1

Shakespeare and Socialism: Cinema, Simplicity, and Drama-Ballet in

Prokofiev's Romeo and Juliet

Michaela Judkins

October 20, 2016

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If one were to attend a current production of Prokofiev's Romeo and Juliet as

performed by the Bolshoi Ballet, one would likely be met with a production that adheres

to the traditional principles of classical ballet. An elegant set display, pure dance

choreography, and traditional Russian balletic procedures embody this 1979

interpretation of Prokofiev's score by choreographer Yuri Grigorovich, an interpretation

that is still presented in the repertoire of the Bolshoi Ballet. 1 Although this production

conforms to balletic norms of the Bolshoi, it did not receive immense success in its first

years, and it still receives mixed reviews in its more recent productions. It is often

criticized for its lack of drama in depicting the conflict in Shakespeare's original story. A

2002 review in The Scotsman stated, on the topic of Grigorovich, that "he paints thickly

with bold strokes, filling the stage with large crowds dressed in flamboyant costumes.

Yet strangely, this dramatic approach leads to the ballet's one drawback - lack of

tension."2 An earlier review from The Los Angeles Times in 1990 claimed that, "In this

very long, very dull, very ponderous and very anticlimactic 'Romeo', Grigorovich plays

slow and loose with the Shakespeare source, with the Pyotrovsky/Radlov libretto, and

even with the miraculous Prokofiev score."3 For a ballet that is performed as frequently

as Romeo and Juliet, it seems entirely unusual for such mixed reviews to prevail, as

they have, for decades.

Perhaps the crux of the Grigorovich version's lack of enormous success is the

devotion viewers and critics have to its predecessor, Leonid Lavrovsky's version from

1Anna Kisselgoff, "The Bolshoi's 'Romeo and Juliet' more Prokofiev than Shakespeare", New
York Times (New York, NY), Jul. 16, 1990.
2Kelly Apter, "Review BALLET Ballet Grigorovich - Romeo & Juliet", Scotsman (Edinburgh,
Scotland), Nov. 11, 2002.
3
Martin Bernheimer, "Ballet Reviews: The Bolshoi's Muddled 'Romeo'", Los Angeles Times (Los
Angeles, CA), Aug. 13, 1990.
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1940. Lavrovsky's choreographic interpretation established Romeo and Juliet as one of

the staple productions in the Bolshoi repertoire, beginning in the 1940's, due to its

adherence to the principles of Socialist Realism. Lavrovsky's interpretation found

success worldwide, and it served to "establish the Bolshoi's reputation in the West both

on film and in its first tours in the 1950s and early '60s."4 The key to Lavrovsky's

choreographic success was his use of drama-ballet, which was considered "the only

form of ballet that could convey Socialist Realist ideas."5 Prokofiev and Lavrovsky came

together and created a work that embodied the ideals of Socialist Realism, as this was

vital under their political circumstances in order for the ballet to find success. To adhere

to these Socialist Realist principles, Prokofiev employed new simplicity in his

composing, in order to appeal to the masses. He not only adopted a new compositional

style, but he also composed Romeo and Juliet in a cinematic manner. This is described

in a 1949 article in Tempo, which states that "one of the new things about this ballet is

that the technique of the cinema is used to give a heightened sense of action; again and

again the musical themes are broken and re-woven like a change in the camera's

focus."6 The success of Romeo and Juliet lay in Lavrovsky's drama-balletic

choreography, Prokofiev's new compositional simplicity, and his merging of these

factors through a cinematic deployment within the context of ballet.

4Alastair Macaulay, "On Screen, No Scars or Scandals for Bolshoi", New York Times (New
York, NY), Jun. 5, 2013.
5Cadra Peterson McDaniel, American-Soviet Cultural Diplomacy: The Bolshoi Ballet's American
Premiere (London: Lexington Books, 2015), 63.
6
Iris Morley, "Cinderella and Romeo and Juliet", Tempo (Cambridge, UK), Spring, 1949.
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New Simplicity and Soviet Ballet:

Prokofiev's artistic output is generally classified as evolving through three stages

of artistic development. Throughout his life, he progressed from "enfant terrible in

conservative, pre-Revolutionary Russia to iconoclastic Modernist in the West of the

1920s to purveyor of stylistically conservative music in Soviet Russia of the late 1930s

and 1940s."7 Like Dmitri Shostakovich, his shift from radical Modernism to a more

conservative aesthetic during Stalinism and the Cold War certainly was due in part to

the strict regulations of Socialist Realism upon his return to the Soviet Union. However,

as musicologists have gained greater access to information about Prokofiev's life, it has

become evident that this aesthetic shift began well-before Prokofiev's return to the

Soviet Union in 1935.8 In a 1933 diary entry, Prokofiev explained that he felt the desire

to compose music that was accessible to the masses, yet maintained its integrity. He

called this compositional outlook "new simplicity."9

The desire to compose appealing music for the masses was not Prokofiev's

alone. Many composers, like those comprising Les Six and Aaron Copland, had stylistic

shifts toward populism in the 1930's.10 While nationalism was a driving factor of this shift

for many composers, Prokofiev's reasoning seems to be more self-interested. The

demand for film composers at this time was growing as the industry was burgeoning;

Prokofiev composed his first film score in 1932 for the Soviet film Lieutenant Kizhe. In

deciding how to compose the score for this film, he concluded that the best approach

7 Kevin Bartig, Composing for the Red Screen, (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), 5.
8 Ibid.
9Simon Morrison, The People's Artist: Prokofiev's Soviet Years, (New York: Oxford University
Press, 2009), 14.
10
Bartig, 7.
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was "stylistic simplicity and extreme economy of means -- his new simplicity -- an

approach that he felt could both appeal to a broad audience and still be respectably

modernist by virtue of its stark contrast to the musical excesses of the twentieth

century's first quarter." 11 Prokofiev's new simplicity served him well as a composer of

film music, since it was more accessible for the general population, not just the elite.

