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enchondral when ossified the cartilage Mammals= pinna of the ear, walls of the
must be removed first before a bone is outer ear canal, epiglottis
deposited)
in both cases= spongy bone is the IV. Calcified Cartilage
immediate result of formation Formed when Calcium salts are
formation of epiphyseal plate= where deposited within interstitial substance of
new cartilage is form, if fused na the hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage
bone will stop growing Ex. Jaws of the shark
in ectotherms= chondrogenesis is
continues throughout life SKELETAL REMODELING
in birds and mammals= epiphyseal Bones also participate in maintaining
center cease elaborating cartilage homeostasis
shortly after individual reach sexual Serum calcium level, excess calcium that is
maturity not excreted is deposited along with inorganic
have three types: (1) sesamoid, (2) phosphate
dermal and (3) perichondral Serum calcium level, calcium is withdrawn
from the skeleton (to maintain normal serum
TYPES OF BONES (BASED ON POSITION) calcium level)
1. Cortical bone- peripheral bone Withdrawal is regulated by
2. Medullary bone- medial bone parathyroid hormone and calcitonin
Remodelling of the bone is needed and not
CARTILAGE acceration
- resembles bone in that it is formed in the matrix of a response to mechanical stress resulting from
collagenous matrix and cells lie in lacunae continuing use of inserting muscle or from
- intracellular matrix contains sulfated weight bearing
mucopolysaccharide instead of hydroxyapatite
crystals (bone) TENDONS, LIGAMENTS AND JOINTS
- have no canaliculi and no blood vessel of its own Tendons
- lacunar cells are supplied with oxygen and connects muscle with bones, have a shiny
nutrients by diffusion from the nearest capillaries appearance
adjacent to the cartilage continuous with epimysium (envelops the
Formation: chondroblast deposit their
muscle) and periosteum (envelops the bone)
mucopolyssacharide to existing collagenous
matrix mesenchyme surrounding the area of Ligaments
chondrification will organize a perichondrium
Connect bone to bone
additional cartilage is laid down within blastema
- chondroblast becomes chondrocytes after being Directly continuous with periosteum
trapped in the lacunae Nuchal ligament in the back of the neck-
longest ligament in mammal
I. Hyaline Cartilage
Aponeuroses- tendons and ligaments that are flat
Precursor of replacement bone, least
differentiated, most prevalent Gala aponeurotica- aponeurosis in
Can be transformed into fibrocartilage, mammalian scalp
elastic cartilage or calcified cartilage
Sesamoid cartilage or bones- mineralized
II. Fibrocartilage nodules in tendons or ligaments
Thick, dense collagenous bundles in the
Joint/Arthrosis- site where two bones or cartilage
interstitial matrix
meet
ex: intervertebral discs
Diarthrosis- a joint that is freely movable in
one or more planes; the articular surface is
III. Elastic Cartilage
covered by hyaline cartilage; joint is
contains collagenous fibers + network of
enclosed in a fibrous capsule lined by a
elastic fibers
I can do all things through Christ which strengthens me Phils 4:13
-do not ossify but become hardened thru Suprascapular spine- insertion site for
calcification of the cartilaginous matrix some of the appendicular muscle that arise
from the vertebral column. It divides the
Tetrapods scapula into:
-interclavicle- additional membrane bone a. Supraspinous fossae
-lost posttemporal (that usually braced the b. Infraspinous fossae
girdle against the skull) *these fossae are the origin of strong
Basal Amphibian muscles that insert on the humerus
-supercleithrum is missing Acromion process- for muscular
-cleithrum did not last when the species attachment forms near the glenoid fossa
arrived to land
Mammalian Clavicle
Fate of the Clavicle Monotremes, Insectivores and Primates-
Urodeles and Apodans- missing have large of this
Nonavian reptiles- uncommon Large in mammals with strong forelimbs that
Birds- found in the long bones of the is usually used for digging, climbing or flying
furculum/wishbone Felines- claviclesplinter
In turtles- epiplastra Cetaceans, Ungulates and some-clavicle is
eliminated
Fate of the Coracoid Cat- clavicle is a vestigial splinter, that enables
Assist the clavicle or replace them the cat to withstand the shock of landing
functionally in bracing scapula against the upright on their forelimbs after a leap as it has
sternum a no rigid connection btwn scapulae and
Arise from the coracoid plate in the lateral another part of the skeleton
body wall extending ventrad from the Ungulates- absent for grazing
glenoid region of the scapula
