Liquefaction Behavior of Sand Silt Mixture
Under Monotonic Loading.
1. R. S. Dalvi, 2. S. R. Pathak, Fellow, IEI.
Abstract -- Consolidated undrained monotonic
triaxial compression tests have been conducted on
various sand silt mixture to study the effect of fines
content on liquefaction behavior of silty sand. All the
tests were conducted on 75x150 mm sample size
using moist placement method of sample preparation
at 110 kPa confining pressure. The results showed
that the limiting silt content plays a vital role in the
liquefaction resistance of sand silt mixture. As the
fines content increases the liquefaction resistance
decreases up to limiting fines content beyond which,
opposite trend is observed. Normalized deviator
stress required to cause liquefaction failure at 20
cycles has been evaluated from normalized peak pore
pressure strength obtained from laboratory triaxial
test results. It is inferred that liquefaction occurs at
peak pore pressure point in the laboratory triaxial
tests on silty sand. CSR values evaluated from these
points when superimposed on Seeds demarcating
curve are found to lie in yes zone of liquefaction.
Keywords--liquefaction, fines content, triaxial test,
cyclic stress ratio, pore pressure, limiting fines
content, saturated soil.
1. INTRODUCTION
L of sand silt mixtures, the behavior of this soil is
IQUIFACTION is the most interesting and
complex phenomenon studied in geotechnical
earthquake engineering. Liquefaction has caused
catastrophic failures during past earthquakes.
Liquefaction occurs due to sudden increase in the
excess pore water pressure and the corresponding
decrease in the effective stress in a soil deposit.
The generation of excess pore pressure under
undrained loading condition is a hallmark of almost
all liquefaction phenomena.
In nature, the soils with different percentage
composition of sand and silt are commonly found.
Hence it is important to find effect of fines content
on the liquefaction behavior of sandy soil. Various
researchers have reported studies on liquefaction
behavior of sandy soils with different percentage of
fines content. Kuerbis et al (1988) observed that at
the same skeleton void ratio, increasing silt content
upto 20% resulted more dilative behavior of sand
1. R .S.Dalvi is a Asst. Professor Civil Engg.Dept.College
of Engg. Pune,India.(email:rsd.civil@coep.ac.in)
2. S.R.Pathak is a Professor Civil Engg. Dept.College of
Engg. Pune,India.
in undrained triaxial testing. Pitman et al (1994) also
concluded that when silt was added to Ottawa sand
it becomes less collapsible in undrained triaxial
testing. Thevanayagam (2000) and Thevanayagam
and Mohan (2000) have studied extensively the
effect of fines content on the liquefaction resistance
of sand with non plastic fines content and
recommended the use of intergranular void ratio for
the interpretation of the experimentally observed
behavior. Yamamuro and Lade (1997b, 1998) and
Lade and Yamamuro (1997), observed that
increasing the non plastic silt content in Nevada
sand increased contractive behavior of the
specimen in both drained and undrained triaxial
tests, even when the density was increased.
Ishihara (1993), Salgado et al. (2000), Ni et al.
(2004) and Georgiannou (2006) investigated that
the liquefaction resistance increases with increasing
fines content. While results of some other laboratory
studies (Koester 1994, Sitharam and Dash 2008,
Carraro et al. 2009, Sitharam et al 2013) imply that
increase in the non plastic fines decreases the
liquefaction resistance of sandy soil upto limiting
silt content and then liquefaction resistance
increases with further increase in fines content.
Though, extensive work has been carried out to
study effect of fines content on liquefaction behavior
observed to be contradictory and confusing.
The authors of this paper have already established
unstable zone signifying the initiation of liquefaction
of clean sand (Pathak and Dalvi 2011).Further, such
zone has also been verified for various sample
sizes and for different sample preparation methods
using monotonic triaxial tests (Pathak and Dalvi
2014). This paper necessarily deals with the study
of effect of fines content on liquefaction behavior of
sand silt mixture by conducting consolidated
undrained triaxial tests with varying fines content.
2. EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS
In the present work, consolidated undrained
triaxial tests have been conducted on sand silt
mixture with varying amount of fines content: 5%,
15%, 25% and 30% and (for relative densities 30%
and 45%) to find the effect of fines content on
liquefaction behavior. Total eight tests have been
conducted on 75150 mm sample size using moist
placement method of sample preparation at 110
kPa confining pressure.
The index properties of clean sand and silt used
in this study were determined as per the
specifications of IS: 2720 (Part 14)-1983 and IS: pressure was removed and the confining pressure
2720 (Part 4)-1985 and are presented in Table 1. of 50 kPa was applied to the specimens. Saturation
of the specimens was accomplished by flushing
Table.1. carbon dioxide for 20 minutes to replace the air in
the voids of the specimen. The specimen was then
Properties of silt and clean sand saturated by back pressure technique and the
Soil Type Silt Clean sand
Skemptons coefficient B (u /3) was periodically
monitored. B value of at least 0.97 was achieved for
max 15.17kN/m3 18.12 kN/m3
all the specimens indicating that the specimens
min 11.91 kN/m3 15.34kN/m3 were completely saturated. The cell pressure was
G 2.67 2.67 then slowly increased to provide the desired
effective confining pressure and then the specimens
emax 1.1070 0.8039
were isotropically consolidated.
emin 0.6547 0.5725
D50 0.02 mm 0.28 mm 2.2 Testing Procedure
Cu 1.6 2.56 After ensuring full saturation and consolidation of
Cc 0.056 1 the specimen, the drainage valve was closed and
LFC 27.07% ---------- LVDT (Linear Variable Displacement Transformer)
was initialized to zero. Then the conventional strain
controlled undrained monotonic shearing of the
specimen was carried out. During the test for each
The limiting fines content (LFC) for the soil tested in effective confining pressure, the load, deformation
this work is calculated by using equation given by and pore pressure values were recorded after every
five second using data acquisition system. The test
Hazirbaba 2005 as was continued till the load carrying capacity of
sample was reduced. The data collected from the
W fines G f es tests was then analyzed and discussed in the
LFC following section.
Wsand W fines G f es Gs (1 e f )
3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Figure 1 shows effect of fines content on peak
where, Wfines is the weight of fines and Wsand is the deviator stress typically for medium dense sand at
weight of sand in sand silt mixture. Similarly, G f, Gs, relative density of 45% using moist placement
ef and es represent specific gravity, interfine void method. It is seen from the graph that deviator
ratio and sand skeleton void ratio of fines and stress increases as % strain increases for all
sand respectively. Limiting fines content defines the samples prepared at various fines content. Peak
transition point through which the sanddominated value of deviator stress has been observed at 2 to 3
structure is converted to silt dominated structure. % of axial strain for the samples prepared at 5%
The calculated limiting fines content is within the and 15% fines content and steady state has been
general range of 20%-30% as also reported by reached at large % of axial strain. It is also noticed
(Koester 1994, Kuerbis et al 1988, Polito and Martin that an increase in the amount of fines from 5% to
2001, Singh 1994, Vaid 1994). 25% leads to a decrease in the deviator stress from
425 kPa to 175 kPa . However at 30% fines content
The experimental device used to perform the (i.e. after limiting fine content) peak value of
isotropically consolidated undrained triaxial deviator stress has again increased to 270 kPa. The
compression tests includes: Load frame (Motorized) reason may be due to variations in the skeletons of
having 50kN capacity, triaxial cell stationary the sand silt specimens. At low fines contents below
bushing, air water constant pressure system limiting fines content (below 27.07 %), the added
(Capacity 7 Kg/cm2) and data acquisition system for fines mostly occupy internal voids of the sand
recording load, pore pressure and displacement. skeleton and do not participate in the internal
The specimens for all silt content are prepared contact force chain (Thevanayagam 1998, 2007a,
using moist placement method of sample b; Thevanayagam and Mohan 2000). The soil
preparation. The saturation and consolidation of structure formed is described as, silt contained in a
each specimen is as discussed below. sand matrix.