However, Prokofiev's desire to compose music for the masses through his new

simplicity was not solely tied to his development as a film composer; it can be perceived

across his catalogue of works from this period. His shift to new simplicity began as early

as the mid-1920s. Prokofiev's last two ballets composed for the Ballet Russes, Le pas

d'acier (1925) and L'Enfant prodigue (1929), both exhibit an increase in lyricism,

consonance, and clarity. 12 New simplicity brought Prokofiev great success with the

general population, further propelling his desire to compose with this aesthetic. In a

1934 article in the Russian newspaper Izvestia, Prokofiev stated that, "what is needed

above all is great music, i.e., music that would correspond both in form and in content to

the grandeur of the epoch."13 It was through his new simplicity that Prokofiev felt his

music could be truly great, since he felt that music that reached the masses embodied

what "the modern Soviet composer must strive to reach."14

In addition to being fueled by his desire to compose music for the masses and

music for films, Prokofiev's new simplicity was driven by his newly found spirituality. In

11
Ibid.
12 Ibid.
13Sergei Prokofiev, "The Path of Soviet Music," in S. Prokofiev: Autobiography, Articles,
Reminiscences, ed. S. Shlifstein, trans. Rose Prokofieva (Moscow: Foreign Languages
Publishing House), 99.
14
Ibid.
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1924 (one year prior to composing Le pas d'acier), Prokofiev discovered the Christian

Science faith while living in Paris.15 In his adolescence, Prokofiev's overflowing self-

confidence, a result of his exceptional talent and intelligence, led him to difficulty with

social interaction in friendships and romantic relationships. This resulted in years of

anger and depression, a solution to which was his faith in Christian Science. 16 The core

of Christian Science theology is "the singularity and unity of the divine mind as the

exclusive constituent of reality.17 The result of this is the attempt to reach a place of

divine perfection; in order to achieve this perfection, the individual must deny sin, guilt,

and even pain.18 Prokofiev's newfound faith caused him to re-evaluate all aspects of his

life. It gave him the confidence necessary to push guilt and depression out of his life.

His faith led him through the trials he encountered throughout the rest of his life; even

upon his return to the Soviet Union, he viewed evil and suffering as an illusion through

which his faith would guide him.19

The effect that Prokofiev's faith had upon his music is undeniable. It led him on a

journey of finding divine perfection, not only in his personal life, but also in his music. In

a 1933 letter, Prokofiev remarks: "Christian science is helping me enormously in my

music. To say more exactly, I do not see any more my work outside of science."20

15
Leon Botstein, "Beyond Death and Evil: Prokofiev's Spirituality and Christian Science," in
Sergey Prokofiev and his World, ed. Simon Morrison, (Princeton: Princeton University Press,
2008).
16 Ibid, 541-542.
17 Ibid, 535.
18 Ibid, 541.
19 Ibid, 550-551.
20 Ibid, 542.
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Aesthetically, Christian Science led Prokofiev's music toward transparency and

accessibility: transparency because of God's indisputable truth and perfection, and

accessibility because of God's omnipresent love for all. Prokofiev had long sought to

find an individual voice, but Christian Science affirmed this need to be "individualistic

and therefore distinctive and original."21 These aesthetic ideals not only adhere to the

principles of Christian Science, but they also, conveniently for Prokofiev, correspond

with the aesthetics of Socialist Realism. The new simplicity fulfilled the needs of

accessibility and clarity that the Soviet Union and Christian Science both required, and,

perhaps even more conveniently, this stylistic shift coincided with Prokofiev's

development as a film composer.

Prokofiev did not believe that his departure from radical Modernism towards new

simplicity meant that he was sacrificing his excellence as a composer. He felt that the

ability to compose with musical clarity required excellent technique.22 He didn't view his

new simplicity as reverting to the compositional methods of previous composers; he

saw it as quite the opposite. He believed that this was, as he stated in a 1937 Pravda

article, "where the difficulty of composing clear, straightforward music lies: the clarity

must be new, not old."23 He felt that the new simplicity could only be achieved "after the

composer has mastered the art of composing serious, significant music, thereby

acquiring the technique of expressing himself in simple, yet original terms."24 The

21
Ibid, 552.
22 Morrison, 14.
23Sergei Prokofiev, "Flourishing of Art," in S. Prokofiev: Autobiography, Articles, Reminiscences,
ed. S. Shlifstein, trans. Rose Prokofieva (Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House), 106.
24
Sergei Prokofiev, "The Path of Soviet Music," in S. Prokofiev: Autobiography, Articles,
Reminiscences, ed. S. Shlifstein, trans. Rose Prokofieva (Moscow: Foreign Languages
Publishing House), 99.
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search for musical clarity to reach the masses, without forfeiting his prestige as a

modernist composer, characterizes Prokofiev's compositional output in this era.

Shakespeare in the Soviet Union

In a society that glorified nationalism, Socialist Realism, and the Soviet

proletariat, the choice to use the work of a non-Soviet author for the libretto of a ballet

seems entirely unusual. Shakespeare, however, occupied an unparalleled place in

Soviet culture. Slavic studies scholars tabulate that from 1917-1939, more than five

million copies of Shakespeare plays were published in the Soviet Union and surmise

that there have been more productions of Shakespeare's plays in the Soviet Union than

in both Britain and the United States altogether. 25 Karl Marx himself was a champion of

Shakespeare's works, claiming that all drama should be "Shakespearized."26 Gorkii, a

favorite author of Stalin, also supported this notion: "A teacher, a leader, a builder of the

new world must be the main character in contemporary drama. And we must learn how

to portray this new character with adequate force and clarity from [] Shakespeare."27

In 1939, Sergei Radlov, a prominent Soviet theater director, stated that Shakespeare

had "become a friend and a teacher for our audiences; he has become a friend and

teacher for our actors."28 Thus in the period contemporaneous with the Prokofiev

25
Joseph G. Price, "Introduction," Russian Essays on Shakespeare and His Contemporaries,
eds. Alexandr Parfenov and Joseph G. Price (Newark: University of Delaware, 1998), 13.
26Arkady Ostrovsky, "Shakespeare as a Founding Father of Socialist Realism: The Soviet Affair
with Shakespeare," in Shakespeare in the World of Communism and Socialism, eds. Irena R.
Makaryk and Joseph G. Price (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2006), 57.
27 Ibid.
28
Ibid, 58.
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Lavrovsky collaboration, Shakespeares works were studied by a multitude of Soviet

writers and scholars, as well as endorsed by the Soviet leader himself, Joseph Stalin.

