1

IMPORTANT FORMULAS/
TERMS for JEE MAIN
PHYSICS

UNITS AND
MEASUREMENTS

The SI system : It is the international

system of units. In this system there are
seven fundamental and two supplementary
quantities and their corresponding units.
These are:

Quantity
1. Length
2. Mass
3. Time
4. Electric current
5. Temperature
6. Luminous intensity
7. Amount of substance
Supplementary
1. Plane angle
2. Solid angle

Unit
metre
kilogram
second
ampere
kelvin
candela
mole

Symbol
m
kg
s
A
K
cd
mol

radian
steradian

rad
sr

Dimensions : These are the powers to which the fundamental

units are raised to get the unit of a derived quantity.
Uses of dimensions
(i) To check the correctness of a physical relation.
(ii) To derive relationship between different physical quantities.
(iii) To convert one system of unit into another.
n 1u 1 = n 2u 2
a b c
n1[M1a Lb1T1c ] = n2 [M 2 L 2T2 ]

Significant figures : In any measurement, the reliable digits

plus the first uncertain digit are known as significant figures.
Error : It is the difference between the measured value and
true value of a physical quantity.
Absolute error : The magnitude of the difference between the
true value and the measured value is called absolute error.
Da1 = a - a1 , Da2 = a - a2 , Dan = a - an

Mean absolute error

Average acceleration, aav =

MOTION IN A
STRAIGHT
LINE

The area under the velocity-time curve

is equal to the displacement and slope gives
acceleration.
If a body falls freely, the distance
covered by it in each subsequent second starting from first
second will be in the ratio 1 : 3 : 5 : 7 etc.
If a body is thrown vertically up with an initial velocity u, it
takes u/g second to reach maximum height and u/g second
to return, if air resistance is negligible.
If air resistance acting on a body is considered, the time
taken by the body to reach maximum height is less than the
time to fall back the same height.
a
For a particle having zero initial velocity if s t , where
a > 2 , then particles acceleration increases with time.
a
For a particle having zero initial velocity if s t , where
a < 0 , then particles acceleration decreases with time.
Kinematic equations :
v = u + at (t) ; v2 = u2 + 2at (s)

a
1
at (t)2; Sn = u + (2 n - 1)
2
2
r
applicable only when | a t | = a t is constant.
at = magnitude of tangential acceleration, S = distance
If acceleration is variable use calculus approach.
r
r
r
Relative velocity : v BA = vB - vA

S = ut +

MOTION IN A
PLANE

1
| Da1 | + | Da2 | +.....+ | Dan |
| Dai |
=
n i =1
n

gT2 = 2R tan a

Relative error : It is the ratio of the mean absolute error

to its true value
Da
Da
100
or relative error =
and percentage error =
a
a

gT 2
.
8

....... (2);
R tan a = 4h

T=

2u sin q
u 2 sin 2 q
;h =
g
2g

R=

u 2 sin 2q
g

Percentage error : It is the relative error in percent.

Da
Percentage error =
100%
amean

If T is the time of flight, h maximum

height, R horizontal range of a projectile, a
its angle of projection, th en the
relations among these quantities.

h=

Da =

a1t1 + a 2 t 2
t1 + t 2

...... (1);
....... (3)

For a given initial velocity, to get the same horizontal range,

there are two angles of projection a and 90 a.
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2
The equation to the parabola traced by a body projected
horizontally from the top of a tower of height y, with a velocity
u is y = gx2/2u2, where x is the horizontal distance covered
by it from the foot of the tower.
Equation of trajectory is y = x tan q -

gx 2
2u 2 cos 2 q

Work done W = FS cosq

Relation between kinetic energy E and
momentum, P = 2mE
If a body moves with constant power,
its velocity (v) is related to distance
travelled (x) by the formula v x3/2.

WORK,
ENERGY AND
POWER

, which is

parabola.
Equation of trajectory of an oblique projectile in terms of

range (R) is y = x tan q 1 -

R

Work due to kinetic force of friction between two contact

surfaces is always negative. It depends on relative
displacement between contact surfaces. WFK = -FK (Srel ) .

S W = S DK , S W total work due to all kinds of forces,

Maximum height is equal to n times the range when the

projectile is launched at an angle q = tan1(4n).
In a uniform circular motion, velocity and acceleration are
constants only in magnitude. Their directions change.
In a uniform circular motion, the kinetic energy of the body
r
r
r
is a constant. W = 0, a 0, P constant, L=constant
Centripetal acceleration, a r = w 2 r =

v2
= wv (Always
r

S DK total change in kinetic energy..

SWconservative = -S DU ; SWconservative Total work due
to all kinds of conservative forces.

S D Total change in all kinds of potential energy..

