For more than a century, U.S. federal laws have in-
cluded provisions for the development of mineral and fuel
resources. The fundamental underlying legislation today
is still the 1872 Mining Law. Its intent was to encourage
exploitation of mineral resources by granting mineral rights
and often land title to anyone who located a mineral de-
posit on federal land and invested some time and money
in developing that deposit.
Subsequent laws, particularly the Mineral Leasing
Act of 1920 and the Mineral Leasing Act for Acquired
Lands of 1947, began to restrict this giveaway. Certain
materials, such as oil, gas, coal, potash, and phosphate
deposits, were singled out for different treatment. Identi-
fication of such deposits on federally controlled land
would not carry with it unlimited right of exploitation. In-
stead, the extraction rights would be leased from the gov-
ernment for a finite period, and royalties had to be paid,
compensating the public in some measure for the mineral
or fuel wealth extracted from the public lands.
Mine Reclamation
Growing dissatisfaction with the condition of many
mined land eventually led to the imposition of some re-
strictions on mining and post-mining activities in the form
of the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of
1977. This act applies only to coal, whether surface-mined
or deep-mined, and attempts to minimize the long-term
impact of coal mining on the land surface. Where farm-
land is disturbed by mining, for example, the lands pro-
ductivity should be restored afterward. In principle, the
approximate surface topography should also be restored.
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009
However, in practice, where a thick coal bed has been
removed over a large area, there may be no nearby source
of sufficient fill material to make this possible, so this pro-
vision may be disputed in specific areas. Similarly, the act
provides that groundwater recharge capacity be restored,
but particularly if an aquifer has been removed during
mining, perfect restoration may not be possible, Still, even
when a complete return to pre-mining conditions is not
possible, this legislation and other laws patterned after it
go a long way toward preserving the long term quality of
public lands and preventing them from becoming barren
wastes.
Pollution and Its Control
A Clean EnvironmentBy What Right?
Have we, in fact, any legal right to a clean environ-
ment? The primary Constitutional justification depends
on an interpretation of the Ninth Amendment: The enu-
meration in the Constitution of certain rights shall not be
construed to deny or disparage others retained by the
people. The argument made is that the right to a clean,
healthful environment is one of those individual rights so
Constitution.
This interpretation generally has not been upheld
by the courts. However, those harmed or threatened by
pollution have often sought relief through lawsuits alleg-
ing nuisance or negligence on the part of the polluter.
Nuisance and negligence are varieties of torts (literally,
wrongs) that are violations of individuals personal or
property rights, punishable under civil law, and distinct
from violations of basic public rights. The government
has also exercised its authority to promote the general
welfare by enacting legislation to restrict the spread of
potentially toxic or harmful substances (pollutants).
Defining Limits of Pollution
Enforcement of antipollution regulations remains a
major stumbling block, in part because of the terms of
antipollution laws themselves. Consider, for example, an
objective of zero pollutant discharge by a certain year.
At first inspection, zero might seem a well-defined quan-
tity. However, from the standpoint of practical science, it
is not. Water quality must be measured by instruments,
and each instrument has its own detection limits for each
chemical. No commonly used chemical-analysis tech-
niques for air or water can detect manganese down to a
concentration of 1 ppm, lead down to 500 ppb (0.5 ppm),
and mercury to 150 ppb. Discharges of these elements
below the instruments detection limit will register as
zero when the actual concentrations in the wastewater
might be hundreds of parts per billion. How close one
must actually come to zero discharge, then, depends
strongly on the sensitivity of the particular analytical tech-
niques and instruments used.
An alternative approach would be to specify a (de-
tectable) maximum permissible concentration for pollut-
ants discharged in wastewater or exhaust gases. But pol-
lutants vary so widely in toxicity that one may be harm-
less at a concentration that for another is fatal. That im-
plies a need to specify different permissible maxima for
individual chemicals. Given the number and variety of
chemicals involved, a staggering amount of research
[ 71 ]
would be needed to determine scientifically the appropri-
ate safe upper limit for each. Without all the necessary
data, the Environmental Protection Agency and other
agencies may set standards that later may be found to be
too liberal or unnecessarily conservative. For some natu-
rally occurring toxic elements, they have occasionally set
standards stricter than the natural ambient air or water
quality in an area. To meet the discharge standards, then,
a company might be required to release wastewater cleaner
than the water it took in! For instance, suppose that EPA
guidelines specify a mercury concentration of 10 ppb or
below in wastewater released. In an area with abundant
mercury ore deposits, streams might naturally contain 100
ppb of mercury dissolved or leached from the ores. A com-
pany using that water, whether it added any mercury or
not, could be required to remove some of the natural mer-
cury to comply with the standards. A great deal of addi-
tional information, both about natural air and water qual-
ity, and about specific harmful effects of individual chemi-
cals, is needed before safe and realistic limits can be set
on all pollutant discharges.
Laws Relating to Geologic Hazards
Laws or zoning ordinances restricting construction
or establishing standards for construction in areas of
known geologic hazards are a more modern development
than antipollution legislation. Their typical objective is to
protect persons from injury or loss through geologic pro-
cesses, even when the individuals themselves may be
unaware of the existence or magnitude of the risk. While
such an objective sounds benign and practical enough,
such laws may be vigorously opposed. Opposition does
not come only from real estate investors who wish to maxi-
mize profits from land development in areas of question-
able geologic safety. Individual home owners also often
oppose these laws designed to protect them, perhaps fear-
ing the costs imposed by compliance with the laws. For
example, engineering surveys may be required before con-
struction can begin, or special building codes may have
to be followed in places vulnerable to earthquakes or
floods. Peoples may also feel that it is their right to live
where they like, accepting any natural risks. And some, of
course, simply do not believe that whatever-it-is could
possibly happen to them.
Controls on Construction in Areas of Landslide Hazard
Perhaps because the state is subject to so many
geologic hazards, California and its municipalities have
been among the leaders in passage of legislation designed
to minimize the damage from geologic hazards. One suc-
cessful effort in this regard has been the imposition of
much more stringent regulations governing construction
on potentially unstable, landslide-prone hillside near Los
Angeles. Where the geologic hazards are moderate, the
risk of damage from the hazards can be minimized by tak-
ing them into account and designing around them. This
is a large part of engineering geology.
Response to Earthquake Hazards
The Seismic Safety Element Bill (1971) requires that
communities take seismic and related hazards (ground
shaking, tsunamis, and so forth) into account in planning
and regulating development. This is plainly sensible in a
high-seismic-risk area.