Why did Shakespeare, an author who lived in the wake of feudalism, appeal so

greatly to the Soviet ideology? Alexander Smirnov (18831962), a Soviet theorist and

professor at Leningrad University, proposed that Shakespeare did not subscribe to the

ideals of feudalism, but that his work instead found its roots in "the revolutionary ideas

and moods of the bourgeoisie."29 He believed that Shakespeare was, at his core, a

humanist, because his works focused on "moral, political, and philosophical questions of

universal significance; he strives to change the world."30 The Soviets did not see

Shakespeare as an upholder of the aristocracy, but rather as a revolutionary who

believed in the equality of all mankind. Smirnov described Shakespeare's humanism as

having three core elements: a morality based on man's free will and his sense of

responsibility to the world; a scientific interpretation of all phenomena; and an optimistic

outlook grounded in the Renaissance.31 The recognition and appreciation of these

elements by governing officials, artists, and audiences alike fostered widespread

acceptance of Shakespeare's output in the Soviet Union.

Shakespeare's plays often depict the aristocracy and class stratification in feudal

societies, but the Soviets believed that this wasn't because Shakespeare condoned

these systems. Instead, they concluded that it was because these settings provided

29Alexander A. Smirnov, Shakespeare: A Marxist Interpretation, trans. Sonia Volochova and

Sidonie Kronman (New York, New York: Critics Group, 1936).
30 Ibid.
31
Ibid.
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adequate scenarios in which to create drama.32 Shakespeare often used the aristocracy

as the main characters in his plays, but he was able to characterize these people as if

they were ordinary. To the Soviets, this meant that Shakespeare was downplaying the

importance of the aristocrats, because they endured conflict and struggles just like

ordinary people. Shakespeare calls these characters "to judgment, giving the audience

every opportunity to appreciate their vices and imperfections.33 The Soviets believed

that Shakespeare was not bound by the principles of feudal society, and his humanist

representation of the aristocracy was reflective of this.

Shakespeare did not only focus on the experience of the aristocracy; he also

portrayed the plight of the peasants. In a 1964 Pravda article, Ivan Anisimov explains:

"Shakespeare never forgets that, alongside the world of the rich, there exists the world

of the hungry, the beggars, the homeless dross of society, and calls this fact to mind

persistently in different ways."34 Shakespeare portrayed these individuals as purely

human, just as he did the aristocracy. In the context of Socialist Realism, all people

were supposed to be represented as equal and working for the greater good of

humanity. While Shakespeare was not from Russia, his ability to portray every individual

through a humanist lens was synchronous with the principles of Socialist Realism.

In the decade that Shakespeare was immensely popularized, the 1930s, the

Soviet Union had recently come out of a very difficult time of civil war in the 1920s, with

32George Gibian, Shakespeare in Soviet Russia, The Russian Review 11, no. 1 (January
1952), 24-34.
33 Alexander Anikst. Shakespeare -- A Writer of the People. In Shakespeare in the Soviet Union,
trans. Avril Pyman, compiled by Roman Samarin and Alexander Nikolyukin (Moscow: Progress
Publishers, 1966), 124.
34
Ivan Anisimov, Life-Affirming Humanism. In Shakespeare in the Soviet Union, translated by
Avril Pyman, compiled by Roman Samarin and Alexander Nikolyukin, (Moscow: Progress
Publishers, 1966), 140-144.
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rampant famine and destruction of many peoples' land. In the early 1930s, just before

Stalin's Great Terror, it seemed as if there was a recess from the difficulties they had

been facing. The early 1930s saw a new era; the economy was rebounding, and plans

for a reconstructed Moscow were released, generating a fresh optimism in the air. The

Soviets saw this as their own Renaissance, and they frequently compared it to the

Renaissance Shakespeare had experienced and contributed to. Shakespeare's

Renaissance ideology was, the Soviets believed, harmonious with the conventions of

Socialist Realism. According to Arkady Ostrovsky, the new ideology of Socialist Realism

was defined by "clarity, truth-to-life, moralism, hard-line didacticism and a striving for

clear-cut simplicity."35 The mysticism and emotional strife of the previous decades of

Romanticism were upheaved by the clarity and openness of Socialist Realism.

Shakespeare similarly rejected the standard ideology of his time, and Smirnov observes

that Shakespeare's writings "found expression not in impulsive outbursts or obvious

allusions to the evils of the times, but in profound internal upheavals and changed

evaluations of humanity and of the whole life process."36 This upheaval mirrored what

the Soviets were attempting to do; to create a new society in which everyone worked for

the greater good of mankind. To the Soviets Shakespeare represented the "feeling of

certainty that man is entering upon an era of immense possibilities."37 While

Shakespeare certainly did not label himself a "Socialist Realist," his commitment to the

Renaissance values of his society was important to the Soviets who believed they found

themselves in a similar position.

35 Ostrovsky, 62.
36 Smirnov.
37
Anisimov, 141.
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Even within a society that promoted optimism and lack of internal conflict,

Shakespeare's tragedies were still revered highly. They were accepted under the

pretense of "optimistic tragedy."38 The Soviet authorities believed that Shakespearian

tragedies had the dominant feeling of life as triumphant, even within the tragic

circumstances. They believed that all conflict could and should find resolution.

Shakespeare was masterfully capable of creating tragic drama, but the conflict within

the drama, they claimed, was not based on the inner turmoil of characters; conflict was

rather the result of a mistake or a misunderstanding.39 In the context of Romeo and

Juliet, the tragic ending was seen as the result of a series of misunderstandings, rather

than the result of the inner turmoil of the title characters.