Coefficient of restitution e =

velocity of separation
velocity of approach

The total momentum of a system of particles is a constant in

the absence of external forces.

applicable)
a r = 4p 2 n 2 r =

4p 2
T

r (Applicable in uniform circular motion)

n = frequency of rotation, T = time period of rotation.

r r
r
ar = w v
Newtons
second
r
r r
r
=
F ma, =
F dp / dt

LAWS OF
MOTION

law

SYSTEM OF
PARTICLES AND
ROTATIONAL
MOTION

The centre of mass of a system of

particles is defined as the point whose
position vector is R =

mi ri

The centre
M
of gravity of an extended body is that point
where the total gravitational torque on the body is zero.
The angular momentum of a system of n particles about the
n

origin is L = ri pi ; L = mvr = Iw

The torque or moment of force on a system of n particles

r r
Impulse : Dp = FDt, p2 - p1 = F dt

r
r
Newtons third law : F12 = - F21
Frictional force fs (fs ) max = ms R ;

fk = m k R

i =1

about the origin is t = ri Fi

i

Circular motion with variable speed. For complete circles,

The moment of inertia of a rigid body about an axis is defined

the string must be taut in the highest position, u 5ga .

by the formula I = mi ri 2

Circular motion ceases at the instant when the string

becomes slack, i.e., when T = 0, range of values of u for
which the string does go slack is

2ga < u < 5ga .

Conical pendulum : w = g / h where h is height of a point

of suspension from the centre of circular motion.
The acceleration of a lift
actual weight - apparent weight
mass
If a is positive lift is moving down, and if it is negative the
lift is moving up.

a=

1
The kinetic energy of rotation is K = Iw 2
2

The theorem of parallel axes : I'z = Iz + Ma2

Theorem of perpendicular axes : Iz = Ix + Iy
For rolling motion without slipping vcm = Rw, where vcm is
the velocity of translation (i.e. of the centre of mass), R is
the radius and m is the mass of the body. The kinetic energy
of such a rolling body is the sum of kinetic energies of
translation and rotation : K =

1
1
2
mvcm
+ Iw 2
2
2

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3
A rigid body is in mechanical equilibrium if
(a) It is translational equilibrium i.e., the total external force
on it is zero : S Fi = 0.
(b) It is rotational equilibrium i.e., the total external torque
on it is zero : S ti = Sri Fi = 0.
If a body is released from rest on rough inclined plane, then
for pure rolling m r

Gravitational force F =
G = 6.67 10 11

(R E + h)2

r2

Nm 2
kg 2

GM E
2h
1
2
R
RE
E

for h << RE

2h
GM E
g(h) = g(0) 1 where g(0) =
R E
R 2E
(b) at depth d below the Earths surface is

GM E
d
d
1= g (0) 1
2
R E
RE RE

g(d) =

(c) with latitude l g1 = g Rw2 cos2l

Gravitational potential Vg =

GM
r

Intensity of gravitational field I =

GM
r2

The gravitational potential energy

Gm1m 2
+ constant
r
The escape speed from the surface of the Earth is
V=-

ve =

2GM E
=
RE

2gR E and has a value of 11.2 km s1.

Orbital velocity, vorbi =

GM E
=
RE

gR E

A geostationary (geosynchronous communication) satellite

moves in a circular orbit in the equatorial plane at a
approximate distance of 4.22 104 km from the Earths centre.
v max =

GM s
a

T a ;

1 + e

; v min =
1- e

GMs
a

1- e

1+ e

T12
T22

a13
a 32

Hookes law : stress strain

Youngs modulus of elasticity
Y=

F Dl
Al

Compressibility =

Gm1m2

The acceleration due to gravity.

(a) at a height h above the Earths surface
GM E

MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES
OF SOLIDS

g sin q
< a < g sin q
n +1

g(h) =

n
tan q (Ic = nmr2)
n +1

n
Rolling with sliding 0 < ms <
tan q ;
n + 1

GRAVITATION

Whenever force responsible for orbital motion obeys inverse

square law, then only square of time period is directly
proportional to cube of average distance between planet
and sun. This is Keplers 3rd law of planetary motion.

1
Bulk modulus

Y = 3k (1 2s)
Y = 2n (1 + s)
If S is the stress and Y is Youngs modulus, the energy
density of the wire E is equal to S2/2Y.
If a is the longitudinal strain and E is the energy density of
a stretched wire, Y Youngs modulus of wire, then E is equal
to

1
Ya 2
2

Pascals law : A change in pressure

applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted
MECHANICAL undiminished to every point of the fluid and
PROPERTIES the walls of the containing vessel.
OF FLUIDS
Bernoullis principle
P + rv2/2 + rgh = constant
Surface tension is a force per unit
length (or surface energy per unit area) acting in the plane
of interface.
Stokes law states that the viscous drag force F on a sphere
of radius a moving with velocity v through a fluid of viscosity h
F = 6phav.
Terminal velocity VT =