Procoracoids- arise from the anterior Dermal bones predominate in the pectoral girdle of
ossification center of the plate bony fishes whereas replacement bone in
Coracoids- arise from the posterior tetrapods
ossification center
PELVIC GIRDLE- no dermal bone
Fate of the Scapula Fishes
Present in all tetrapods that retain any Have a pair simple cartilaginous or bony
vestiges of anterior limbs becoz it bears pelvic (ischiopubic) plate- that meets in
part or all of the glenoid fossa for the midventral pelvic symphysis- provides
articulation of the girdle w/ the head of the a brace for the pelvic fins
humerus Cartilaginous Fishes and Lungfishes
Suprascapular- ossification center 2 embryonic cartilage unite to form an adult
remains independent in urodeles and plate
anurans
Tetrapods
Mammalian Pectoral Girdle Also develops cartilaginous pelvic plate,
Therapsid Girdle and Monotremes- each has two centers and form
interclavicle, clavicle, procoracoid, coracoid 1. Pubis
and scapula 2. Ischium- posterior
Eutherians- scapula and clavicle only Urodeles- nagreremain yung cartilaginous
remains of the coracoid ay naging pelvic plate
coracoid process Dorsal to pelvic plate is a blastema that give
rise to ilium
Acetabulum- found at the junction of pubis,
ischium and ilium. The one that receives the
Parts of the mammalian scapula head of the femur
I can do all things through Christ which strengthens me Phils 4:13
The ilium is braced in the against the stout and for the thrust required by some species
transverse process of the sacral for flight takeoff
vertebrae Pubis bones- reduced to a splinter,
a. Amphibians-1 directed caudad and parallel to ischium,
b. Nonavian reptiles- 2 does not meet ventrally (for laying off eggs)
c. Birds and Mammals- more Archaeopteryx- no synsacrum
Ribs usually become ankylosed to the
transverse process In mammals
The force is distributed throughout Ilium + ischium + pubis= akylosed to form a
either by: left and right innominate (coxal) bone
1. Dorsally by ilia Dorsally the ilium on each side ankyloses
2. Ventrally by pubis and ischium with the synsacrum in an immobile
In amniotes sacroiliac joint
sacrum and girdle is united rigidly and Ventroposteriorly, the pubis and ischia
form a bony closure thus meron silang meet in a pubic or ischiopubic symphysis
pelvic cavity (houses the urogenital organs (completing the walls of the pelvic cavity)
and the terminal portion of the large Relaxin-the hormone that softens the
intestine) fibrocartilage of the pelvic symphyses,
In frogs permits expansion of the pelvic outlet for
Ilia is slender and greatly elongated, extend delivery
from the sacral vertebra to the end of
urostyle FINS
Have a movable sacroiliac joint (for (1) Serve as a steering device for changing
leaping) directions, (2) stabilizers that prevent the
In Urodeles- weak posterior limbs body from rolling or wobbling, (3) device
Prepubic cartilage- extends from the girdle that control the inclination of the body in
forward in the linea alba for 2-3 somites swimming away from the horizontal
Furnishes attachment for certain muscle Pectoral fins- for forward locomotion,
utilized for respiration provided by the lateral undulation of the
Develop due to losing their gills and posterior part of the trunk, tail and caudal fin
develop lungs Fins are consist of two surfaces of skin back
In Reptiles to back, stiffened by flexible fin rays
Ilium becomes braced to an additional Consist of bony basalia (absent in teleost)
vertebrae and one or more rows of radialia (usually a
Pubis is directed away from the ischium vestige in teleost)
(having a triradiate girdle) Two types of fin rays
Birds + Ornithischian Dinosaurs- the a. Lepidotrichia- jointed bony dermal scales
pubis and ischium are parallel and directed aligned end to end
caudad b. Ceratotrichia- unjointed, long horny rays
In some reptiles: ischiopubic fenestra and have a material similar to that of the
(result from the incompletion of the wall of dorsal spines of the sharks
the socket)
Paired Fins
Epipubic (Marsupial bone, supports the marsupial 1. Lobed fins- for sarcopterygians
pouch) and Hypoischial- one or both are present have fleshy proximal lobe (contains the
in monotremes and marsupials, also in some skeleton and attached muscle
reptiles have membranous distal portion that is
stiffened by fin rays
In birds
Synsacrum= where the ilia and ischia is 2. Fin fold fins- for chondrichthyans (dogfish,
united skates and chimaera)
Provides broad surface for attachment of have broad base
hindlimbs muscle used in bipedal stance
I can do all things through Christ which strengthens me Phils 4:13
have three basalia: pro-, meso- and *Pelvic fins appear to be a gnathostome feature.