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The Dam Safety Bill (1972), despite its name, has
nothing directly to do with the engineering adequacy of
dams. It requires dam owners to prepare maps showing
the areas that would be flooded in the event of dam fail-
ure, and local authorities must prepare evacuation proce-
dures for those areas threatened.
Flood Hazards, Flood Insurance
Flood Insurance Act (1968) and its successorthe
Federal Flood Disaster Protection Act (1973), provide for
federally subsidized flood insurance for property owners
in identified flood-hazard areas, whether in stream flood-
plains or in flood-prone coastal regions. Those most at
risk, then, pay for insurance against their possible flood
losses. The idea is that, in time, the flood insurance will
replace after-the fact disaster assistance in flood-prone
areas.
The National Environmental Policy Act (1969)
The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) es-
tablished environmental protection as an important na-
tional priority and provided for the creation of the Council
on Environmental Quality in the Executive Office of the
President. The environmental impact statement (EIS) is
the most visible outgrowth of the NEPA.
The NEPA actually pertains only to federal agen-
cies and their actions. Whenever a federal agency pro-
poses legislation or other major Federal action (which
can include anything form policy changes to construc-
tion projects that are wholly or partially supported by
federal funds) that can significantly affect the quality of
the human environment, an EIS must be prepared. Many
states have adopted similar legislation related to projects
involving funding or approval by state agencies, so the
scope of the environmental impact statement process has
been considerably broadened. The preparation of envi-
ronmental impact statements should ensure that, before
an agency acts, it considers as fully as possible the po-
tential environmental ramifications of its action, in order
to make the best possible decisions.
The NEPA specifies that an environmental impact
statement should include:
1. A description of the proposed action, its pur-
pose, and why it is needed.
2. A discussion of various alternatives (including
the proposed action).
3. An indication of the environment to be affected
and the environmental consequences anticipate.
4. Lists of prepares of the statement and those agen-
cies, organizations or persons to whom copies of the
statement are being sent.
Additional supplementary material may also be in-
cluded. The statement is expected to rigorously explore
and objectively evaluate all reasonable alternatives (an
analysis that presumably will ultimately supply appropri-
ate justification for the particular course of action pre-
ferred by the agency). Possible environmental conse-
quences might include not only those that are in some
sense geologic (for example, altering natural processes
like stream flow or runoff, causing air or water pollution,
inevitable consumption of energy or other resources), but
also biological ones (loss of habitat, destruction of or-
ganisms) and social ones (affecting urban quality, employ-
[ 72 ]
ment, historic or cultural resources). Cost-benefit analy-
ses of various alternatives may be included if the agency
is taking them into account.
After a draft environmental impact statement is pre-
pared, a variety of others, ranging from other federal agen-
cies to the general public, are invited to comment. In fact,
comments should be actively solicited from all persons or
organizations that are particularly likely to be interested
or affected. The agency preparing the EIS is then expected
to respond to those comments, which might mean modify-
ing the proposed action or the analysis in the EIS or con-
sidering additional alternatives.
Over the first decade following passage of the NEPA,
an average of more than one thousand environmental im-
pact statements each year were prepared by federal agen-
cies. Lawsuits were filed contesting about 10 percent of
this number of projects. In many such cases, it was al-
leged that the EIS was inadequate, incomplete, or inaccu-
rate. In other cases, the charge was that an EIS ought to
have been prepared but was not (the responsible agency
felt that no significant environmental impact was involved).
Close to half the lawsuits involved citizen or environmen-
tal groups as plaintiffs. The number of environmental im-
pact statements filed annually began to decline in the early
1980s; it remains to be seen if that trend will continue.
The usefulness of environmental impact statements
has been limited by a number of factors. We have already
noted in the context of antipollution laws the difficulty of
applying cost-benefit analysis to situations where not all
factors have well-defined costs associated with them. An-
other potential problem is the impartiality (or lack of it) of
EIS preparers or proposers. An agency preparing an EIS
for a project of its own has already selected a proposed
course of action, and it might, consciously or otherwise,
be inclined to present that action in an unduly favorable
light. Where the proposed action is to be carried out by
an individual or corporationsuch as a company need-
ing a federal permit to mine on federal landsthe EIS may,
in part, draw on information supplied by the proposer,
which could again be biased. There are also only general
statutory requirements that the analysis in an EIS be thor-
ough, which is no guarantee that all the appropriate kinds
of specialists will be involved in the preparation of a given
EIS.
A major purpose of the National Environmental
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009
Policy Act is to allow the public to be informed about and
involved in decision making related to the environment.
To prevent environmental impact statements from becom-
ing prohibitively long and verbose, the NEPA stipulates
that the length should normally be 150 pages or less, or
up to 300 pages for especially complex projects. However,
tiering is allowed, whereby one EIS may be written for
each level of decision making of a large or multistage
project. One might then have to read through several state-
ments of 150-300 pages each to comment intelligently on
a particular project. Many people do not have the time to
do that much reading, so they may not become involved
at all. (For that matter, not all the relevant employees of
the federal agencies involved may do their EIS homework
adequately either, for the same reason).
A major loophole of the NEPA, in the eyes of many
environmental groups, is that statements must be prepared
only when the anticipated environmental impact of a pro-
posed project is significant, where significance is evalu-
ated by the federal agency involved in proposing or per-
mitting the action in question. For each project for which
as EIS is filed, many more have been deemed not to war-
rant one. In short, as with other kinds of environmental
laws, the NEPA has some very desirable objectives, but
practice has often fallen short of the ideal.
Summary
Environmental laws relating to geologic matters in-
clude laws relating to the right to exploit certain resources,
laws designed to limit pollution and other kinds of envi-
ronmental deterioration, and laws intended to force indi-
viduals and agencies to take geologic hazards into ac-
count in development and construction. They may fall
short of their goals for a variety of reasons. Terms may be
inadequately defined or scientifically meaningless, mak-
ing consistent enforcement difficult. Substantial economic
pressure may force pursuit of a course that may be less
desirable in purely scientific terms, or a rigorous cost-
benefit analysis may be impossible. There may be indi-
vidual or institutional resistance or bias to combat, or a
particular law may recognize so many exceptions that the
majority of cases ultimately end up unregulated. These
and other difficulties, many without straightforward solu-
tions, will continue to complicate efforts to develop envi-
ronmental legislation.