2 r 2 (r )g
9
h

The surface tension of a liquid is zero at boiling point. The

surface tension is zero at critical temperature.
If a drop of water of radius R is broken into n identical drops,
the work done in the process is 4pR2S(n1/3 1).
Two capillary tubes each of radius r are joined in parallel.
The rate of flow is Q. If they are replaced by single capillary
tube of radius R for the same rate of flow, then
R = 21/4 r.
Coefficient of viscosity n = -

F
dv
A
dx

Velocity of efflux V = 2 gh

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4
THERMAL
PROPERTIES
OF MATTER

The coefficient of linear expansion

(al), superficial (b) and volume expansion
(av) are defined by the relations :

Dl
DA
DV
= a l DT ;
= bDT ;
= a V DT
l
A
V
av = 3al ; b = 2a l
In conduction, heat is transferred
between neighbouring parts of a body through molecular
collisions, without any flow of matter. The rate of flow of

TC - TD
, where K is the thermal conductivity of
L
the material of the bar.
Convection involves flow of matter within a fluid due to
unequal temperatures of its parts.
Radiation is the transmission of heat as electromagnetic
waves.
Stefans law of radiation : E = sT4, where the constant s is
known as Stefans constant = 5.67 108 wm2 k4.
Weins displacement law : lmT = constant, where constant
is known as Weins constant = 2.898 10 3 mk.

heat H = KA

dQ
= - k (T2 - T1 ) ; where T1 is
dt
the temperature of the surrounding medium and T2 is the
temperature of the body.
Heat required to change the temperature of the substance,
Q = mcDq
c = specific heat of the substance
Heat absorbed or released during state change Q = mL
L = latent heat of the substance
Mayers formula cp cv = R

Newtons law of cooling:

First law of thermodynamics: DQ = DU

+ DW, where DQ is the heat supplied to the
THERMODY- system, DW is the work done by the system
and DU is the change in internal energy of
NAMICS
the system.
In an isothermal expansion of an ideal
gas from volume V1 to V2 at temperature T
the heat absorbed (Q) equals the work done (W) by the gas,
V
each given by Q = W = nRT ln 2
V1
In an adiabatic process of an ideal gas PVg = TVg1

Tg

Cp

= constant, where g = C .
v
P g -1
Work done by an ideal gas in an adiabatic change of state
nR (T1 - T2 )
from (P1, V1, T1) to (P2, V2, T2) is W =
g -1
The efficiency of a Carnot engine is given by
T
h = 1- 2
T1
Second law of thermodynamics: No engine operating
between two temperatures can have efficiency greater than
that of the Carnot engine.
dQ
Entropy or disorder S =
T

Kinetic theory of an ideal gas gives

KINETIC
THEORY

1
the relation P = nmv 2 , Combined with
3
the ideal gas equation it yields a kinetic
interpretation of temperature.
1
3
nmv 2 = k B T ,
2
2

3k BT
m
The law of equipartition of energy is stated thus: the energy
for each degree of freedom in thermal equilibrium is 1/2 (kBT)
v rms = (v 2 )1/ 2 =

The translational kinetic energy E =

3
k B NT . This leads
2

2
E.
3
Root mean square (rms) velocity of the gas

to a relation PV =

C=

3RT
=
M

3P
r

Most probable speed Vmp =

Mean free path l =

2RT
=
M

2KT
m

KT
2 pd 2 P

The particle velocity and acceleration

during SHM as functions of time are given
by,
sin (w + f ) (velocity),
OSCILLATIONS v (t) = wA
a (t) = w2A cos (wt + f) = w2x (t)
(acceleration)
Velocity amplitude vm
=w A and acceleration amplitude
am =w2A.
A particle of mass m oscillating under the influence of a
Hookes law restoring force given by F = k x exhibits simple
harmonic motion with w =

k
(angular frequency),
m

m
(period)
k
Such a system is also called a linear oscillator.
A body of mass M is suspended from a spring whose force
constant is K and mass is m. The time period of this system
T = 2p

will be 2p

(M + m / 3)
k

l cosq
where
Time period for conical pendulum T = 2p
g
q angle between string & vertical.
1
2 2
Energy of the particle E = m A
2

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5
The displacement in a sinusoidal wave
y (x, t) = a sin (kx wt + f) where f is the
phase constant or phase angle.
The speed of a transverse wave on a

Dipole electric field on the axis at a distance r from the centre:

r
r
r
2pr
2p
E=
@
for r >> a
4pe 0 (r 2 - a 2 ) 2 4pe 0 r 3

stretched string v = T / m .
Sound waves are longitudinal
mechanical waves that can travel through
solids, liquids, or gases. The speed v of sound wave in a

Dipole moment p = q2a

r
In a uniform electric field E , a dipole experiences a torque
r r r
r
t given by t = p E but experiences no net force.
r
The flux Df of electric field E through a small area element
r
r r
DS is given by Df = E.DS
Gausss law: The flux of electric field through any closed
surface S is 1/e0 times the total charge enclosed i.e., Q
Thin infinitely long straight wire of uniform linear charge
r
l
density l : E =
n
2pe 0 r

WAVES

fluid having bulk modulus B and density is v = B / r .

