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Works Cited
Primary Sources
. . Canton: n.p., 1839. Print.
In this document, Lin Zexu sought to persuade the people of Canton to abandon opium.
He raised points on the harms of opium - that it sucks away fortune and breaks apart
families. Throughout the entire document, Lin condemns opium and criticizes the people
Set in the midst of Lins actions in Canton, March - June 1839, this document reflects the
extent of opiums spread before Lin took his aggressive stand. The texts tone borders that
of exasperation, which shows Lins determination in solving a deep rooted issue that has
huge implications on the Cantonese society at that time. Through Lins words, the reader
can also infer the many inherent harms of opium, and thus understand the drugs
capability to impact either individual health or collective prosperity, the rich or the poor,
the peasants or the scholar gentry, causing problems ranging from health concerns to
weakening of the economy. The reader can also gain insight on Lins motives for his swift
actions. However, Lin seemed to have brought his frustration upon the people, which
The Treaty of Nanjing was the first unequal treaty between China and a western nation.
This treaty dictated the transition of Hong Kong from Chinese to British rule. In addition,
China was required to hand over millions of silver dollars. The British also gained access
This treaty is historically significant because it embodied the result of the First Opium
War. The document roused Chinese patriotism and inspired reform movements that
characterized the political and social landscape of early modern China. Almost all
scholars unanimously agree that this treaty and the war it represents integrated the
isolated China with the changing world. In conclusion, this treaty marks an important
moment in global history - when Qing China began its fall and Victorian England reached
Elliot, Charles. "Captain Elliot to the Imperial Commissioner." Letter to Lin Zexu. 28 Mar. 1839.
Great Britain: Foreign Office, n.d. 375. Google Books. Web. 6 Jan. 2017.
On March 28, 1839, Captain Elliot, trapped in the Thirteen Factories by Lin, wrote this
letter and agreed to surrender the opium. This letter reflected the trapped Europeans
mounting panic and desperation. In addition, the document came from a book containing
hundreds of other papers that embodied the contact between the East and the West.
One can note the shift in tone from Elliots previous correspondences to correspondences
that occurred after Lins blockade in Canton. Elliots humble tone that resemble pleading
demonstrated the effectiveness of Lins strategies. However, these strategies also angered
the British, offending the dignity of the crown, and thus they served as a justification for
warfare.
Elmslie, Edward. Notes of Proceedings at Canton. 23 Mar. 1839. Thirteen Factories, Canton.
Elmslies primary account of Lins confiscation of opium in Canton documented the flow
of events that occurred. He noted the foreign discussions on how to respond to Lins
demands, the many tensions that strained relations, and Lins strategies of prohibition and
confiscation.
Elmslies account offers crucial insight into this event. The same proceedings were
Lin, Zexu. "Letter of Advice to Queen Victoria." Letter to Queen Victoria. 1839. Brooklyn
In this letter, Lin condemned British importation of opium into China. In addition, he
harshly criticised the British government for the lack of control on their merchants.
Finally, Lin claimed that the Celestial Emperor is furious, and demanded whether Queen
This resolute letter again showed Lins determination in eradicating opium. It is also one
of the most important sources for research on the opium trade that exists in English. It
offered insight on how the Chinese viewed the British, and how that view has come to
change drastically.
This document is a chapter from a comprehensive work recording the entire history of the
This work is a basic primary source that can serve as the foundation for more detailed
research. It describes the events surrounding opium in a matter of fact tone, and it seems
quite objective, lacking the bias that characterises various other primary sources.
The Full Works of Lin Zexu is a book that compiled all documents by Lin, including
memorials, diaries, letters, and other important writings. Ten volumes exist, and all these
together serve to offer a great amount of knowledge into Lins life and deeds. Volume 3
compiles some of his memorials to the emperor, including his own reports (sometimes
Lin is the only author; Lin can also be joined by other notable bureaucrats) from Canton.
Memorials that relate to the confiscation and destruction of opium often recount
significant events, offer advice on prohibition, or report specific information that can be
of use.
Lins own works serve an instrumental role in research, since all memorials are usually
rich in detail. Since these writings came from the person who is responsible for and who
is deeply involved in the events of focus, they are undoubtedly extremely valuable. For
example, they offer first hand detail on all proceedings, such as the blockade of the
times vividly reflect the tense atmosphere and the way Lins aggressive stand
dramatically unfolds. Finally, these works offer integral insight into Lins own viewpoints
- his view on foreigners, his view on opium, his view on the people, and of course, his
This document is a memorial from Lin Zexu to Emperor Daoguang. It outlined the major
problems of opium on Chinese society, analysing the impacts of this drug from an
economic, political, and social perspective. He also cited the affordability of opium for
the people, the economic and health burden of addiction, and deterioration of the military
and the bureaucracy with the spread of opium. Lin is known for his resolute claim at the
end of this memorial: that without properly enforced, large scaled, hardlined, and
aggressive prohibition policies, after ten years China would have neither enough bullion
accurate one. Daoguang was thought to have profoundly agreed with Lins claims, and
thus he appointed Lin as imperial commissioner to resolve this pressing crisis. Therefore,
this document offers insight on how Lin was willing to stand up despite the complicated
political atmosphere, and take on a challenging task that would, and did, jeopardise his
entire career. This stand essentially led to his stand in Canton and Humen - the
Secondary Sources
informative. Its commentary and assessment on Lin was largely positive, praising Lin as
an ethnic hero.