[ 73 ]
 TOPIC-XIX
INDIAN ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENT
Indian environmental movement may distinguish
between its material, political and ideological expres-
sions. The material context is provided by the wide-rang-
ing struggles over natural resources, the origins of these
conflicts lie in the process of development itself. While
forests, water and other natural resources are diverted to
produce energy and commodities for the rich, the poor are
made to bear the social and environmental costs of eco-
nomic development, whether in the form of the declining
availability of natural resources, a more polluted environ-
ment, orincreasingly physical displacement.
The political expression of Indian environmental-
ism has been the organization by social action groups of
the victims of environment degradation. Action groups
have embarked upon three distinct sets of initiatives. First,
through a process of organization and struggle they have
tried, with varying degrees of success, to prevent eco-
logically destructive economic practices. Second, they
have promoted the environmental message through the
skillful use of the media, and more innovatively, via infor-
mal means such as walking tours and eco-development
camps. Finally, these groups have also taken up
programmes of environmental rehabilitation (afforestation,
soil conservation, and so on), restoring degraded village
ecosystems and thereby enhancing the quality of life of
the inhabitants.
It has been left to social groups not owing allegiance
to any political partywhat the political
scientist Rajni Kothari (1984) has termed non
party political formations to focus public attention on
the linkages between ecological degradation and rural
poverty.
In understanding the spread of environmental con-
sciousness, oral communication has contributed im-
mensely. The popular science group, the KSSP, has per-
formed plays and rendered folk songs in all parts of Kerala
in order to increase popular awareness of deforestation
and pollution. In the neighboring state of Karnataka,
themes of environmental abuse and renewal have figured
in the traditional dance-drama of the west coast,
Yakshagana. An activity which combines discussion and
practical action is the eco-development camp, widely
used by action groups to promote afforestation and other
forms of environmental restoration. The padayatra has
been enthusiastically revived by environmental activists.
The first environmental padayatra was the trans-Hima-
layan march from Kashmir to Kohima, covering 4000 km.,
by Sunderlal Bahuguna (one of Bhaves disciples) and a
group of his associates in 1982-3.
The most notable padayatra of this ilk was Save
the Western Ghats March of 1987-8, along the 2500 km
long mountain chain. One of the objectives of the West-
ern Ghats March, in which it largely succeeded, was to
draw attention to threatened mountain ecosystems other
than the Himalaya, whose plight had hitherto dominated
the Indian environment debate.
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009
A Save the Sivaliks march was undertaken across
200 km of the Sivalik range in Jammu and Kashmir the
following winter, group that pioneered the Chipko move-
ment, the Dashauli Gram Swarajya Mandal (DGSM). While
one wing of Chipko, identified with Sunderlal Bahuguna,
has preferred to connect Himalayan deforestation with
national and global environmental concerns; the DGSM,
under the leadership of Chandi Prasad Bhatt, has turned
from struggle to reconstruction work at the grassroots.
A second example of successful eco-restoration
work also originated in a process of struggle. In the Sangli
district of Maharashtra, where socialist workers have long
been active, peasants have been faced with persistent
drought. In this context, two village of Khanapur taluk,
encouraged by socialist and popular science activists,
decided to build on a cooperative basis, a small dam across
a river that sporadically contained water. Helped by vol-
untary contributions, and under the technical guidance
of a Bombay engineer, the villagers finally succeeded in
building the Bali Raja Memorial Dam by the end of 1988.
The water thus stored is used to provide one irrigated
crop to each family of the two villages, and for nursery
and forestry work.
Our final case study originated not in a movement
but in a remarkable individual, Anna Saheb Hazare of the
village of Ralegaon Siddhi in the Ahmednagar district of
Maharashtra. Ahmednagar too is drought prone orga-
nized villagers into building a series of storage ponds and
embankments (nallah, bandhs) along the low hills sur-
rounding the village. Very quickly, run of was reduced
and aquifers recharged, and the ground-water table rose
considerably. There is now sufficient water for house-hold
use and irrigation, and crop yields have increased dra-
matically. Besides this, Hazare has mobilized villagers to
plant 400,000 saplings. With his village now acknowledged
as a model of eco-restoration through self help, Hazare is
training volunteers to work in other villages. He has si-
multaneously launched a movement against corruption in
state forestry and drinking water programmes.
Rally against destructive development was held in
Harsud in September 1989. In a follow-up meeting held in
Bhopal in Decemberto coincide with the fifth anniver-
sary of the gas tragedy in that citygroups that partici-
pated in the Harsud rally initiated the formation of the Jan
Vikas Andolan (Peoples Development Movement; JVA), a
loosely knit national level organization to coordinate lo-
cal struggles.
Defining itself as movement against the existing
pattern of development, the JVAs own objectives are four-
fold: (a) to coordinate collective action against environ-
mentally destructive policies and practices; (b) to provide
national solidarity to these struggles; (c) to mobilize wider
public opinion on the need for a new development path;
and (d) to work towards and alternative vision, ecologi-
cally sustainable and socially just, for Indias future.
[ 74 ]
 TOPIC-XX
ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS
ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS may be defined as
those extreme events either natural or man-induced, which
exceed the tolerable magnitude within or beyond certain
time limits, make adjustment difficult, result in catastrophic
losses of property, income and lives and become the head-
lines of different news media at world level.
Hazards are generally taken to be the processes,
both natural and anthropogenic, which causes great dam-
age to human beings as well as plants and animals. Disas-
ters occur rapidly, instantaneously and indiscriminately.
ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS are the processes, whereas
the ENVIRONMENTAL DISASTERS are the results or re-
sponses of environmental hazards. The intensity of envi-
LANDSLIDES
Landslides are simply defined as the mass move-
ment of rock, debris or earth down a slope and have come
to include a broad range of motions whereby falling, slid-
ing and flowing under the influence of gravity dislodges
earth material. They often take place in conjunction with
earthquakes, floods and volcanoes. At times, prolonged
rainfall causing heavy landslides, block the flow or river
for quite some time. The formation of river blocks can
cause havoc to the settlements downstream on its burst-
ing.
In the hilly terrain of India including the Himalayas,
landslides have been a major and widely spread natural
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009
ronmental disasters is weighed in terms of the quantum of
damages done to the human society. When the cumula-
tive effects of environmental hazards, environmental di-
sasters and other forms of environmental degradation and
pollution become so immense that the tolerance limit of
the natural environment to assimilate them is surpassed
and the environmental balance is disturbed, the resultant
state of the highly disturbed natural environment is called
ENVIRONMENTAL STRESS.
According to the report of the United Nations Di-
saster Relief Coordinator (UNDRO) about 90 percent of
all the reported natural hazards and disasters occur in the
developing countries.
disaster. They often strike life and property and occupy a
position of major concern.