"That is where the difficulty of composing clear, straightforward music lies: the

clarity must be new, not old" - S. Prokofiev 40

While the new simplicity was not a direct result of Prokofiev's return to the Soviet

Union, it was certainly beneficial to him. His "mass-audience voice" adequately suited

the qualifications of Socialist Realism, therefore ensuring his public success in a time

when composers, like Shostakovich, were being scrutinized for formalism.41 In 1937,

only two years after his arrival, the Soviet Union held a Pushkin Jubilee to

commemorate the centenary of Pushkin's death. This presented Prokofiev with the

opportunity to compose music for various Pushkin tales in honor of the event, including

38
Ostrovsky, 63.
39 Ibid.
40Sergei Prokofiev, "Flourishing of Art," in S. Prokofiev: Autobiography, Articles, Reminiscences,
ed. S. Shlifstein, trans. Rose Prokofieva (Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House), 106.
41
Bartig, 10.
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Boris Gudanov and Eugene Onegin. Prokofiev was also commissioned to compose the

score for a film production of Pushkin's The Queen of Spades. Since the film was never

produced, this project is not as well known as other works composed for this occasion.42

Prokofiev was presented with a peculiar set of circumstances in composing The

Queen of Spades. Tchaikovsky's The Queen of Spades, based on the same Pushkin

novella, was highly criticized by the Soviet bureaucracy for its excess-Romanticism.43

Tchaikovsky took many liberties with the plot, setting the entire story 40 years earlier

than it was supposed to have occurred, inserting a main character that did not exist in

the novella, and including a plot change in which two characters commit suicide at the

conclusion of the story (an event which did not occur in Pushkin's original story).44

Prokofiev had the opportunity to restore a sense of realism to this story, one that would

adequately suit the demands of Socialist Realism, and he accomplished this through the

use of his own new simplicity. He set himself up for success with this project by publicly

clarifying that he agreed with the disapproval of Tchaikovsky's treatment of the story. He

stated that it was in "very bad taste" and full of Tchaikovsky's "characteristic

pessimism."45 While the film was never completed, the score is an excellent example of

Prokofiev's use of his new simplicity to promote the ideals of Socialist Realism,

redeeming the work of a beloved Soviet author with a new sense of realism and clarity.

Prokofiev had a similar opportunity to redeem the work of a beloved author with

Romeo and Juliet, which he began composing only two years prior to the Pushkin

42
Ibid, 37.
43 Ibid.
44 Ibid, 38.
45
Ibid, 44.
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Jubilee. The work of Shakespeare was beloved by Soviet society, yet the

Shakespearian works of many Soviet Romantic-era composers, such as Tchaikovsky's

Romeo and Juliet, did not adequately suit the demands of Socialist Realism. Prokofiev's

approach to composing Romeo and Juliet has many similarities to his film score for the

Queen of Spades; thus, the compositional techniques displayed in both of these works

adhere to his principles of new simplicity. Prokofiev assigns specific melodies to

individual characters in both of these works. Prokofiev composes highly lyrical melodies

for the female protagonists (Liza in The Queen of Spades and Juliet in Romeo and

Juliet), yet the male protagonists (Herman in The Queen of Spades and Romeo in

Romeo and Juliet) are given particularly unsophisticated melodies; Herman's is

obsessively repetitive, and Romeo's is bumbling and awkward.46 The treatment of

harmony is similar in these works as well. The tonal areas change rapidly, yet smoothly,

and chromatic inflection is frequently used as a decorative tool. The use of a constant

pulse is also characteristic of each of these works. Prokofiev creates a consistent,

unchanging pulse and layers a melody over top.47 Examples 1 and 2 depict Prokofiev's

use of steady pulse with a more complex melody layered over top in The Queen of

Spades and Romeo and Juliet, respectively.

46 Ibid, 48-50.
47
Ibid, 46-47.
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Example 1. Prokofiev, The Queen of Spades, "Overture" (No. 1), mm. 6-19
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Example 2. Prokofiev, Romeo and Juliet, "Mercutio" (No.15), mm. 5-18

One of the most significant similarities between these two works, in placing them

both in the aesthetic of new simplicity, is Prokofiev's treatment of individual melodies. In

The Queen of Spades, each character is given a particular melody that remains nearly

unchanging, so that, as Prokofiev stated, "by the end the viewer will be able to sing

them."48 These melodies never lose their identity, but they are placed into new contexts

as the plot progresses. Prokofiev composed Romeo and Juliet in the same manner. The

melodies are repeated many times throughout the ballet, but they are continually being

placed into new contexts. Prokofiev develops the plot of the story through continual re-

orientation of the melodies into new contexts, yet the work maintains its accessibility

because the melody is always recognizable to the listener. An excellent example of this

48
Ibid, 53.
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compositional strategy is Prokofiev's treatment of the melody in the "Dance of the

Knights."

In a 1934 article in Izvestia, Prokofiev described the aesthetic of his new

simplicity, stating that music should be "primarily melodious, and the melody should be

clear and simple without however becoming trivial. Many composers find it difficult

enough to compose any sort of melody, let alone a melody having some definite

function to perform."49 The "Dance of the Knights" theme from Romeo and Juliet

exemplifies this statement. Prokofiev takes this seemingly banal melody and transforms

it throughout a variety of different musical and situational contexts, ultimately giving it

specific and significant function. Throughout the ballet, this theme represents the

brutality and crippling control of feudalism50, but each occurrence seems to expose a

different aspect of the dangers connected to this type of class stratification.

The "Dance of the Knights" theme, as it occurs most iconically in the "Dance of

the Knights" has two identifiable parts. The first, or "Theme A", as displayed in example

3, is characterized by harsh pulsing octaves alternating with chords (marked "tenuto")

on each quarter note in the lower-pitched instruments. Harmonically, this begins on

tonic, moves to dominant, then undergoes four measures of extreme chromaticism to

descend back to tonic. Layered above this driving bass is a dotted eighth-sixteenth note

pattern, which is the most iconic attribute of this theme. In the "Dance of the Knights,"

this melody depicts a sort of regal posturing; the intensely controlled rhythm parallels

49Sergei Prokofiev, "The Path of Soviet Music," in S. Prokofiev: Autobiography, Articles,

Reminiscences, ed. S. Shlifstein, trans. Rose Prokofieva (Moscow: Foreign Languages
Publishing House), 100.
50
Anne Searcy, "Soviet and American Cold War Ballet Exchange, 1959-1962" (PhD diss.,
Harvard University, 2014), 43.
 18

the Capulets' very controlled choreography in this intimidating display. Theme B, as

depicted in example 4 (beginning at measure 19), is more direct and aggressive than

Theme A. It is a four-measure melodic statement that consists of a large rise and fall. It

begins with four accented pulses of the tonic pitch, which are followed by an ascending

and descending D natural minor scale outlined in octaves. This theme, as a whole,

represents the more aggressive nature of the families, particularly Tybalt and the

Capulets, as they are caught in this feudalistic society. The transformation of these

themes in a variety of contexts throughout the ballet illustrates Prokofiev's use of new

simplicity.