metapterygia *Spines in acanthodians derived feature
in male the basalia are modified into
clasper TETRAPOD LIMBS
In reptiles and mammals
3. Ray fins- for actinopterygians There has been a rotation of the entire
most have no pelvic fins (correlated for appendages toward the body
streamlining) Limbs are excellent shock absorbers
tuna the largest propel themselves by
forward undulation Divided into three segments
Biseralia- fins with two series of radials 1. Stylopodium (Propodium)
Includes the upperarm, thigh and single
Median Fins bone (humerus or femur)
Acts as a keel, keeping motionless fishes 2. Zeugopodium (Epipodium)
from rolling to the left and right, and rare Includes the forearm, shank and two
cases can be used for location parallel bones; (1) radius and ulna
Dorsal fins (preaxial sides) and (2) tibia and fibula
Anal fins of some viviparous teleost (post-axial sides)
becomes modified into gonopodium Stylopodium + Zeugopodium= elbow joint and
(analogous to clasper) knee joint
3. Autopodium
Caudal fins Has three divisions
1. HETEROCERCAL notochord turns upward a. Basipodium
into a large dorsal lobe; placoderms, Paleozoic Carpus (wrist) and Tarsus (ankle)
and modern sharks, some acanthodians, and Consist of proximal row of bones
chondrosteans (sturgeons and spoonbills) (1) radiale or tibiale
2. HYPOCERCAL vertebral column turns (2) intermedium
downward; ichthyosaurs (result of evolutionary (3) ulnare or fibulare and
convergence) (4) Centralia
3. DIPHYCERCAL externally symmetrical, Distal group of five carpalia or tarsalia
vertebral column ends with a little upbending; b. Metapodium
dipnoans and Latimeria metacarpus (palm) and metatarsus
4. HOMOCERCAL notochord or urostyle turns (sole)
far dorsad; teleosts Consist of distal group of five bones in
a row- metacarpals and metatarsals
*Heterocercal condition primitive and the rest c. Acropodium
are modifications of it Each digits consist of a linear row of
*Similaities in morphologic features of caudal fins bones termed phalanges
may be the result of convergent evolution First tetrapod- have 7 digits; two extra
are called (1) prepollex (pre-axial side)
ORIGIN OF PAIRED FINS and (2) postminimus (post-axial side)
Fin fold hypothesis- paired fins are
derived from a pair of continuous fleshy Radius- pre-axial, usually bears the force
folds of lateral body wall analogous to the Ulna- post axial, may be vestigial
metapleural folds of an amphioxus; no Sesamoid bone- bone from the tendon
evidence; of historical interest only Patella or kneecap (protects the joint from
Gill arch hypothesis- pectoral and pelvic the abrasive action of the tendon)
girdles are modified gill arches, and the Tibia
skeleton within the fin is an expansion of the Fibula
gill rays In frogs: tibiofibula
Fin spine hypothesis- membranes in 2 In chicken: slender and reduced to splinter
pairs develop in rays supported by radial
In deer: lost
elements
I can do all things through Christ which strengthens me Phils 4:13
Tibiotarsus- proximal tarsals + lower end of the Locomotion of Land without Limbs
tibia, no centralia 1. Serpentine or Lateral Undulation-
Tarsometatarsus- distal tarsals + 3 fused Forming irregular loops that become
metatarsals propped against and push against any
available stationary object on their path
*Intratarsal joint= btwn the tibiotarsus + minimum of 3 contact sites are
tarsometatarsus necessary
*Joint= btwn tarsometatarsus + toes, for digitigrade no appreciable force is exerted
stance, keeping birds ready for takeoff downward against the ground
Myofibrils- parallel threadlike fiber that Usually in body wall and appendages
causes the longitudinal striation
consist of sarcomeres, repeated II. Visceral
component of the myofibrils (consisting of Regulate internal envt
myofilaments, a proteins; (1) actin and (2) Smooth muscle of the hollow organs,
myosin vessels, tubes and ducts
Striated muscle fiber is NOT A CELL but a The intrinsic musculature of the eyeballs
syncytium, a single functional unit of the and erector muscle of feathers and hair
striated muscle fiber (when myoblast Includes cardiac muscle