One of the worst tragedies took place at Malpa,
Uttarkhand (UP) on 11th and 17th August 1998 when nearly
380 people were killed when massive landslides washed
away the entire village. This included 60 pilgrims going to
Lake Mansarovar in Tibet. Consequently, various land
reform measures have been initiated as mitigation mea-
sures.
The two regions most vulnerable to landslides are
the Himalayas and the Western Ghats. The Himalayas
mountain belt comprise of tectonically unstable younger
geological formations subjected to severe seismic activ-
[ 75 ]
ity. The Western Ghats and Nilgiris are geologically stable
but have uplifted plateau margins influenced by neo- tec-
tonic activity. Compared to Western Ghats region, the
slides in the Himalayas region are huge and massive and
in most cases the overburden along with the underlying
lithology is displaced during sliding particularly due to
the seismic factor.
Causes of Landslides
Landslides can be caused by poor ground condi-
tions, geomorphic phenomena, and natural physical forces
and quite often due to heavy spells of rainfall coupled
with impeded drainage.
Morphological Causes
Ground uplift (volcanic, tectonic etc)
Erosion (wind, water)
Scour
Deposition loading in the slope crest.
Vegetation removal (by forest fire, drought etc)
Physical Causes
Prolonged precipitation
Rapid draw- down
Earthquake
Volcanic eruption
Thawing
Shrink and swell
Artesian pressure
Man- made Causes
Excavation (particularly at the toe of slope
Loading of slope crest
Draw -down (of reservoir)
Deforestation
Irrigation
Mining
Artificial vibrations
Water impoundment and leakage from utilities
An overall evaluation of the pattern and nature of
landslide occurrences in the Kerala part of Western Ghats
and its corresponding eastern flank falling within Tamil
Nadu reveals the following main features:
Almost all mass movements occur during monsoons
(SW and NE monsoon) in the western flank of Western
Ghats and during occasional cyclonic events in the east-
ern flank indicating that main triggering mechanism is the
over- saturation of overburden caused by heavy rains
There seems to be a relation between intensity of
rainfall and slope failures.
Majority of the catastrophic mass movements is
confined to the overburden without affecting the under-
lying bedrock.
Improper land use practices such as heavy tilling,
agricultural practices and settlement patterns have con-
tributed to creep and withdrawal of toe support in many
cases
A common factor noticed in most of these vulner-
able slopes deforestation in the recent past, cultivation of
seasonal crops and increase in settlements.
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009
In all the vulnerable slopes terracing/ contour
bounding is adopted mainly to prevent soil erosion and to
enhance percolation during dry season for cultivation of
cash crops as well as seasonal crops. Invariably, in all
these cases, natural drainage lines on slopes are blocked
or modified without adequate provision for surface drain-
age of excess storm water during high intensity rains preva-
lent in the area.
In some areas developmental activities like con-
struction of buildings, road cutting, embankments, cut and
fill structures causes modification of natural slopes, block-
ing of surface drainage, loading of critical slopes and with-
drawal of support, promoting vulnerability of critical
slopes.
Mitigatory Measures
In general the chief mitigatory measures to be
adopted for such areas are
Drainage correction,
Proper land use measures,
Reforestation for the areas occupied by degraded
vegetation and
Creation of awareness among local population.
The most important triggering mechanism for mass
movements is the water infiltrating into the overburden
during heavy rains and consequent increase in pore pres-
sure within the overburden. When this happens in steep
slopes, the safety factor of the slope material gets consid-
erably reduced causing it to move down. Hence the natu-
ral way of preventing this situation is by reducing infiltra-
tion and allowing excess water to move down without
hindrance. As such, the first and foremost mitigation mea-
sure is drainage correction. This involves maintenance of
natural drainage channels both micro and macro in vul-
nerable slopes.
The universal use of contour bounding for all types
of terrain without consideration of the slope, overburden
thickness and texture or drainage set- up, needs to be
controlled especially in the plateau edge regions. It is time
to think about alternative and innovations, which are suit-
able for the terrain, to be set up. It need not be over-
emphasized the governmental agencies have a lot to con-
tribute in this field.
Leaving aside the critical zones where settlements
could be avoided altogether and which could be prefer-
ably used for permanent vegetation, the highly unstable
zones generally lie in the upper regions, which are occu-
pied by highly degraded vegetation. These areas warrant
immediate afforestation measures with suitable plant spe-
cies. The afforestation programme should be properly
planned so the little slope modification is done in the pro-
cess. Bounding of any sort using boulders etc. has to be
avoided. The selection of suitable plant species should
be such that can withstand the existing stress conditions
in this terrain.
[ 76 ]
 TOPIC-XXI
SUSTAINABLE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Man has continually, and at an increasing rate, been
changing the forms and modes of his interaction with the
environment. Natural processes and factors that depend
on the structure and other character of the earth and so-
cial processes have been closely interwoven. On the one
hand, population of the earth is growing rapidly; while on
the other hand, with the technological and scientific revo-
lution developmental activities have been accelerated to
such an extent that in certain areas they have become a
threat to the environment. The utilization of natural re-
sources is growing at an alarming rate, causing great con-
cern for their conservation. The degradation of the envi-
ronment due to industrial and other wastes discharged
into the atmosphere and hydrosphere has also caused
great concern and there is a big question markwhat will
happen next? All these environmental problems associ-
ated with development have raised several questions re-
garding the type and nature of development and this has
given rise to the concept of sustainable development.
Concept of Sustainable Development
The term sustainable development was used at the
time of the Cocoyoc Declaration on environment and de-
velopment in the early 1970s. Since then it has become the
trademark of international organizations, dedicated to
achieving environmentally begin or beneficial develop-
ment. The term has served to catalyze debate over the
relationship between economic change and the natural
resource base in which it is grounded. Definitions vary,
but the most widely adopted one is contained in Our Com-
mon Futurethe 1987 report of the proceedings of the
World Commission on Environment and Development:
Sustainable development is the development that meets
the needs of the present without compromising the ability
of future generations to meet their own needs. This defi-
nition is far from adequate-it begs the critical question of
what constitutes an acceptable need in the context of
present global situationbut it does encapsulate the es-
sential pointthat we all have to learn to live within our
planetary means. Various UN publications, in an effort to
define strategy for sustainable living and development,
refer to it as improving the quality of human life while
living within the carrying capacity of the supporting eco-
system.
The concept of sustainability although, has a long
historical background. In ancient Indian writings, nature
or environment has been considered as the controller of
all human activities, including economic development.