Example 3. Prokofiev, Romeo and Juliet, "Dance of the Knights" (No. 13) mm. 1-12
 19

Example 4. Prokofiev, Romeo and Juliet, "Dance of the Knights" (No. 13) mm. 17-22

Prokofiev's new simplicity was largely a result of his new career endeavors in film

music composition. Prokofiev was highly involved in the world of cinema at the time he

composed this ballet. The structure of Romeo and Juliet is not only shaped by new

simplicity, but also by the way the musical themes, in conjunction with the choreography,

mimic cinematic procedures. In Act II, there are multiple events occurring

simultaneously. As the party continues at the Capulet's manor, Romeo goes to visit the

Friar. The ballet cuts back and forth between the party scene and the Friars cell

seamlessly within Act II. The set was specifically designed with curtains that could be

quickly raised or opened to allow for the immediate shifts between scenes, in order to

give the ballet this sort of cinematic continuity.51 The cinematic nature of this ballet is

created not only through its staging, but also in Prokofiev's treatment of the music.

51
Camille Howard Bacon, "In the Russian Mold: Leonid Lavrovsky's Romeo and Juliet," in
Shakespeare into Dance: The Ballet of Romeo and Juliet, (Berkeley: University of California,
1982), 80.
 20

Karen Bennett argues that the multitude of themes in this ballet serve as

individual leitmotifs that recur throughout the ballet's entirety.52 Prokofiev's cinematic

treatment of the ballet, in addition to his use of new simplicity, suggest that these

themes are not functioning as leitmotifs, but rather as cinematic cues. These cues

correspond with the choreography, directing the progression of the plot and giving the

viewer clear indications of this. A leitmotif is typically a short musical phrase attached to

a particular character, and while some of Prokofiev's cues are attached to individuals,

they ultimately serve as tools to advance and direct the plot. These musical cues direct

the entrances of characters, enhance the viewer's understanding of the characters, and

serve to musically set the scenes. The following examples display both Prokofiev's

nuanced compositional style of new simplicity and the cinematic influence on the music

and choreography.

Prokofiev knew that in order to successfully adapt Shakespeare to conform to

Socialist Realism, he could not in any way promote feudalism, but rather needed to use

feudalism as a vessel through which to create drama. In No. 6, "The Fight," Prokofiev

accomplishes this. Theme B from the "Dance of the Knights" is heard for the first time in

this number. The theme is used to personify Tybalt; it initially paints him as direct and

aggressive, as it is otherwise unaccompanied and is marked forte in the lower-pitched

instruments. As the number progresses, the theme is presented contrapuntally,

announced by three different instrumental groups in a series of layers that begin a

quarter note apart at rehearsal 33. Example 5 depicts the three entrances of these

layers; the starting note of each occurrence is circled to indicate each onset of the

52
Karen Bennett, "Star-cross'd Lovers: Shakespeare and Prokofiev's 'pas de deux' in Romeo
and Juliet," The Cambridge Quarterly 11 No. 4 (2003), 316.
 21

theme. This layering creates a sense of instability as the fighting between the two

groups intensifies. The harmony of the theme is progressively altered as well. Its first

occurrence outlines the D natural minor scale, but by rehearsal 34, it outlines Cb lydian

and contains a few different intervallic leaps. Between the offset entrances of the theme

and the harmonic alterations, this number spirals into something almost unintelligible.

The theme characterizes Tybalt, who is intensely committed to feudalistic society. As he

continues to advance the violence and aggression of feudalism, the treatment of this

theme makes it evident that he is heading into a place of madness. The transformation

of the Dance of the Knights' theme in this number reveals the sophistication of

Prokofiev's new simplicity. Within these few measures Prokofiev reharmonizes the

theme, manipulates the texture by placing the theme in offset layers, and continually

alters the theme's instrumentation, yet the theme remains recognizable to the listener's

ear. This reveals that Prokofiev did not intend for the execution of his new simplicity to

result in less sophisticated music, but he instead intended for it to bring a new level of

refinement to his compositional style. He took a simple, straightforward melody and

manipulated several of its musical attributes to successfully create a frenzied

personification of Tybalt, which ultimately displays the negative effects of feudalism on

his demeanor.
 22

Example 5. Prokofiev, Romeo and Juliet, "The Fight", (No. 6), mm. 76-86

The Dance of the Knights' themes occur again in No. 17, "Tybalt recognizes

Romeo." As Tybalt enters the scene, the music immediately begins with Theme B,

which isnt stated in its entirety before Theme A is interjected. After only twelve

measures of this, there is an abrupt shift to the Romeo and Juliet theme. Throughout

the entire span of the number, these themes shift back and forth twice more. Example 6

depicts the quick shifts between the themes in the first few measures of this number.

Each time the Knights' themes occur, the focus is on Tybalt, but when the Romeo and

Juliet theme arises, the focus shifts to Romeo and Juliet. Theme A returns at rehearsal

118, and a new melody emerges within it. This melody is heard in the higher-pitched

instruments, such as flute, oboe, violin, and piccolo, and therefore has a certain

acuteness in pitch and timbre that creates even more aggression within the Knights'
 23

theme. The Romeo and Juliet theme returns again after this particularly harsh version of

Theme A. The shift back and forth between these antithetical themes not only

emphasizes the severity of the Knights' themes, but it also reveals the lush sonic

landscape that Romeo and Juliet have access to in their own theme. The Romeo and

Juliet theme epitomizes the freedom that these two characters have; it is melodically

expansive, lush, and harmonically rich. The Dance of the Knights' theme, by contrast, is

harsh, driving, and severe. The choreography reflects this dichotomy between the

themes. Tybalt charges brashly about the stage. His movements are confined to

archetypal gestures of anger; he runs, he draws his sword, and he throws his arms up

in indignation.53 Romeo and Juliet, contrarily, occupy a much more expansive space.