Beach. It was quite informative, citing multiple primary accounts and offering significant
statistics. However, its commentary on the event was very consistent with generic
Chinese thought, which formed an interesting contrast with western analysis of the same
event.
Cone, Daniel. "An Indefensible Defense: The Incompetence of Qing Dynasty Officials in
the Opium Wars, and the Consequences of Defeat." (n.d.): n. pag. Emory College,
This is a scholarly paper discussing the reasons for Qings loss in the Opium War. It
detailed the events of the war, British invasions and Chinese dfenses, and provided
commentary. The paper claimed that China could have been successful in the war despite
its inferior technology, and that it was the incompetence of the bureaucracy, the lack of
training for the troops, and various other factors that contributed to the humiliating defeat.
The paper concluded that the loss of the Opium War was an avoidable catastrophe, since
China could have easily utilised its geographical and defensive advantages to attain
victory.
Cones viewpoint is persuasive and effective. It also offers insight on the inherent
problems that existed in the Qing administration. The information provided can educate
readers in the proceedings of the opium wars. However, it seems that the loss is in fact
inevitable, since the intrinsic problems of the Chinese bureaucracy are rooted deeply in
hundreds of years of history. This, this paper led to the conclusion that the Qing
This source was biography of Lin, a good western source to begin research with.
Marchant, Leslie. "The Wars of the Poppies." History Today. History Today, n.d. Web. 06
Jan. 2017.
This is a paper by an Australian scholar discussing the cultural and ideological factors of
the opium war. It also offers a summary of the events, from Lins arrival in Canton to the
Second Opium War. The author analyzed the causes, effects, ideological differences, and
Marchants rhetoric was clear and intriguing, offering new insights on the Opium Wars.
The better understanding of warfare allows for comprehension of the impacts of Lins
. "." .
This is a scholarly paper presented by the Opium War Museum. First, the
document opened with a summary on the origins, development, prosperity, decline, and
tensions associated with the Thirteen Factories. Then, the author turns to analyze how Lin
worked with and against the Thirteen Factories. The paper outlined and described major
strategies Lin utilized during the prohibition and confiscation of opium. These include:
solving the problem from the roots, dividing and categorizing foreigners, learning from
This secondary source offers information on the historical context of the topic:
how the Canton system rose the prominence and its situation in the middle of a conflict in
trade. In addition, the paper also relates Lins various strategies to events that occurred in
March 1839. Thus, the paper offered a good analysis on the proceedings of the
confiscation with citation of primary sources. However, the paper closed by praising Lin
as a national hero, which is, of course, an arguable statement. But it is definitely
Jan. 2017.
"." - - .
Perdue, Peter. "The First Opium War." MIT Visualizing Cultures. MIT, n.d. Web. 06 Jan.
2017.
This source documents the causes of the First Opium War and its proceedings. It
source offers valuable visuals - countless pieces of works of art that offers a new
perspective into the events leading up to and during the Opium War.
Perdue, Peter. "Rise & Fall of the Canton Trade System." MIT Visualizing Cultures. MIT,
This source documents the development and decline of the Thirteen Factories,
detailing how the trade system rose to prominence, transformed a city, and brought many
to prosperity, and how the trade system was caught in an ongoing tension, eventually
perishing in a fire.
This source offers countless works of art that demonstrated the integral role the
Thirteen Factories played in the life of Canton. Thus, this source was perhaps one of the
most informative western, secondary sources, and the most helpful source regarding
historical context.
Su, Christine. "Justifiers of the British Opium Trade: Arguments by Parliament, Traders,
and the Times Leading Up to the Opium War." Stanford Undergraduate Research Journal
This paper analyzed the parliamentary debate on whether to go to war with China.
The author claimed that the proponents cited free trade, national prestige, the Indian
economy, etc. as primary motives for warfare. On the contrary, those against the war cited
morality, pointing out that this is an unjust invasion. Of course, the advocates for the
This document provides good insight into the impacts of Lins stand. This is
because Lins blockade and humiliation of the British merchants became a major reason
for war. However, the author concluded that the British used an arbitrary justification to