They have given the status of God to the components of
environment such as air, water, land, natural vegetation,
animals, etc. In spite of the fact that there was no need for
their conservation, the concept of their protection has
been put forward in all the religions of India. In Greek
writings there is a reference of Ge or Gaia as the God-
dess of the Earth-the mother figure of natural replenish-
ment. In fact, that was a time when population was limited
and there was mutual adjustment between man and envi-
ronment.
It was only after the industrial revolution, followed
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009
by transport revolution and urbanization that degrada-
tion of the environment started which has given rise to
the concept sustainable development. The sudden inter-
est in sustainable development is, of course, a response
to warnings that the world is facing an environmental and
therefore, social catastrophe in the near future unless
mankind radically modifies certain practices and perspec-
tives which have created the present crisis. This crisis is
characterized, among other things, by the poisoning of
our rivers, seas and underground water sources; the thin-
ning of the ozone layer; global warming; the rapid extinc-
tion of species, massive deforestation and soil improve-
ment; rapid population growth; and uncontrolled urban-
ization, with its attendant social problems.
Roosevelts chief forester and mentor, Gifford
Pinchot (1910) has observed that conservation advocates
the use of foresight, prudence, thrift and intelligence in
dealing with public matters, demands the application of
common sense to the common problems for common
goods. Conservation of resources in other words is the
sustainable utilization of the resources, adequate sur-
veillance as well as with accountability. The environmen-
tal degradation and associated problems like desertifica-
tion, soil erosion, tropical forest depletion, etc., in the Third
World are the consequences of present development poli-
tics. Therefore, there is a need for positive mutual adjust-
ment between development and natural environment.
Several strategies, policies and concepts have been
propounded by ecologists and planners to deal with en-
vironment-resource management, such as the zero growth
strategy of Daly (1977), organic agriculture for self-sus-
taining societies of Naess and other well known concept,
viz., use of environment friendly techniques and prod-
ucts.
The publication of US Global 2000 Report 91980 and
other publications like Resourceful Earth (Simon and
Kohn, 1984), the Global Possible (Repetoo, 1985), Our
Common Future (World Commission on Environment and
Development, 1987) have generated a general debate high-
lighting the consequences of over exploitation of re-
sources and neglect of global common interest. The vari-
ous programmes of the UNO, specially the programmes of
UNEP, have emphasized the need for sustainable devel-
opment also referred to as eco-development.
Basic Aspects of Sustainability
The question of sustainable development has
emerged due to over exploitation of resources as well as
due to mismanagement of technology. The aspects which
require monitoring of sustainability include climatic
change, biodiversity, disposal of hazardous and toxic
wastes, disposal of pollution generating industries and
food and ecological security.
Swaminathan (1991) has identified nine principles
for desired success in promoting ecologically sound agri-
culture. There are: (i) land, (ii) water, (iii) energy, (iv) nutri-
ent supply, (v) genetic diversity, (vi) pest management,
(vii) post harvest system, (viii) systems approach and (ix)
location specific research and development.
[ 77 ]
 The deterioration in the ecological base in various
countries in spatio-temporal terms due to irrational man-
agement of the resource and environmental systems hav-
ing damaging repercussions are reflective of unsustain-
able policy frame and planning strategies followed so far.
Their observable signs can be listed as:
i. extensive deforestation accounting for loss of
flora, fauna and some rare species;
ii. drying up of drinking water resources and fall in
the underground water levels;
iii. Intensifying rate and frequency of flood and
droughts;
iv. land degradation due to desertification, waste-
lands, salinity and water logging;
v. deterioration in quality of air and water;
vi. pressure of population resulting in unemploy-
ment and mass migrations; and
vii. unplanned urbanization and unprecedented
growth of urban slums, etc.
The environmental problems are multidimensional
and varied in nature in developed and developing coun-
tries. There are global problems which have had their im-
pact throughout the world. On the other hand,
every country has its own development as well as envi-
ronmental problems. Apart from this, regional and local
problems need immediate attention. The problems created
by technology transfer from developed countries to Third
World countries have become a cause for concern, be-
cause in the absence of proper
management, it has become a cause of environmental deg-
radation. Such alarms are embodied in the unsustainable
activities which may include.
i. intensive cultivation of land without taking ad-
equate care of soil fertility;
ii. development of irrigation facilities without proper
water management, which leads to water logging,
TOPIC-XXII
NATIONAL CONSERVATION STRATEGY AND POLICY STATEMENT
ON ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT
Preamble
The survival and well-being of a nation depends on
sustainable development. It is process of social and eco-
nomic betterment that satisfies the needs and values of all
interest groups without foreclosing future options. To this
end, we must ensure that the demand on the environment
form which we derive our sustenance, does not exceed its
carrying capacity for the present as well as future genera-
tions.
In the past, we had a great tradition of environmen-
tal conservation which taught us to respect nature and to
take cognizance of the fact that all forms of lifehuman,
animal and plant are closely interlinked and that distur-
bance in one gives rise to an imbalance in other. Even in
modern times, as is evident in our constitutional provi-
sions and environmental legislation and planning objec-
tives, conscious efforts have been made for maintaining
environmental security along with developmental ad-
vances. The Indian Constitution has laid a new important
trail in the Section on Directive Principles of State Policy
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alkaline or saline soil;
iii. improper use of pesticides, fungicides, herbi-
cides, etc., cause soil damage and biological im-
balance;
iv. excessive trapping of underground water ac-
counts for steep fall in underground water level;
v. replacement of high yielding hybrid varieties lead
to spread of diseases capable of wiping out the
entire crop as it happened with lrish potato crop
in 1985 and Bengal rice famines in 1942;
vi. excessive use of non-degradable material like
plastic creates problems of waste management;
vii. automobiles and industries have become a ma-
jor cause of air pollution.
In fact, development without proper management
has become a cause of eco-destruction, of which sustain-
able development is the only solution. In a report for a
sustainable world following steps have been suggested;
1. A production efficiency era of minimum environ-
mental damage costs through energy transi-
tion.
2. Stable world population through demographic
transition.
3. From non-renewable to renewable resource tran-
sition.
4. By a global mutually agreed objective between
South and North-political transition.
While all these initiatives are necessary, the critical
shift required, is perception of man. For industrial man
has grown accustomed to thinking that: (a) the worlds
resources are infinite, and (b) they exist primarily to be
exploited for the benefit of mankind. These assumptions
are leading us to disaster. What is required is that we
replace this outmoded perspective with one that sees us
all as crew members of spaceship earth and fragile life-
support system spinning through space.
by assigning the duties for the State and all citizens
through article 48 A and article 51 A(g) which state that
the State shall endeavor to protect and improve the envi-
ronment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife in the
country and to protect and improve the natural envi-
ronment including forests, lakes and rivers and wildlife,
and to have compassion for the living creatures.