Their movements are broad, elegant, and connected. Tybalt's conformity to the ideals of

feudalism results in being constrained by anger; this is evident in his abrasive

choreography. He does not have access to the same type of expansive gestures that

Romeo and Juliet do, which is synchronous with his restriction from the musical

richness of the Romeo and Juliet theme. Romeo and Juliet's rejection of feudalistic

norms, which is apparent in their love for one another, allows them to exist in a

choreographically and musically lavish space.

53
Leonid Lavrovsky and Sergei Prokofiev, Romeo and Juliet, Bolshoi Ballet starring Galina
Ulanova and Yuri Zhdanov (1954; Kultur D1202, 2008), (29:22).
 24

Example 6. Prokofiev, Romeo and Juliet, "Tybalt Recognizes Romeo" (No. 17) mm.1-33

Prokofiev's treatment of the Dance of the Knights' themes also reveals the

cinematic nature of his compositional style throughout this ballet. In No. 32, "Tybalt

Meets Mercutio", the Knights' themes occur at 251 in quick alternation. This back and

forth of themes mimics the cinematic gesture of Mickey-Mousing.54 Prokofiev uses the

54
Claudia Gorbman, Unheard Melodies: Narrative Film Music (Bloomington, IN: Indiana
University Press, 1987), 88.
 25

musical cues to make the choreographic intent explicit. The music imitates the direction

of the characters movement, ultimately emulating the back-and-forth nature of their

fighting. Example 7 displays these themes in their rapid alternation. These themes are

not functioning as leitmotifs; they are not solely personifying a character. They are

instead functioning like a cinematic cue, heightening the viewer's understanding of the

tension between the characters as it musically depicts the nature of their fight. The

choreography parallels this idea; the characters are moving quickly back and forth

across the stage as their fighting escalates.55 This creates an encompassing cinematic

experience; the music functions as a cinematic cue, and the choreography conforms to

the back and forth motion suggested by this cue.

55
Leonid Lavrovsky and Sergei Prokofiev, Romeo and Juliet, Bolshoi Ballet starring Galina
Ulanova and Yuri Zhdanov (1954; Kultur D1202, 2008), (59:30).
 26

Example 7. Prokofiev, Romeo and Juliet, "Tybalt Encounters Mercutio", (No. 32) mm.54-74

In "Juliet Refuses to Marry Paris", No. 41, Juliet has a moment of weeping over

her family's attempt to force her to marry Paris. This is one of the most sorrowful

moments of the ballet, as the strings seem to weep with Juliet. She is not allowed to

mourn for long; the Knights' Theme A abruptly returns, serving as a musical cue for Lord

Capulet's entrance when he enters to demand that Juliet marry Paris. The viewer's

focus is immediately directed to his entrance by the musical cue. Example 8 shows this

abrupt shift from the quiet, resigned strings to the impassioned forte entrance of the

Dance of the Knights Theme A. While Juliet's sorrowful music occurs, the focus is
 27

directly on her. The disrupting entrance of the Knights' Theme A abruptly shifts the focus

and signals the entrance of Lord Capulet. The choreography interacts with these

musical cues directly. Juliet's choreography is anguished; there's a moment in which

she lies over a footstool and doesn't dance at all, which is very unusual for Juliet as the

prima ballerina in this ballet.56 The shift to the Knights' theme pulls Juliet out of this

state, and she begins to fight her father frantically. Lord Capulet's gestures are angrily

impassioned, and Juliet's movement becomes much more expansive, yet quick with her

fierce attempts to dissuade her father from forcing her to marry.

Example 8. Prokofiev, Romeo and Juliet, "Juliet Refuses to Marry Paris" (No. 41), mm. 36-42

56
Leonid Lavrovsky and Sergei Prokofiev, Romeo and Juliet, Bolshoi Ballet starring Galina
Ulanova and Yuri Zhdanov (1954; Kultur D1202, 2008), (1:19:00)
 28

Juliet is the most important and dynamic character in this ballet, and the viewer is

given the opportunity to see her immense vulnerability in No. 41, "Juliet Refuses to

Marry Paris." Galina Ulanova, the Bolshoi ballerina who premiered the role of Juliet,

said of Prokofiev's ballet, "Prokofiev with his vigorous, dynamic, truly visual music, at

once so modern and yet so Shakespearian in spirit and flavour, guided us with a sure

hand through the action, investing it with meaning and purpose."57 Ulanova was aware

of the music's intentionality in depicting the momentous events in Shakespeare's story.

She believes that Prokofiev accomplished this so effectively because the music is

"visual." This visual aspect of the music contributes to its cinematic nature; it is intended

to direct and guide the motion on the stage. Beyond this, Prokofiev infused the music

with meaning. This is evident in Juliet's character in No. 41. The vulnerability that is

heard in the weeping strings is mimicked in Juliet's wilting choreography; yet shortly

after this somber moment, Juliet's strength is revealed in her broad and impassioned

choreography as she fights her father. The dynamic nature of Juliet's character is

reflected in these musical and choreographic shifts. When discussing the role of Juliet,

Ulanova said, "I had to dance Juliet for many years before I fully grasped the role."58

The music for this role is so inherently complex that even a prima ballerina of the

Bolshoi Ballet could not fully express its profundity at first. The interaction of Lavrovsky's

choreography with Prokofiev's music brings these complexities to light, displaying

aspects of Juliet's vulnerability and strength within mere measures of one another.

57
Galina Ulanova, "The Author of my Favorite Ballets," in S. Prokofiev: Autobiography, Articles,
Reminiscences, ed. S. Shlifstein, trans. Rose Prokofieva (Moscow: Foreign Languages
Publishing House), 224.
58 Ibid, 225.
 29

"True pantomime is a theatrical representation in which the thoughts, feelings,

and passions are expressed not by the voice, but by the movements and gestures

of the body" - L. Lavrovsky 59

Romeo and Juliet was regarded as a highly successful ballet after its Soviet

premiere in 1940 not only because of Prokofiev's compelling and expressive score, but

also because of its innovations in choreography. The choreographer, Leonid Lavrovsky,

integrated pantomime with traditional Russian dance, creating a new type of ballet

experience. The incorporation of pantomime served to heighten the dramatic

possibilities; it allowed for actions to be candidly expressed.60 Lavrovsky's use of

pantomime contributes to the cinematic nature of the ballet, because it clearly

delineates the action. Due in part to the political climate, Lavrovsky avoided

choreographing the entire ballet as pure dance because that approach lends itself to

more interpretive openness. However, his conception of the pantomime serves to

establish a hierarchy of characters and emphasize the Socialist Realism themes. Juliet's

choreography is nearly devoid of pantomime, and she is seen as the central character

of the ballet. Romeo's choreography, when he is with Juliet, is also purely dance.