The speed of longitudinal waves in a metallic bar is
v=

Y/r

For gases, since B = g P, the speed of sound is v = gP / r

The interference of two identical waves moving in opposite
directions produces standing waves. For a string with fixed
ends, standing wave y (x, t) = [2a sin kx ] cos wt
The separation between two consecutive nodes or antinodes
is l/2.
A stretched string of length L fixed at both the ends vibrates
1 v
.
2 2L
The oscillation mode with lowest frequency is called the
fundamental mode or the first harmonic. The second
harmonic is the oscillation mode with n = 2 and so on.
A pipe of length L with one end closed and other end open
(such as air columns) vibrates with frequencies given by

with frequencies f =

1 v

f = n +
, n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ....

2 2L
The lowest frequency given by v/4L is the fundamental mode
or the first harmonic.
Beats arise when two waves having slightly different
frequencies, f1 and f2 and comparable amplitudes, are
superposed. The beat frequency fbeat = f1 f2
The Doppler effect is a change in the observed frequency of
a wave when the source S and the observer O moves relative
v v0
to the medium. f = f0
v v
s
dl n
= , where dl is change
l
c
in wavelength of a spectral line of original wave length l
and n, the speed of the source and c is the speed of light.

Doppler effect formula in light :

r
Coulombs Law : F21 = force on q2

ELECTROSTATICS

due to q1 =

k (q1q 2 )
2
r21

r21 where k =

1
4pe 0

= 9 109 Nm2 C2
Electric field due to a point charge q
has a magnitude | q |/4pe0r2
Field of an electric dipole in its equatorial plane
r
r
-p
-p
1
@
E=
,
for r >> a
4pe 0 (a 2 + r 2 )3/2
4pe 0 r 3

Infinite thin plane sheet of uniform surface charge density s

r
s
E=
n
2e 0
Thin spherical shell of uniform surface charge density s :
r
s
r
E=
r
(r R) ; E = 0 (r < R)
4pe 0 r 2
r
Electric Potential : V(r) =

1 Q
.
4pe 0 r

For a charge configuration q1, q2, ..., qn with position vectors

r1, r 2, ... rn, the potential at a point P is given by the
superposition principle V =

q
1 q1 q 2
+
+ ..... + n ,
4pe 0 r1P r2P
rnP

An equipotential surface is a surface over which potential

has a constant value.
r r
Potential energy of two charges q1, q2 at r1, r2 is given by
U=

1 q1q 2
, where r12 is distance between q1 and q2.
4pe 0 r12

Capacitance C = Q/V, where Q = charge and V = potential

difference
For a parallel plate capacitor (with vacuum between the
plates),
A
, where A is the area of each plate and d the
d
separation between them.
The energy U stored in a capacitor of capacitance C, with
charge Q and voltage V is
C = e0

1
1
1 Q2
U = QV = CV 2 =
2
2
2 C
For capacitors in the series combination,
1
1
1
1
= +
+
+ .........
Ceq C1 C2 C3

In the parallel combination, Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3 + ...

where C1, C2, C3... are individual capacitances.

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CURRENT
ELECTRICITY

Current density j gives the amount of

charge flowing per second per unit area
r
normal to the flow, J = nqvd

l
A
r = resistivity of the material
r
r
Equation E = rJ another statement of
Ohms law, i.e., a conducting material obeys Ohms law when
the resistivity of the material does not depend on the
magnitude and direction of applied electric field.
r= resistivity of the material.
(a) Total resistance R of n resistors connected in series
R = R1 + R2 +..... + Rn
(b) Total resistance R of n resistors connected in parallel
Resistance R = r

1
1
1
1
=
+
+ ...... +
R R1 R 2
Rn .

Kirchhoffs Rules (a) Junction rule: At any junction of

circuit elements, the sum of currents entering the junction
must equal the sum of currents leaving it.
(b) Loop rule: The algebraic sum of changes in potential
around any closed loop must be zero.
The Wheatstone bridge is an arrangement of four resistances
R1 , R2, R3, R4 . The null-point condition is given by
R1 R 3
=
R2 R4

unit length. For a toroid one obtains, B =

Amperes Circuital Law:

r r

m 0 NI
.
2 pr

B.d l = m 0 I , where I refers to the

C

current passing through S.

m 0 I1I2
Nm -1 .
2pa
The force is attractive if currents are in the same direction
and repulsive currents are in the opposite direction.
r
r
r r
For current carrying coil M = NIA ; torque = rt = M B
r
r B0
The magnetic intensity, H =
.
m0
r
The magnetisation M of the material is its dipole moment
per unit volume. The magnetic field B in the material is,
r
r r
B = m 0 (H + M)
r
r
r
r
For a linear material M = cH . So that B = mH and c is