Nevertheless, over the years, there has been pro-
gressive pressure on the environment and the natural re-
sources, the alarming consequences of which are becom-
ing evident in increasing proportions. These conse-
quences detract from the gains of development and worsen
the standard of living of the poor who are directly depen-
dent on natural resources. It is in this context that we
need to give a new thrust towards conservation and sus-
tainable development.
The National Conservation Strategy and the Policy
Statement on Environment and Development are in re-
sponse to the need for laying down the guidelines that
will help to weave environmental considerations into the
[ 78 ]
fabric of our national life and of our development process.
It is an expression of our commitment for reorienting poli-
cies and action in unison with the environmental perspec-
tive.
Environmental problems: Nature and dimensions
Environmental problems in India can be classified
into two broad categories:
a. those arising as negative effects of the very pro-
cess of development; and
b. those arising from conditions of poverty and un-
derdevelopment.
The first category has to do with the impact of ef-
forts to achieve rapid economic growth and development
and continuing pressures of demand generated by those
sections of society who are economically more advanced
and impose great strains on the supply of natural re-
sources. Poorly planned developmental projects are also
often environmentally destructive. The second category
has to do with the impact on the health and integrity of
our natural resources (land, soil, water, forests, wildlife,
etc.) as a result of poverty and the inadequate availability,
for a large section of our population, of the means to fulfill
basic human needs (food, fuel, shelter, employment, etc.).
Needless to say, the two problems are interrelated.
Population is an important resource for develop-
ment, yet it is a major source of environmental degrada-
tion when it exceeds the threshold limits of the support
systems. Unless the relationship between the multiplying
population and life support systems can be stabilized,
development programmes, however, innovative, are not
likely to yield the desired results. It is possible to expand
the carrying capacity through technological advances
and spatial distribution. But neither of these can support
unlimited population growth. Although technological
progress will add to the capabilities for sustaining a large
number of population, the need for a vigorous drive for
population control can hardly be over emphasized in view
of the linkage between poverty, population growth and
the environment.
Even today, over 250 30 million children, women and
men suffer from under nutrition. The scenario for the com-
ing years is alarming and we are likely to face a food crisis
unless we are in a position to increase crop and animal
productivity on a continuing basis, since the only option
open to us for increasing production is productivity im-
provement. Also, access to food will have to be ensured
through opportunities for productive employment.
A growth in domesticated animal population has
been accompanied by a loss of area under grasslands and
pastures. Hardly, 3.5 per cent of our geographical area is
under grasslands, while our domesticated animal popula-
tion numbers nearly 500 million. The livelihood security
of majority of our people depends on land and water based
occupations such as crop and animal husbandry, forestry
and fisheries.
Out of the total area of India of about 329 million
hectares, 175 million hectares of land require special treat-
ment to restore such land to productive and profitable
use. The degradation is caused by water and
wind erosion (150 million ha), salinity and alkalinity
(8 million ha) and river action and other factors
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(7 million ha).
Our forest wealth is dwindling due to over-grazing,
over-exploitation both for commercial and household
needs, encroachments, unsustainable practices including
certain practices of shifting cultivation and developmen-
tal activities such as roads, buildings, irrigation and power
projects. The recorded forest cover in the country is 75.01
million ha which works out to 19.5% of the total geographi-
cal area against the broad national goal of 33% for the
plain areas and 66% for hilly regions. Even within this
area, only 11% constitute forests with 40% or more of
crown cover. According to the State of Forest Report, 1991,
the actual, forest cover in the country was 64.07 million
hectares during 1987-89. The loss of habitat is leading to
the extinction of plant, animal and microbial species. Ac-
cording to the Botanical and Zoological Surveys of India,
over 1500 plant and animal species are in the endangered
category. The biological impoverishment of the country
is a serious threat to sustainable advances in biological
productivity. Gene erosion also erodes the prospects for
deriving full economic and ecological benefits from recent
advances in molecular biology and genetic engineering.
Our unique wetlands, rich in aquatic and bird life,
providing food and shelter as also the breeding and
spawning ground for the marine and fresh water, fishes,
are facing problems of pollution and over-exploitation.
The major rivers of the country are also facing problems
of pollution and siltation. Our long coastline is under simi-
lar stress. Our coastal areas have been severely damaged
due to indiscriminate construction near the water-line.
Coastal vegetation including mangroves and sea grasses
is getting denuded. Our mountain ecosystems are under
threat of serious degradation. Extensive deforestation lead-
ing to the erosion of valuable topsoil is threatening the
livelihood security of millions of hill people. Equally seri-
ous is the downstream effects of the damage done up-
stream. Indo-Gangetic agriculture, often described as a
potential bread basket in the world, is being damaged be-
yond repair as a result of soil degradation. Some areas are
facing problems of water-logging and rising water tables
because of poorly planned and ill-executed irrigation. In
other areas, the water table is receding because of
overexploitation of ground water. Furthermore, the qual-
ity of groundwater is being affected due to chemical pol-
lution and in coastal areas, due to the ingress of sea water.
The excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides impose
threat to human health, to the genetic stocks and reduces
the natural soil fertility in the long run. The absence of an
integrated land and water use policy for the country is
taking a heavy toll in these basis natural assets.
Coral reefs are the most productive marine ecosys-
tems and provide habitat for diverse flora and fauna. These
eco-systems are adversely affected by indiscriminate ex-
ploitation of coral for production of lime, recreational use
and for ornamental trade. Similarly, the fragile environs of
island ecosystems have been subjected to pressures of
various forms including migration of people from the main-
land.
Global atmospheric changes resulting in altered tem-
perature and precipitation and rising ocean levels, are no
longer within the realm, of mere theoretical possibilities.
[ 79 ]
Combination of local subsidence, greenhouse induced sea
level rise and coastal environmental degradation may lead
to periodic floods, incursion of salt water, melting of gla-
ciers and river flooding. Local changes of average rainfall
will severely affect agriculture and water supply, espe-
cially in semi-arid areas.
Compounding these human-inflicted wounds on
natural ecosystems ad life-support mechanisms, we are
facing serious problems of pollution and unsanitary con-
ditions especially in urban areas. Pollution arising from
toxic wastes and non-biodegradable consumer articles is
tending to increase.