become aligned end to end and unite) Derivatives: splanchnic mesoderm
Sarcolemma- plasma membrane Innervated by ANS
Motor end plate- portion of the Unsegmented
sarcolemma with receptors for Usually in the splanchnopleure
neurotransmitters
single nerve cell supplies motor end III. Branchiomeric Somatic Muscle
plates a many muscle fibers, so that motor Belong to the pharyngeal arches and their
units (functional group of muscle fibers) ontogenic or phylogenetic derivatives from
contracts when stimulated fishes to human beings
Striated skeletal muscle
Cardiac Muscle Tissue
Origin: myotomal (most anterior somites
Contains myofibrils and filaments of actin
and unsegmented paraxial mesoderm in the
and myosin
head)
Cell is uninucleate
Somitomers-individual subdivision of the
Cell is separated by intercalated disks (link paraxial somites and:
cytoplasm of adjacent cell) 1. Does not fully segment
Can contract without nervous 2. Lack sclerotome and dermatome
stimulation components
Innervated by fibers of the autonomic Innervated by cranial nerves
nervous system
Cardiac tissue regularly self-depolarize Skeletal Muscles as Organs
(myogenic) Epimysium- surrounds the muscle, a
Smooth Muscle Tissue muscle fascia, glistening fibrous sheath
Are fusiform Perimysium- surrounds the major bundles
Uninucleate of muscle fibers
With myofibrils but LACK STRIATION Endomysium- collagenous reticulum that
Innervated by autonomic nervous supports the muscular, neural and vascular
system components of each functional unit
(continuous with perimysium)
Major Categories of Muscle Tendons- is the continuation of the muscle
I. Somatic Muscles beyond the site where fascicles end
Orient the body (soma) of the organism in *At the site of attachment the tendon of the
the external envt. skeleton, collagenous bundles of the tendon
Striated muscles that attached to continue into and contribute to the perichondrium or
ligaments, tendons and bones of the axial periosteum of the bone to which they are attached.*
skeleton to the appendicular skeleton and
skeletal components of the lateral and Two Contractile Fiber Types
ventral body walls Twitch Fibers Tonic Fibers
Innervated by spinal nerves Fast to slow Slow contraction
Voluntary contraction Postural muscle in
Derivatives: myotomes of mesodermal Slow- mammalian amphibians and
somites postural muscle reptiles
Primitively segmented Fast- most Extraocular and ear
I can do all things through Christ which strengthens me Phils 4:13
Muscle shaped
1. Fusiform- biceps branchii
2. Straplike- sternomastoid, geniohyoid
I can do all things through Christ which strengthens me Phils 4:13
2. Similarity of location, origin and Oblique fibers- a thin sheet that lies superficial
insertion to the main hypaxial mass ventrolaterally
Ex. Genioglossus (mammals, insertion Bluefin tuna are said to be warm blooded
of tongue) to sublingual seed pouch due to heat generated by contractions of the
(avian) voluntary axial musculature
Epibranchial muscle- dorsal to the gills,
AXIAL MUSCLE continuation of the epaxial muscle to the skull
Skeletal muscles of the trunk and tail Hypobranchial muscle- beneath the gills, the
Does not include branchiomeric or hypaxial muscle extends to the lower jaw
appendicular muscle Dorsal rami- supply epaxial myomeres
Axial muscle of fishes and tetrapods- Ventral rami- larger, innervate hypaxial
metamerism enabling them to propel in myomere
water by lateral undulation (reptiles still
have lateral undulation) mas B. Tetrapods
appendicular sila kaysa axial Tailed amphibians retained the primitive
Origin: segmental mesodermal somites metamerism of epaxial and hypaxial muscle
(mesenchyme cells of myotome of each Disappearance of epaxial myosepta in
somite stream into the embryonic lateral amniotes (nagkaroon ng extension of the
body wall and migrate ventrad while spines)- gave rise to long, straplike or pinnate
undergoing repeated cell division bundles disposed above the transverse process,
Blastemal cells unite to form striated muscle fibers leaving vestige of the metamerism in deepest
Metamerism of the somites- expressed as bundle.