Force between two long parallel wires F =

called the magnetic susceptibility of the material.

m = m 0m r ; m r = 1 + c .
The magnetic flux

The potentiometer is a device to compare potential

differences. The device can be used to measure potential
difference; internal resistance of a cell and compare emfs
l

of two sources. Internal resistance r = R 1 - 1

l2

RC circuit : During charging : q = CE (1 et/RC)

During discharging : q = q0et/RC

MAGNETISM

The magnitude of the field B inside a long solenoid carrying

a current I is : B = 0nI, where n is the number of turns per

The total force on a charge q moving

with velocity v i.e., Lorentz force.
r
r r r
F = q (v B + E) .

ELECTROMAGNETIC
INDUCTION

r r
fB = B.A = BA cos q , where q is the angle

r
r
between B & A .
Faradays laws of induction :

df B
dt
Lenzs law states that the polarity of the induced emf is such
that it tends to produce a current which opposes the change
in magnetic flux that produces it.
The induced emf (motional emf) across ends of a rod e = Blv
e = -N

The self-induced emf is given by, e = - L

dI
dt

L is the self-inductance of the coil.

A straight conductor of length l and

carrying a steady current I experiences a
r r r r
r
force F in a uniform external magnetic field B , F = Il B ,
the direction of l is given by the direction of the current.
r
r m 0 d l rr
I 3 .
Biot-Savart law dB =
4p
r

m0 N2 A
l
A changing current in a coil (coil 2) can induce an emf in a
nearby coil (coil 1).

The magnitude of the magnetic field due to a circular coil of

radius R carrying a current I at an axial distance x from the

M=

centre is B =

m 0 IR 2
2 (x 2 + R 2 )3/2

L=

e1 = - M12

dI2
, M12 = mutual inductance of coil 1 w.r.t coil 2.
dt

m 0 N1 N2 A
l

LR circuit : For growth current, i = i 0 [1 - e - Rt /L ]

For decay of current, i = i 0 e - Rt /L

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7
For an alternating current i = im sin wt
passing through a resistor R, the average
ALTERNATING power loss P (averaged over a cycle) due to
joule heating is (1/2)i2mR.
CURRENT
Root mean square (rms) current

I=

im
2

= 0.707 i m .

vm
1
, XC =
is called capacitive reactance.
XC
wC

An interesting characteristic of a series RLC circuit is the

phenomenon of resonance. The circuit exhibits resonance,
i.e., the amplitude of the current is maximum at the resonant
frequency, w 0 =

1
LC

n 2 n1 n 2 - n1
=
.
v
v
R

Thin lens formula

The average power loss over a complete cycle

P = V I cosf. The term cos f is called the power factor.
An ac voltage v = vm sinwt applied to a pure inductor L,
drives a current in the inductor i = im sin (wt p/2), where
im = vm/XL. XL = wL is called inductive reactance.
An ac voltage v = vm sinwt applied to a capacitor drives a
current in the capacitor: i = im sin (wt + p/2). Here,
im =

For refraction through a spherical interface (from medium 1

to 2 of refractive index n 1 and n2, respectively)

1 (n 2 - n1 ) 1
1
Lens makers formula : f =

n1
R1 R 2

The power of a lens P = 1/f. The SI unit for power of a lens is

dioptre (D): 1 D = 1 m1.
If several thin lenses of focal length f1, f2, f3,.. are in contact,
1 1 1 1
the effective focal f = f + f + f + .....
1
2
3

The total power of a combination of several lenses

P = P1 + P2 + P3 +.......
Chromatic aberration is the colouring of image produced by
lenses. This can be avoided by combining a convex and a
concave lens of focal lengths f1 and f2 and dispersive powers
w1, w2 respectively satisfying the equation
w1 w 2
+
= 0 or in terms of powers w P + w P = 0 .
1 1
2 2
f1 f 2

(X L = X C ) .

Impedance z = R 2 + (x L x C ) 2
N
E
I
Transformation ratio, K = S = S = P
N P E P IS

The quality factor Q defined by Q =

Reflection is governed by the equation

i = r' and refraction by the Snells law,
sini/sinr = n, where the incident ray, reflected
ray, refracted ray and normal lie in the same
plane.
Mirror equation:

Prism Formula n 21 =

1 1 1
+ =
v u f

n 2 sin [(A + Dm ) / 2)]

, where Dm
=
n1
sin (A / 2)

is the angle of minimum deviation.

Dispersion is the splitting of light into its constituent colours.
The deviation is maximum for violet and minimum for red.
d v - dr
, where dv, dr are deviation
d
of violet and red and d the deviation of mean ray (usually
yellow).

Dispersive power w =

Wave front : It is the locus of all the

particles vibrating in the same phase.