2.1 Saturation and Consolidation However when the fines content is greater than
limiting fines content, the sand grains are isolated
Porous stone and loading pad were placed on from each other by silt grains and the soil structure
the top of prepared specimen and sealed with O- consists of sand grains suspended within silt matrix
rings. Negative pressure of 25 kPa was applied to with little sand grain to sand grain contact. Silt
the specimens to reduce disturbance during dominates sand particles and participates in the
removal of split mould and triaxial cell installation. internal contact force chain (Thevanayagam
When the cell was filled with water the negative 1998,2007a,b; Thevanayagam and Mohan 2000).
Therefore with increase in fines content beyond
limiting fines content, minimum and maximum void
FC=5%
FC=15%
FC=30%
FC=25%
Fig.1: Deviator stress vs % strain for various fines
content (RD= 45%)
ratios are increasing for sand silt mixture. This
indicates that, to maintain the same void ratio for
sand silt mixtures with increase in fines content the
specimens need to be compacted more, resulting in
denser packing. This increases the strength of sand
silt mixture as the percentage fines increases
beyond the limiting fines content.
Similar behavior has been reported by Koester
(1994), Vaid (1994), Singh (1996) and Dash and
Sitharam (2011) and Sitharam et al (2013) for silty
sands.
As effective stress path has been effectively
used in studying liquefaction behavior. For each of
the specimens tested in the present work effective
stress path is plotted. Fig. 2 shows typical effective
stress path for all specimen of 45% relative density.
It has been seen that specimen prepared at 5% silt
content shows continuous dilative behavior.
However, for 15% fines content after initial
contraction, the effective stress path is found to
deviate in the upward direction as a result of
development of negative pore pressure.
FC=5%
FC=30%
FC=15%
FC=25%
Fig.2: Effective stress path for various fines content
(RD=45%)
However, as the fines content increased to 25% the
contractive behavior of the sand silt mixture has
been observed to increase due to increase in pore
pressure. Further increase in silt content upto 30%
resulted in continuous dilative behavior.
Typical contractive and dilative behavior
primarily being due to increase or decrease in pore
pressure, the excess pore pressure has been
plotted with strain for various fines content as
shown in Fig.3 typically for relative density 45%. It
is observed that peak pore pressure increases as
the % strain increases for all samples. Further, as
the fines content increases from 5% to 25% peak
pore pressure increases from 32 kPa to 70 kPa
and maximum pore pressure has been observed for
specimen prepared at 25% silt content.
FC=25%
FC=15%
FC=30%
FC=5%
Fig.3: Peak pore pressure vs % strain for various
fines content (RD=45%)
This could be attributed to more compressible
nature of sand silt structure than that of clean sand.
When sand and fines are deposited, some of the
fine grains occupy the void spaces thereby increase
the density; but this fines content has little effect
on soil behavior. However, some of the fine particles
occupy locations near contact points between larger
grains. This holding of the larger grains slightly
apart from each other could significantly affect the
soil behavior. Further during isotropic compression
and shearing the particles located near the contacts
would tend to slide into void spaces (Yamamuro
and Lade 1997). Therefore, the soil structure
formed after addition of fines to sand is found to be
much more compressible than that of clean sand.
This ultimately could increase the liquefaction
potential of the soil. However, beyond limiting silt
content, lesser value of peak pore pressure has
been observed for specimen prepared at 30% fines
content.
3.1 Effect of Fines Content on Peak Deviator Stress
 The values of peak deviator stresses for various
silt contents have been plotted for initial relative
densities 30% and 45% in Fig. 4. It is noticed that
peak deviator stress has decreased with increase in
fines content upto 25% for both relative densities. It
is also observed that at 30% fines content (more
than limiting fines content 27.07%) deviator stress
again increased. However higher value of peak
deviator stress has been developed for the sample
prepared at 45% relative density.This could be
because sample prepared at 30% relative density
(loose state) exhibits larger contractive tendency as
compared to that prepared at 45% medium density.