Lack of opportunities for gainful employment in vil-
lages and the ecological stresses is leading to an ever
increasing movement of resource poor families to towns.
Mega cities are emerging and urban slums are expanding.
Illiteracy and child labour are persisting. There has been a
substantial urban growth in the last four decades. This
has resulted in congestion and squatter settlements with
millions of people having no access to the basic needs of
civic amenities. The green cover in our urban centres has
been largely destroyed and once beautiful garden cities
have become concrete jungles. The man-made heritage in
India has been often gravely and even irrevocably dam-
aged.
A large number of industries and other develop-
ment projects have been incorrectly sited, leading, on the
one hand, to over-congestion and over-pollution in our
urban centres and on the other hand, to diversion of popu-
lation and economic resources from the rural areas. This
has also resulted in the pollution of most of our water
bodies which are major constituents of our life support
systems. Pollution of water bodies, in turn, has adversely
affected the growth of aquatic fauna and flora which is an
environmentally undesirable phenomenon for any eco-
system. The problems of women in villages are com-
pounded in this whole scenario of energy, environmental
and developmental imbalance. The incidence of malaria is
high in many parts of the country. Safe drinking water is
still a luxury in many villages. Liver ailments and gastro-
intestinal diseases are common due to unclean drinking
water.
It is difficult to clearly delineate the causes and con-
sequences of environmental degradation in terms of simple
one-to-one relationship. The causes and effects are often
interwoven in complex webs of social, technological and
environmental factors. For instance, from a purely scien-
tific and technological standpoint, soil erosion would re-
sult from the cultivation of marginal lands. However, from
the point of view of a comprehensive environmental im-
pact analysis, it is important to go further back and ana-
lyze the circumstances that force people to cultivate mar-
ginal lands. Viewed in this light, it becomes clear that a
concern for the environment is essentially a desire to see
that national development proceeds along rational, sus-
tainable, lines. Environmental conservation is, in fact, the
very basis of all development.
The overriding impact of adverse demographic pres-
sures on our resources and ecosystems due to poverty
and overpopulation of man and livestock has to be high-
lighted. Unless there is a curb on population growth and
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009
even a reduction of such populations and a correspond-
ing improvement in land use policies, the current trend of
over-exploitation and ecological degradation is not likely
to improve.
Thus, we are faced with the need for accelerating
the pace of development for alleviation of poverty which
is, to a great extent, responsible for many of our environ-
mental problems. On the other hand, we have to avoid
proceeding along paths with environmental costs so high
that these activities cannot be sustained. Development
has to be sustainable and all round, whether for the poor
or the not so-poor or for the village folk or for the town
people. The development models followed so far need to
be reviewed.
Actions Taken
In recognition of the felt need for environmental
protection, various regulatory and promotional measures
have been taken in our country over the past twenty years.
These include the following:-
Legal
The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 amended in
1983, 1986 and 1991.
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution)
Act, 1974, amended in 1988.
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution)
Cess Act, 1977, amended in 1991.
The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, amended in
1988.
The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act,
1981, amended in 1988.
The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
The Motor Vehicle Act, 1938, amended in 1988.
The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991.
A Notification on Coastal Regulation Zone, 1991.
Institutions
Department of Environment in 1980 and the inte-
grated Ministry of Environment & Forests in 1985. De-
partment of Science and Technology, Department of Agri-
culture and Co-operation, Department of Biotechnology,
Department of Ocean Development, Department of Space,
Department of Non-conventional Energy Sources. Energy
Management Centre, Council of Scientific and Industrial
Research etc. at the Centre, Departments of Environment
at the State and Union Territory level.
Central Pollution Control Board and State Pollu-
tion Control Boards.
Central Forestry Board.
Indian Council of Forestry Research and Educa-
tion with specialized institutions for research in arid zone,
forestry, moist and deciduous forests, wood technology,
genetics and tree breeding and deciduous forests.
Forest Survey of India (FSI) and the Wildlife In-
stitute of India (WII) in addition to the existing organiza-
tions like Botanical Survey of India (BSI) and Zoological
Survey of India (ZSI).
National Landuse and Wasteland Development
Council.
National Wastelands Development Board.
Indian Board of Wildlife.
National Museum of natural History, Centre for
Environmental Education, Institute for Himalayan Envi-
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ronment and Development and Centres of Excellence in
specialized subject areas are among the various institu-
tions set up.
Prevention and Control of Pollution
Water and air quality monitoring stations in se-
lected areas.
Use-based zoning and classification of major riv-
ers.
Notification and enforcement of standards for
polluting industries through the Central and State Pollu-
tion Control Boards.
Rules for manufacture, storage, transportation and
disposal of hazardous substances.
On site and off-site emergency plans for prepared-
ness against chemical accidents.
Fiscal incentives for installation of pollution con-
trol devices.
Fiscal incentives for installation of pollution con-
trol devices.
Ganga Action Plan to prevent pollution of the
river and restore its water quality which could be expanded
to cover other major river systems subject to availability
of resources.
Identification of critically polluted areas and of
highly polluting industries.
Conservation of Forests and Wildlife
Adoption of a new Forest Policy (1988) with the
principal aim of ensuring ecological balance through con-
servation of biological diversity, soil and water manage-
ment, increase of tree cover, meeting the requirements of
the rural and tribal population, increase in the productiv-
TOPIC-XXIII
ENVIRONMENTAL GEOGRAPHY & CONTEMPORARY ISSUES
Setting the Stage
The U.N. General Assembly in 1987 achieved a land-
mark in global planning by agreeing to hold the Summit.
The idea for some type of global meeting on the environ-
ment was put forward at the 1972 U.N. Conference on the
Human Environment held in Stockholm, chaired by
Maurice Strong. Our Common Future set the tone for the
1992 Earth Summit:
The Earth is one but the world is not. We all depend
on one biosphere for sustaining our lives. Yet each com-
munity, each country, strives for survival and prosperity
with little regard for its impact on others. Some consume
the Earths resources at a rate that would leave little for
future generations. Others, many more in number, con-
sume far too little and live with the prospect of hunger,
squalor, disease, and early death.
To the detriment of the final agreements that
emerged from the UNCED Earth Summit, the United States
administration blocked specific plans for cutting emission
of greenhouse gases and timetables for sustainable for-
estry goals. It was left to the Japanese and the nations of
the European Community at the Earth Summit to push for
timetables to reduce damaging emissions, to exercise lead-
ership, and to take advantage of the growing economic
opportunity of marketing environmental technology. With
all this in mind lets overview the five key agreements that
Ph. 011-27658009, 9311958007, 9311958008, 9311958009
ity, efficient utilization of forest produce, substitution of
wood and peoples involvement for achieving these ob-
jectives.