WAVE OPTICS

w0L
1
=
is an
w 0 CR
R

indicator of the sharpness of the resonance, the higher value

of Q indicating sharper peak in the current.

RAY OPTICS

1 1 1
- =
v u f

The resultant intensity of two waves

of intensity I0/4 of phase difference f at
any points

f
I = I0 cos2 , where I is the maximum
0
2
density.
Condition for dark band : d = (2n - 1)

l
, for bright band :
2

d = ml

Fringe width b =

Dl
d

A thin film of thickness t and refractive index appears dark

by reflection when viewed at an angle of refraction r if
2t cos r = nl (n = 1, 2, 3, etc.)
A single slit of width a gives a diffraction pattern with a
central maximum. The intensity falls to zero at angles of
l 2l
,
, etc.
a
a

Amplitude of resultant wave R = a 2 + b 2 + 2 ab cos f

Intensity of wave I = I1 + I2 + 2

I1I2 cosf

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8
Energy of a photon E = hn =

MODERN
PHYSICS

hc
l

h
l
Einsteins photoelectric equation

Momentum of a photon P =

1
mv 2max = V0 e = hn - f 0 = h ( n - n0 )
2

Mass defect,
DM = (Z mp + (A Z )mn) M ; D Eb = DM c2.
1 amu = 931 MeV
En = -

n2

13.6eV (For hydrogen like atom)

Radius of the orbit of electron r =

n 2h 2
4 2 mkze2

Braggs law : 2d sin q = nl.

Radius of the nucleus R = R o A1/3
Law of radioactive decay : N = N0elt.
Activity =

dN
= -lN (unit is Becquerel)
N

Half life period, T1/2 =

X-rays : l min =

0.693
l

12400

Characteristics X-rays : l Ka < l La

Moseley law : n = a (Z b)2

Pure semiconductors are called intrinsic semiconductors.
The presence of charge carriers (electrons and holes) number
of electrons (n e ) is equal to the number of holes (n h).
The number of charge carriers can be changed by doping
of a suitable impurity in pure semiconductors known as
extrinsic semiconductors (n-type and p-type).
In n-type semiconductors, n e >> n h while in p-type
semiconductors nh >> ne.
n-type semiconducting Si or Ge is obtained by doping with
pentavalent atoms (donors) like As, Sb, P, etc., while p-type
Si or Ge can be obtained by doping with trivalent atom
(acceptors) like B, Al, In etc.
p-n junction is the key to all semiconductor devices. When
such a junction is made, a depletion layer is formed consisting
of immobile ion-cores devoid of their electrons or holes. This
is responsible for a junction potential barrier.
In forward bias (n-side is connected to negative terminal of
the battery and p-side is connected to the positive), the barrier
is decreased while the barrier increases in reverse bias.
Diodes can be used for rectifying an ac voltage (restricting
the ac voltage to one direction).

Zener diode is one such special purpose diode. In reverse

bias, after a certain voltage, the current suddenly increases
(breakdown voltage) in a Zener diode. This property has
been used to obtain voltage regulation.
The important transistor parameters for CE-configuration are:
DV
Input resistance, ri = BE
DI B V

CE

DV
Output resistance, r0 = CE
DIC I

DIC
Current amplification factor, b =
DI
B V

CE

The voltage gain of a transistor amplifier in common emitter

configuration is:
v
R
A v = 0 = b C , where R and R are respectively the
C
B
RB
vi

resistances in collector and base sides of the circuit.

The important digital circuits performing special logic
operations are called logic gates. These are: OR, AND, NOT,
NAND, and NOR gates. NAND gate is the combination of
NOT and AND gate. NOR gate is the combination of NOT
and OR gate.
Transmitter, transmission channel and
receiver are three basic units of a
COMMUNIcommunication system.
CATION
Two important forms of communication
SYSTEMS
system are: Analog and Digital. The information
to be transmitted is generally in continuous
waveform for the former while for the latter it
has only discrete or quantised levels.
Low frequencies cannot be transmitted to long distances.
Therefore, they are superimposed on a high frequency carrier
signal by a process known as modulation.
In the process of modulation, new frequencies called sidebands
are generated on either side.
If an antenna radiates electromagnetic waves from a height
hT, then the range dT is given by 2Rh T where R is the
radius of the earth.
Effective range, d = 2Rh T + 2Rh R
hT = height of transmitting antenna; h R = height of receiving
antenna
Critical frequency Vc = 9(Nmax)1/2
where Nmax = no. density of electrons/m3
2

Skip distance, Dskip = 2h max - 1

Vc

h= height of reflecting layer of atmosphere.