Contrarily, the Capulet and Montague families, particularly when they are in conflict,

employ pantomime extensively. 61 This differentiation reveals the characters worldview

and loyalty to the archaic feudalistic system. Romeo and Juliet have access to a

choreographic world that the other characters do not; their choice to break out of

59Joan Lawson, A History of Ballet and its Makers (New York: Pitman Publishing Corporation,
1964), 188.
60Camille Howard Bacon, "In the Russian Mold: Leonid Lavrovsky's Romeo and Juliet," in
Shakespeare into Dance: The Ballet of Romeo and Juliet, (Berkeley: University of California,
1982), 76-77.
61
Ibid, 81.
 30

feudalistic tradition in order to be together allowed them to experience emotions that

their families were not capable of experiencing. Between Lavrovsky's new style of

choreography and Prokofiev's innovative music, the dancers found the rehearsal

process for this ballet particularly challenging.

Prokofiev's score for Romeo and Juliet did not adhere to the musical conventions

to which the dancers were accustomed, as Lavrovsky notes: "its intricate harmonies, the

angularity of the rhythms did not appeal to them."62 Rehearsals were difficult, as

Prokofiev was initially unwilling to revise what he composed, and the dancers

continually struggled to dance to the irregular metrical groupings. Galina Ulanova, the

prima ballerina who danced the role of Juliet, remembers that, "the frequent changes of

rhythm, too, gave us a great deal of trouble. To tell the truth, we were not accustomed to

such music, in fact we were a little afraid of it."63 Prokofiev ultimately complied and had

to make a few changes to the orchestration, due to the acoustical nature of the Kirov

Theater and the dancers' need to hear the rhythms more clearly.64 As the dancers spent

more time with the music throughout the rehearsal process, they slowly grew more

comfortable with it and learned how to dance the complex rhythms. Ulanova stated that

through repeated listening and experimentation, "we no longer found it difficult to dance

to; it became clear both choreographically and physiologically."65 Prokofiev's bold

62
Leonid Lavrovsky, "Repository of Creative Talent," in S. Prokofiev: Autobiography, Articles,
Reminiscences, ed. S. Shlifstein, trans. Rose Prokofieva (Moscow: Foreign Languages
Publishing House), 274.
63 Ulanova, 222.
64Sergei Prokofiev, "The Years Abroad and After my Return Home" in S. Prokofiev:
Autobiography, Articles, Reminiscences, ed. S. Shlifstein, trans. Rose Prokofieva (Moscow:
Foreign Languages Publishing House), 88.
65
Ulanova, 222.
 31

rhythmic choices may have initially caused difficulty for the choreographer and dancers,

but they ultimately served to support the "dramatic development of the performance."66

Prokofiev's rhythmic treatment of both the "Dance of the Knights" theme A and theme B,

whether through unusual accent patterns, stressed ties over the bar line, or layered

thematic entries, reveal his intention to portray the Capulets' and Montagues' adherence

to feudalistic tradition as the root of the problem, fomenting the illogical events that

occur throughout the ballet and culminate in the final tragedy.

The many instances of the "Dance of the Knights" themes provide an excellent

example of some of the rhythmic difficulties that the dancers confronted. Throughout the

themes' multiple occurrences, Prokofiev favors irregular stresses, rhythmic ambiguity,

and atypical entrances. In the "Dance of the Knights", No. 13, theme A is full of

inconsistent accent patterns. While some of the accents fall naturally on beats one and

three, there are many instances of accents on beats two and four. There is no regular

pattern for this syncopation, which produces a sensation of lurching. In Example 9,

which depicts the initial presentation of the "Dance of the Knights" Theme A, the

irregular accents are circled.

66
Lavrovsky, 275.
 32

Example 9. Prokofiev, Romeo and Juliet, "Dance of the Knights" (No. 13) mm. 1-12

Not only does Prokofiev create rhythmic irregularity by intentionally accenting off-

beats, but he also produces metric ambiguity by placing ties over the bar lines. In the

"Dance of the Knights" theme A, there is a consistent pulsing bass that exists on nearly

every beat. Layered over top of this, however, is the melody that does not share the

same stability. Prokofiev ties notes over the bar line five times in the initial presentation

of theme A. In four of these instances, the note that is tied is accented, creating stress

over the bar line. The note value of the first note in each of these ties is not consistent

either; ties are attached to quarter notes, half notes, and sixteenth notes. This adds to

the instability already created by the irregular accents. Prokofiev uses this technique to

begin the second statement of theme A; the second statement grows out of the first

from an accented quarter note tied over the bar line. While the first statement begins on

beat one, the second statement begins on beat four. In Example 10, each example of
 33

this stress over the bar line is circled. Choreographically, it's as if these rhythmic

irregularities are ignored. The choreography coordinates with the pulsing bass line and

the beats one and three that are accented, but nothing in the choreography highlights

the syncopated accents or the stresses over the bar lines.67 Perhaps this was Prokofiev

and Lavrovsky's intention, to show that feudalism keeps driving forward, ignoring any

difficulties in its path.

Example 10. Prokofiev, Romeo and Juliet, "Dance of the Knights" (No. 13) mm. 1-12

67
Leonid Lavrovsky and Sergei Prokofiev, Romeo and Juliet, Bolshoi Ballet starring Galina
Ulanova and Yuri Zhdanov (1954; Kultur D1202, 2008), (15:54).
 34

The "Dance of the Knights" theme B independently has less rhythmic irregularity

than theme A, but Prokofiev still uses it to create metric ambiguity. In No. 6, "The Fight,"

he places theme B in three different instrument groups. The theme is heard in the

clarinets, trumpets and xylophone, beginning on beat two, seven measures after

rehearsal 33. One beat later, the theme begins in the horns, and another beat later, it

enters in the violins and violas. This creates a cacophony of sound, as the different

parts do not line up melodically, harmonically, or rhythmically. Theme B has a very

specific pattern of accents that remain true to its identity throughout most of the ballet.