myomeres separated by myosepta Modification:
Myosepta do not form in the abdominal region of 1. Epaxial myosepta disappeared
anurans and amniotes, they only have tendonous 2. Hypaxials of the abdomen have no
inscription myosepta and form broad sheet of muscle
with fibers disposed in different layers (as
Trunk and Tail Muscles musclular sling to support the viscera)
A. Fishes Greatly increased the flexibility of the
Consist of myomeres separated by myosepta to reptilian and mammalian vertebral column-
which the longitudinal muscle fiber attached due to revised vertebral musculature and
Myosepta serves as origin and insertions of modification of the intervertebral joints
segmental muscles Dorsal arching and greater lateral
Role: locomotion undulation na sila
Linea alba- midventral septum Necturus- retained epaxial and hypaxial (has
Have a myomere for each vertebra now 3 layers) myomeres
Have a spinal nerve for each myomere Sphenodon- retained epaxial muscle only and
Epaxial Muscle and Hypaxial Muscle, separated has now a broad stratified sheet
by Horizontal skeletogenous septum Note: loss of the metamerism in the axial muscle
Ventral ribs in the lateral body wall- develop also results to the loss of horizontal skeletogenous
within the myosepta septum
cones become longer toward the tail, and the
apices of caudally directed cones near the end Epaxial Muscles of the Trunk
of the trunk are often continued as tendonous Function: straightening the vertebral column
extensions that insert on caudal vertebrae. and in lateral flexion of the body
Forces of contraction is distributed all over the Extends from the base of the skull to the tip of
body segment but greatest in the tail where the tail
flexibility of the vertebral column is also Muscles act synergetically
greater Amphibians other than anurans- has
Counterforces are evoked by pressure of the metameric epaxial that arise and insert on
undulating body against the water myosepta and transverse process called the
DORSALIS TRUNCI
I can do all things through Christ which strengthens me Phils 4:13
4 groups of epaxial muscle in amniotes: Note: in turtles and birds, the epaxial muscle are
(ILSI) prominent only in the neck because the vertebral
1. Intervertebrals/Shortest bundles column and ribs (for turtles) are immobilized by the
Deepest epaxial muscle fusion of synsacrum and carapace respectively.
ONLY ones that retain primitive Complexus- cervical epaxial of birds
metamerism insertion: interparietal bone
Maintains vertebral posture function: provides power for cracking the
Extends btwn eggshell with the beak during hatching
(1) 2 INTERTRANSVERSARII,
(2) 2 INTERSPINALES, Hypaxial Muscles of the Trunk (SORT)
(3) 2 INTERACUALES OR 2 Divided into four in amniotes
INTERARTICULARES
1. Subvertebrals (longitudinal bundles beneath
2. Longgisimus the transverse process in the roof of the
occupy lateral position above the coelom)
transverse process Meager in thorax but prominent in
longest epaxial muscle lumbar
dominant extensor in mammals Action: generally opposite of the epaxial
plays virtually no role in generalized Longus colli- portion in the neck of the
mammalian locomotion birds and mammals
in the lumbar of mammals: it has 3 Quadratus lumborum- representation of
distinct bundles subvertebrals in lumbar region, in
mammals it is called psoas minor
3. Spinales Origin: centra of several of the last
Includes (1) long and medial thoracic vertebrae and the bases of their
bundles that connect neural spines or ribs and on the transverse processes of
transverse process with neural spines the lumbar vertebrae
several or many segments cephalad Insertion: ventral angle of the wing of
and (2) transversospinales that the ilium
connect transverse process with the Psoas minor
neural spine of the 2nd vertebra Known as: tenderloin
forward connects the lumbar vertebrae with
Multifidus spinae- lumbar the pelvic girdle
intervertebrals that grouped the
spinales 2. Oblique and Transverse Muscle
Assist in maintaining stability of the Parietal Muscle