1
Power radiated by an antenna 2
l

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CHEMISTRY
Energy of electron in species with one
electron.
-2 p 2 me 4 Z 2
En =
n 2h 2
For energy in SI system,
-2 p 2 me4 Z2
En = 2 2
n h (4 pe 0 ) 2

ATOMIC
STRUCTURE

En =

-1312Z2
n2

kJ mol-1

where e0 is permitivity constant and its value is 8.8542

1012 coulomb2 newton1 metre2
n 2h 2

n2
=
0.529

4 p 2 mZe 2
Z
Total energy of electron in the nth shell
r=

= K.E. + P.E. = kZ
u=

e 2 kZe 2
kZe 2
+ =
2rn
rn
2rn

1
1
1
= RZ2 2 - 2 , [R = 1.0968 107 m1]
l
n1 n 2

No. of spectral lines produced when an electron drops from

n(n - 1)
nth level to ground level =
2
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle (Dx) (Dp) h/4p
Nodes (n 1) = total nodes, l = angular nodes,
(n l 1) = Radial nodes
Orbital angular momentum : l (l + 1) h = l(l + 1)h
2p
Radial probability density curves:

2s

CHEMICAL
BONDING

Fajans Factors : Following factors are helpful in bringing

covalent character in Ionic compounds
(a) Small cation
(b) Big anion
(c) High charge on cation/anion
(d) Cation having pseudo inert gas configuration (ns2p6d10)
e.g. Cu+, Ag+, Zn+2, Cd+2
M.O. theory :
(a) Bond order = (NbNa)
(b) Higher the bond order, higher is the bond dissociation
energy, greater is the stability, shorter is the bond length.
(c) Species
Bond order Magnetic properties
H2
1
Diamagnetic
0.5
Paramagnetic
H2 +
Li2
1
Diamagnetic
Relative bond strength : sp3d2 >dsp2 >sp3 >sp2 >sp >p-p
(Co-axial) > s - p > s - s > p - p (Co-lateral)
VSEPR theory
(a) (LP-LP) repulsion > (LP-BP) > (BP-BP)
(b) NH3 Bond Angle 106 45 because (LP-BP) repulsion
> (BP-BP) H2O 104 27because (LP-LP) repulsion > (LPLB) > (BP-BP)
Bond angle :
(a) NH3 > PH3 > AsH3
(b) H2O > H2S > H2Se
(c) NH3 > NF3
(d) Cl2O > OF2
n

r
CHEMICAL
EQUILIBRIUM

n=3

R .4pr .dr

(a) If DG = 0 then reversible reaction

would be in equilibrium, Kc = 0

(c) If DG = () ve then equilibrium will displace in forward

direction; Kc > 1

n=3
3d

(a) Kc unit (moles/lit)Dn,

(b) Kp unit (atm)Dn

3p

K p = K c (RT) g where Dng' nP n R

Free Energy change (DG)

(b) If DG = (+) ve then equilibrium will

be displace in backward direction;
Kc < 1

2p

3s

R .4pr .dr

n =2

n=3

Actual dipole moment

100
Calculated dipole moment
(b) Pauling equation % ionic
character
1

- (XA - X B )

= 100 1 - exp 4

R .4pr .dr

1s

R .4pr .dr

n=2

R .4pr .dr

R .4pr .dr

n=1

(a) % ionic character =

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10
Reaction Quotient and Equilibrium Constant
Consider the following reversible reaction
A+BC+D
[C][D]
\ Qc = [A][B]
Case I : If Q c < Kc then : [Reactants] > [Products]
then the system is not at equilibrium
Case II : If Q c = Kc then : The system is at equilibrium and
the concentration of the species C, D, B,A are at equilibrium.
Case III : If Q c > Kc then : [Products] > [Reactants]
The system is not at equilibrium.
A relationship between the equilibrium constant KC, reaction
quotient and Gibbs energy.
DG = DG + RT ln Q
At equilibrium DG = 0 and Q = K then
DG = RT ln Kc
\ DG = RT ln Kp
Le chateliers principal
(i) Increase of reactant conc. (Shift forward)
(ii) Decrease of reactant conc. (Shift backward)
(iii) Increase of pressure (from more moles to less moles)
(iv) Decrease of pressure (from less moles to more moles)
(v) For exothermic reaction decrease in temp. (Shift
forward)
(vi) For endothermic increase in temp. (Shift backward)
(a) Lewis Acid (e pair acceptor)
CO2, BF3, AlCl3, ZnCl2, normal
cation
(b) Lewis Base (e pair donor) NH3,
ACIDS AND
ROH, ROR, H2O, RNH2, normal
BASES
anion
Dissociation of weak Acid & Weak
Base
(a) Weak Acid Ka = Cx2/(1 x) or
Ka = Cx2 ; x << 1
(b) Weak Base Kb = Cx2/(1 x) or Kb = Cx2 ; x << 1
Buffer solution {Henderson equation} :
(a) Acidic pH = pKa + log {Salt/Acid}.
For Maximum buffer action pH = pKa
Range of Buffer pH = pKa 1
(b) Alkaline pOH = pKb + log {Salt/Base} for max. buffer
action pH = 14 pKb
Range pH = 14 pKb 1
Moles / lit of Acid or Base Mixed
change in pH
Necessary condition for showing neutral colour of Indicator
pH = pKln or[HIn] = [In] or [InOH] = [In+]