Also in the loose state, soil particles tend to
rearrange into denser state of packing. But the
initial state of sample prepared at relative density
45% is comparatively dense and hence increased
the peak deviator stress.
700
600
500
400
Pe ak De viator Stre s s (k Pa) 300
RD=30% RD=45%
200
100
0
0 5 101520253035
Fines content (%)
Fig. 4: Effect of fines content on the peak deviator
stress.
Further the maximum peak deviator stress has
been observed for clean sand (0 % fines content)
for both relative densities tested in the present
work. Thus it appears that higher resistance to
liquefaction has been developed by clean sand than
that of sand silt mixture. The reason may be that
sand particles tend to be deposited into
configuration with enough solid contact between the
grains than that in sand silt mixture (Yamamuro and
Lade 1997).
From the above discussion it is clear that the
percentage of fines content has profound effect on
liquefaction resistance of sandy soil. As the fines
content increases the liquefaction resistance initially
decreases, whereas the trend is reversed with the
increase in fines content beyond limiting fines
content. These laboratory triaxial test results are
further simulated with the actual field conditions as
discussed in the next section.
3.2 Simulation of the Laboratory Results with
Actual Field Conditions
From the previous studies it has been seen that
liquefaction behavior is mainly influenced by the
state of the soil namely loose and dense; which
could be represented by the relative density (Dr) of
the soil. The relative density as determined in the
laboratory is well correlated with field test data (SPT
and CPT) and thus has been used to correlate
laboratory and field studies (Yoshimi et al 1994,
Suzuki et al 1995). For the purpose of comparing
present laboratory results of triaxial tests on
different types of sand silt mixture with actual field
conditions the densities of the sand in the present
laboratory tests are converted to equivalent
corrected SPT blow count, (N1)60 by using the
relationship between (N1)60 and Dr as
(N ) C D
1 60 d r
2
1
Skempton (1986) recommended a Cd value of 44
for the relative density values between 30% to 90%.
In the present work the densities are 30% and
45%..The corrected SPT blow count (N1)60cs for
different fines contents has been obtained using the
corrections as proposed by Cetin et al (2004) given
by
( N1 )60cs ( N1 )60 CFINES
CFINES (1 0.004 FC ) 0.05 [ FC /( N1 ) 60 )
Where FC= percentage fines content between 5%
to 35%.
Further the cyclic stress ratio at peak pore
pressure in the present experimental work has been
evaluated using equation given by Hyodo et al
(1998). Monotonic and cyclic triaxial tests have
been conducted by Hyodo et al (1998) on three
crushable soils. In monotonic triaxial testing they
observed that the effective stress path passes
through a point of phase transformation.
Furthermore, they have developed a unique
relationship for the normalized deviator stress
required to cause liquefaction failure at 20 cycles
and the normalized phase transformation strength
(qpt) obtained from monotonic test. The equation is
as follows:
q
pt
( d ) 0.03 0.63 (
2 ' 20 2 '
) 2
c c
In above equation q pt is the deviator stress at
phase transformation point.
This relationship is independent of effective
initial confining pressure, relative density and type
of material. Authors of this paper have inferred that
initiation of liquefaction occurs at peak pore
pressure. According to Lade and Ibsen 1996,
Rehman (2009) peak pore pressure point is slightly
above the minimum effective stress point (phase
transformation point). Therefore, in the present
experimental work eq.2 has been used to
determine cyclic stress ratio at peak pore pressure
point. Further, the values of cyclic stress ratios at 15
number of uniform stress cycles (CSRtx,15) were
extracted by means of duration weighting factor
(DWF) given by Cetin et al (2004).
sand upto 35 % fines content of 18 sites have been
collected and plotted in Fig.5 on Seeds model.