This enhances the metric instability in this moment of layering, since the accents in

each line of the theme do not line up. Example 11 shows the orchestral score at this

moment, to reveal the density of sound in this cacophony of layers. Theme B has a very

authoritative nature; it consists of steady, driving quarter notes and eighth notes with a

consistent pattern of accents. On the surface, it represents the dominance and ferocity

of the Capulet family at their ball, but in this scene, Prokofiev effectively transforms it

into chaos. Lavrovsky's choreography exhibits a similar idea at this point in the ballet.

The fighting of the Capulets and Montagues has escalated into almost complete

madness at this point, with men continually entering and adding to the mayhem.

Lavrovsky uses pantomime extensively in this scene, which yields an effect much more

authentic to the chaos represented in the music than if the scene had been danced

traditionally.68 Prokofiev understood the need to interpret Shakespeare in a way that

represented the ideals of Socialist Realism, and he accomplishes this through the

metric irregularity of the Dance of the Knights themes.

68
Leonid Lavrovsky and Sergei Prokofiev, Romeo and Juliet, Bolshoi Ballet starring Galina
Ulanova and Yuri Zhdanov (1954; Kultur D1202, 2008), (6:50).
 35

Example 11. Prokofiev, Romeo and Juliet, "The Fight" (No. 6), mm. 77-84
 36

The "Dance of the Knights" themes are not only difficult choreographically

because of the unusual rhythmic features, but also because of their varying intensity. In

No. 41, "Juliet Refuses to Marry Paris", theme A is presented in fragments at rehearsal

305, with the typically accented pulsing bass line entirely void of accents. The entrance

of theme B at rehearsal 305 continues in this trend; this theme, in all of its previous

occurrences begins with three accented quarter notes, but it lacks those accents in this

scene. Example 12 displays this occurence of Theme B without accents. Lavrovsky

remarked that, at first, the dancers did not know what to make of this shift in intensity.

They expected Lord Capulet to enter the scene with grandiose musical accompaniment,

but instead he enters with a fragmented and softened version of the "Dance of the

Knights" themes. Lavrovsky explains that this was an artistic choice by Prokofiev,

because when Lord Capulet enters, "Juliet is not alone, she is still under the spell of

Romeo's presence. All her thoughts and dreams are still with him. The very air of the

room seems filled with his breath.69 Prokofiev uses this muted version of the theme to

express the disconnect Juliet has between her own heart and her family; while she is in

the room with her family physically, she is mentally and emotionally still with Romeo.

Lavrovsky depicts this idea through the amount of freedom the characters have in their

choreography. Lord Capulet is almost entirely restricted to pantomime. He charges

around the room angrily after Juliet, but never does his choreography resemble

traditional ballet in this scene. Juliet, contrarily, has very detailed footwork, lifts, and

elegant extension.70 Ultimately, as Lavrovsky stated, "it is not by chance that Prokofiev

69 Lavrovsky, 276.
70
Leonid Lavrovsky and Sergei Prokofiev, Romeo and Juliet, Bolshoi Ballet starring Galina
Ulanova and Yuri Zhdanov (1954; Kultur D1202, 2008), (6:50).(1:19:25)
 37

carries the entire scene in muted tones, and only when Juliet, in despair, throws on her

mantle and hastens to the Friar Laurence does the orchestra burst into strong,

passionate, mighty sounds."71 Prokofiev's music and Lavrovsky's choreography

intertwine flawlessly to make the point that Juliet has a mental and emotional disconnect

from her family. The fragmented and muted "Dance of the Knights" themes musically

portray the fact that Juliet is not confined by feudalism, and the fact that her

choreography is not bound by pantomime like her father's displays the freedom she has

because of it.

Example 12. Prokofiev, Romeo and Juliet, "Juliet Refuses to Marry Paris" (No. 41), mm. 48-52

Romeo and Juliet's love is ultimately the vessel through which Prokofiev conveys

the Socialist Realist ideals of rejecting feudalist society. The "love of the 'star-crossed

couple' was shown as a symbol of the Renaissance, a new way of life, against the

background of arranged marriage for upward financial mobility, personifying the dark

71
Lavrovsky, 276.
 38

ages." 72 Lavrovsky's choreographic innovations perfectly suited the symbolic nature of

Romeo and Juliet, just as they represented the youthful Renaissance of communism in

the Soviet Union, their choreography was full of vibrancy, expansion, and vitality. The

feuding families, whose choreography was predominantly pantomime, were bound by

their unwillingness to surrender to a different way of life. Prokofiev's music parallels

these ideas as well. Where Romeo and Juliet's themes evolve and develop into new

themes throughout the ballet, the Capulets and Montagues are musically restrained.

While the "Dance of the Knights" themes are transformed in new contexts throughout

the ballet, they are always recognizable, with the same driving, pulsing motion.

Prokofiev and Lavrovsky's treatment of the divide between Romeo and Juliet and the

feuding families firmly placed this ballet into the context of Socialist Realism.

The oppressive artistic restrictions that Prokofiev and Lavrovsky were working

under while composing this ballet did not only lead to the incorporation of drama-balletic

choreography, but also to Prokofiev's stylistic compositional choices. His new simplicity,

while not entirely a result of his return to the Soviet Union, was crucial in allowing this

ballet to be accessible to the masses. The cinematic treatment of the ballet, using

themes as cinematic cues, staging in a way that allowed for cutting back and forth

between scenes, and musically depicting the action on stage, allowed for Romeo and

Juliet to appeal to a larger audience, ultimately leading to its immense success. The

Prokofiev-Lavrovsky collaboration, despite the initial choreographic challenges, led

Romeo and Juliet to be a ballet that "stands out in the history of Soviet ballet as the

highest peak reached by dramatic ballets of the thirties"73 . While many new versions

72 Natalia Roslavleva, Era of the Russian Ballet (London: Victor Gollancz Ltd., 1966), 251
73
Ibid, 254.
 39

have since been choreographed, such as Grigorovich's 1979 adaptation, Lavrovsky's

version is the only one that provides greater insight into Prokofievs overarching musical

conception for the ballet. Its musical and choreographic innovations and realist

interpretation of Shakespeare ensured it a place in the Bolshoi's repertoire for decades

to follow.