column in whatever degree of - external oblique
extension or flexion is imposed by - internal oblique
other vertebral muscle - transverse muscles of the abdomen
Humans: assist in other bundles in
maintaining an upright posture In amniotes
while standing -external intercostal
4. Iliocostales -internal intercostal
Lateral to longissimus -transverse muscle of the thorax
Constitute a thin sheet arising on the
ilium and passing forward to insert on One or another sheets can be either split
the ribs and ucinate process into two or lost
Dominant epaxial in reptiles (provide Cremaster Muscle- loops around the
leverage for lateral undulation) spermatic cord, commences at the
Continue forward to the neck but not inguinal ring, inserts fibrous sheath in the
caudad into the tail wall of the scrotum
Provide leverage for lateral undulation Acts as external respiration (amniotes)
Accessory role (mammals)
I can do all things through Christ which strengthens me Phils 4:13
Muscles of the Tail Bats- tongue extends far back to the sternum
Intervertebrals and short spinales and Chief extrinsic tongue muscle of the mammals
longgisimus continue to the tail as the are: (mammalian prehyoid)
lateral extensors 1. Hyoglossus
I can do all things through Christ which strengthens me Phils 4:13
2. Styloglossus
3. Genioglossus Extrinsic Muscle of the Pectoral Girdles and
Intrinsic tongue muscle Forelimbs
1. Lingualis (no skeletal attachment) A. Dorsal Group (LSRTCC)
Most constant: latissimus dorsi (inserts on
Hypoglossus- last cranial nerve, a cervical spinal the humerus)
nerve that become trapped within the amniote skull -Urodeles: arise from superficial fascia,
triangular muscle
-Reptiles: stronger, spread dorsad to
Appendicular Muscles acquire firm attachment
Fishes -Mammals: broader dorsal anchorage
Acts as a stabilizers continue
Dorsal blastemas- form extensors
(elevators of the fin) Three extrinsic Muscle that inserts on
Ventral blastemas- flexors (depressor of the dorsal border of the scapula
the fins) 1. 2 levators of the scapula
Anal fins that become gonopodia Origin: transverse process of the atlas
Medial dorsal fin- from myotomal or on the basioccipital bone and on the
mesenchyme transverse process of the number of
Medial ventral fin- from hypaxial posterior cervical vertebrae
myotomes Insert: process of the scapular spine
Postaxial- extend the appendages near the glenoid fossa
Preaxial- flex the appendages 2. Rhomboideus group
Origin: occiput and neural spines of a
Tetrapods series of cervival and anterior thoracic
vertebrae
More complicated due to the joints
3. Serratus Ventralis
Disposed in opposing groups
Origin: Slips of the first 9 or 10 thoracic
Have two groups of appendicular muscle ribs; transverse process of the last 5
I. Extrinsic Appendicular Muscle cervical vertebrae
-arise from the axial skeleton or fascia of the
trunk and inserts of the girdle or limb Trapezius- a survivor of the cucullaris
Origin: blastemas within the embryonic muscle of the fishes
body wall
Divides into 3: cleidotrapezius,
Referred to as secondary appendicular
acromiotrapezius and spinotrapezius
muscles- as they muscles embryonic origin
Innervates via branchiomeric nerves
is not intrinsic to the limb.
Muscles: (LSRTSC)
Cleidomastoideus and Cleido-occipital
1. Levator Scapulae
2. Serratus Ventralis Attachment to the clavicle
3. Rhomboideus Moves the head and not function as an
4. Trapezius appendicular muscle
5. Sternomastoideus
6. Cleidomastoideus B. Ventral Group (PS)
Called the pectoral muscle
II. Intrinsic Appendicular Muscle Originated on the coracoid cartilage,
-arise from the girdles or limb and inserts median raphe, epicoracoid and entire
more distally on the limb length of the sternum
Origin: blastemas within the developing Subdivided into numerous superficial and
limb deep muscle mass
Referred to as primary appendicular
appendages
Exception: latissimus dorsi and iliopsoas of
the posterior limb of generalized mammals
I can do all things through Christ which strengthens me Phils 4:13