Seed and Lee (1966) defined initial liquefaction
as the point at which the increase in pore pressure
is equal to the initial confining pressure for very

(CSR)
(CSR)
tx ,15
(
tx, 20
DWF
) 3

It has been seen that the values of cyclic stress

ratio using triaxial tests are conservative when
compared with those of field observations. The
cyclic stress ratio obtained from simple shear test
has enough consistency with actual resistance in
the field condition. The common relationship that
correlates CSR tx, CSR ss and CSR field for the same
number of stress cycles is given by Seed et al
(1978).

cyc cyc
( ) 0.9( ) 0.9C ( dev ) ( 4)
' field ' ss r 2 ' tx
vo vo 3 causing liquefaction and (N1)60 values for silty
In above equation the reduction factor 0.9 has been
used as the pore pressure generated under multi
directional loading in the field is greater than the
one generated using simple shear test.
Many researchers such as Finn et al (1970),
Seed and Peacock (1971) and Castro (1975)
proposed constant values Cr for different K0
conditions. In the present experimental work in
order to obtain field cyclic stress ratio from triaxial
data the CSRtx,15 is multiplied by 0.9 and the upper
bound Cr coefficient proposed by Seed and
Peacock (1971) for K0=0.4 has been used. Thus
the obtained cyclic stress ratio for earhthquake
magnitude 7.5 has then been referred a CSR field,7.5.
Thus the cyclic stress ratio calculated in the
field for 15 number of cycles, (CSR field,7.5) and (N1)60
values obtained from various relative densities in
the present experimental work have been plotted on
Seeds model (1985).
Seed et al (1985) compared the corrected SPT
resistance and cyclic stress ratio for sites with silty
sand at which liquefaction was or was not observed
for 125 sites in North and South America, Japan
and China for earthquake M=7.5 as shown in Fig.5.
The boundary lines separating conditions causing
liquefaction and not causing liquefaction are drawn
for sand with fines contents of 15% and 35%. In the
present work new case history data of earthquake
events (Loma Prieta earthquake,1989, Northridge
earthquake,1994, Hyogoken Nambu earthquake
,1995,Chi ChiTaiwan earthquake,1999.) for silty
Fig.5: Relationship between cyclic stress ratios
sands in M=7.5 earthquakes.(After Seed et al
(1975).
loose soil. In present work normalized deviator
stress required to cause liquefaction failure at 20
uniform stress cycles has been evaluated from peak
pore pressure strength using monotonic triaxial
tests; which further converted to cyclic stress ratio
for 15 uniform cycles corresponding to Mw=7.5
earthquake magnitude (CSR field,7.5). For the purpose
of comparing present laboratory test results of
triaxial tests on sand silt mixture with actual field
conditions the densities are converted to equivalent
corrected SPT blow count,(N 1)60. Those points when
superimposed on Seeds model are found to lie well
above the boundary line (Seeds curve). This
confirms peak pore pressure criteria established by
authors for initiation of liquefaction for silty sand
using monotonic triaxial test.
4. CONCLUSIONS
Consolidated undrained triaxial tests conducted
on various sand silt mixtures in the present
experimental work showed decrease in peak
deviator stress with increase in fines content upto
limiting fines content. However with further increase
in fines content beyond limiting fines content peak
deviator stress increases. Peak pore pressure is
found to increase with increase in fines content
indicating contractive behavior. However sand silt
mixture/silty sand with fines content in excess of
limiting fines content showed dilative behavior.
Moreover peak value of deviator stress is observed
to be more for denser soil with all fines content.
Cyclic stress ratio values for field at 15 number of
cycles (CSR field,7.5) evaluated at peak pore pressure
point signifying initiation of liquefaction when
superimposed on Seeds model found to lie in yes
zone of liquefaction.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors gratefully acknowledge the support
given by College of Engg, Pune.
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7. BIOGRAPHIES Dr. Mrs. S. R. Pathak is Professor
at College of Engineering, Pune.

Mrs. Rupa S. Dalvi is Assistant

Professor at College of
Engineering, Pune and research
scholar at COE, Pune