Under the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 strin-
gent provisions for preventing diversion of forest land
for any other purpose.
Setting up of the National Wastelands Board to guide
and oversee the wastelands development programme by
adopting a mission approach for enlisting peoples par-
ticipation, harnessing the inputs of science and technol-
ogy and achieving interdisciplinary coordination in
programme planning and implementation.
Formulation of a National Wildlife Action Plan.
An exercise for preparation of a National Forestry
Action Programme.
Establishment of National Parks and Sanctuaries
covering about 4% of the countrys area.
Eco-development plans for sanctuaries and Na-
tional Parks.
Identification of bio-geographical zones in the
country for establishing a network of protected areas in-
cluding seven Biosphere Reserves set up so far.
Management Plans for identified wetlands, man-
grove areas and coral reefs.
Formulation of National River Action Plan.
Land and Soil
Surveys by the All India Soil and Land-Use Sur-
vey Organization.
Treatment of catchment in selected river valley
projects and integrated watershed management projects
in catchment of flood prone rivers.
emerged from Rio.
The Five Earth Summit Agreements
1. Climate Change Framework This legally bind-
ing agreement is a first-ever attempt to evaluate and ad-
dress global warming on an international scale. As on
August 1992, 154 nations, including the United States and
Canada, signed the Convention on Climate Change.
Initially the goal was to set specific timetables and
limits for cutting emissions of greenhouse gases. The
United States objects to specific targets for controlling
CO2 emissions throughout the pre-summit sessions, cit-
ing economic uncertainties and unknown costs. The Eu-
ropean Community, Canada, Japan, and the majority of
attending nations favored stabilizing emissions at 1990
levels by the year 2000. The Office of Technology As-
sessment and National Academies of Science and Engi-
neering in separate assessments concluded that the United
States could hold to 1990 levels by the year 2015 at little or
no additional cost, Richard Kerr summarized.
The philosophy that many scientists contacted by
Science are now espousing amounts to buying some in-
surancein the form of no-cost or low-cost reduction in
greenhouse gas emissionagainst the possibility that the
higher predictions of global warming turn out to be right.
(Science) 256 (May 22, 1992) 1140.
2. Biological Diversity This legally binding agree-
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ment is a first international attempt to protect Earths
biodiversity. It provides more equitable right among na-
tions in biotechnology and the genetic wealth of tropical
ecosystems in particular.
Out of 161 signatories, the United States, Vietnam,
Singapore, and Kiribati refused to sign the original treaty.
This was a perplexing stand for the U.S. administration to
take. Biodiversity is one of the more divisive issues sepa-
rating developed countries in the Northern Hemisphere
from the predominantly developing nations of the equa-
torial and tropical regions and Southern Hemisphere. The
developing countries want to be compensated for drugs
and medicines that are derived from plants and animals
harvested from the indigenous genetic wealth in the trop-
ics. This return of some profit from transnational corpora-
tions and rich nation enterprises would in turn produce a
potential incentive for further protection of these critical
biomes.
3. Management, Conservation, and Sustainable
Development of All Types of forests This non-binding
agreement guides world forestry practices toward a more
sustainable future of forest yields and diversity.
The conflict between industrialized nations and de-
veloping nations is a classic confrontation of a north
versus south dichotomy. How can the rich nations con-
tinue to clear-cut their forests, yet turn to the developing
countries, such as Brazil, and virtually ask them to place
their lands in a national park or biosphere reserve? How
can the industrialized nations continue to produce exces-
sive CO2, far beyond reasonable per capita limits, yet turn
to the developing nations for a principle sink for CO2?
The developing countries of the south insist on equal-
ity (political and economic equality) of forest practice.
Along with sustainable timber practices, countries of the
north need to begin government-sponsored paper re-
cycling and packaging-reform programs. Such recycling
now is part of the forestry debate.
4. The Earth Charter this is a non-binding this assessment.
statement of environmental and economic principles.
These 27 principles establish an ethical basis for a sus-
tainable human-Earth relationship. All important empha-
sis in this charter is the need to include environmental
costs in economic assessments. Impoverishment of air,
soil, water, and ecosystems sometimes is mistaken for
progress. The notion that the environment is not an inex-
haustible mine of resources to be tapped indefinitely is
gaining many adherents. In terms of natural capital air,
water, timber, fisheries, petroleumEarth is indeed a fi-
nite physical system.
5. Agenda 21 (Sustainable Development)This 800
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pages of non-binding action program, was a guide for the
nations of the world during the remainder of this century
and the imminent 21st century. The idea of sustainable
development, as opposed to a business proposal of sus-
tainable growth, is examined in Agenda 21.
Agenda 21 covers many key topics: energy conser-
vation and efficiency to reduce consumption and related
pollution; climate change; stratospheric ozone depletion;
trans boundary air pollution; ocean and water resource
protection; soil losses and increasing desertification; de-
forestation; regulations for safely handling radioactive
waste and disposal; hazardous chemical exports for dis-
posal in developing countries; and disparities of wealth
and the plague of poverty.
Agenda 21 also addresses the difficult question of
financing sustainable development. Developing countries
are asking the developed nations to spend 0.7% of their
gross domestic productapproximately $125 billion per
yearto assist them in implementing the Earth Charter
and Agenda 21.
The Future
Form the Earth Summit emerged a new organiza-
tionthe U.N. Commission on Sustainable Develop-
mentto oversee the promises made in the five docu-
ments and agreements. Most of the participating coun-
tries completed State of the Environment
Reports (SERs) and gathered environment statistics for
publication. These reports are an invaluable
resource that will direct further research efforts in
many countries.
Considering these environmental problems and pos-
sible world actions, these are challenging times for hu-
manity as we ponder our relationship to the home planet.
Over the long term we no longer can sustain human activ-
ity through old paradigms. The truth is that society knows
many of the economic-ecological solutions to problems.
The study of physical and human geography is central to
Asking whether the Earth Summit succeeded or failed
is the wrong question. The occurrence of this largest-
ever official gathering of Earthlings and the five years of
preparatory effort and study that set the agenda are in
themselves significant accomplishments. The challenge
is one of education; the lesson is one of compromise and
some sacrifice. Members of society should work to move
the solutions for environmental and developmental prob-
lems off the bench and into play. The Earth Summit pro-
cess continues as a good beginning.
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