(c) Buffer Capacity =

Relation between ionisation constant

(Ki) & degree of ionisation(a):IONIC
EQUILIBRIUM

a2
a2 C
(Ostwaldss
=
(1 - a)V
(1 - a)
dilution law)
It is applicable to weak electrolytes
for which a <<1 then

Ki =

Ki
or V C a
C
Common ion effect : By addition of X mole/L of a common
ion, to a weak acid (or weak base) a becomes equal to

a=

Ki V =

Ka K b
or
[where a = degree of dissociation]
X
X
(A) If solubility product > ionic product then the solution is
unsaturated and more of the substance can be dissolved in it.
(B) If ionic product > solubility product the solution is super
saturated (principle of precipitation).
Salt of weak acid and strong base :
Kw
Kh
pH = 0.5 (pKw + pKa + log c); h =
; Kh = K
c
a
(h = degree of hydrolysis)
Salt of weak base and strong acid :

pH = 0.5 (pKw pKb log c); h =

Salt of weak acid and weak base :
pH = 0.5 (pKw + pKa pKb ); h =

CHEMICAL
KINETICS

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Kw
Kb c

Kw
Ka Kb

Differ ences between order and

molecularity of reaction:

Order of reaction
It is experimentally
determined quantity
It can have integral,
fractional or negative
values
It cannot be obtained
from balanced or
stoichiometric equation.
It tells about the slowest
step in the mechanism
It is sum of the powers
of the concentration
terms in the rate law
equation.

Molecularity
It is a theoretical concept.
Always integral values only,
never zero or negative
It can be obtained.
It does not tell anything
about mechanism
It is the number of reacting
species undergoing
simultaneous collision in the
reaction.

Unit of Rate constant :

k = mol1n litn1 sec1
Order of reaction It can be fraction, zero or any whole number.
Molecularity of reaction is always a whole number. It is never
more than three. It cannot be zero.
First Order reaction :
a
2.303
0.693
log10
& t1/12 =
(a
x)
t
k
[A]t = [A]0ekt
Second Order Reaction :
When concentration of A and B taking same.

k=

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11

x
1

t a(a - x)
When concentration of A and B are taking different -

k2 =

2.303
b(a - x)
k2 = t(a - b) log a(b - x)
Zero Order Reaction :
a
x = kt &
t1/2 =
2k
The rate of reaction is independent of the concentration of
the reacting substance.
Time of nth fraction of first order process,
1
2303
log
t 1/n =
1
k
1 -
n
Arrhenius equation :
-E a
k = AeEa/RT & slope =
& Temperature Coefficient
2.303R

k2
E a T2 - T1

log k =
1 2.303 T1T2
It has been found that for a chemical reaction with rise in
temperature by 10 C, the rate constant gets nearly doubled.

Oxidant itself is reduced (gives O2)

Or Oxidant
e (s) Acceptor
Reductant itself is oxidised (gives H2)
OXIDATION Or reductant
e (s) Donor
REDUCTION
(i) Strongness of acid O.N
(ii) Strongness of base 1/ O.N
(a) Electro Chemical Series:- Li, K, Ba,
Sr, Ca, Na, Mg, Al, Mn, Zn, Cr, Fe, Cd, Co,
Ni, Sn, Pb, H2, Cu, Ag, Pt, Au.
(b) As we move from top to bottom in this series
(1) Standard Reduction Potential
(2) Standard Oxidation Potential
(3) Reducing Capacity
(4) IP
(5) Reactivity
Equivalent weight of element
Atomic wt of the element
Valency of element
The law of Dulong and Petit
Atomic wt.specific heat 6.4
Normality (N)

=
VOLUMETRIC
ANALYSIS

number of equivalents
volume of the solution in litres

number of moles
Molarity (M) =
volume of the solution in litres
Common acid-base indicators
Indicator
Methyl orange
Methyl red
Litmus
Phenolphthalein

Acid colour Alkaline colour pH range of

change
Red
Yellow
3.24.4
Red
Yellow
4.26.2
Red
Blue
4.58.3
Colourless
red
8.310

THERMODYNAMICS

First Law : DE = Q + W
Expression for pressure volume work
W = PDV
Maximum work in a reversible
expansion :
W = 2.303n RT log

V2
= 2.303 nRT
T
V1

P1
log P
2
Wrev Wirr

qv = cvDT = DU, qp = cpDT = DH

Enthapy changes during phase transformation
(i) Enthalpy of Fusion
(ii) Heat of Vapourisation
(iii) Heat of Sublimation
Enthalpy : DH = DE + PDV = DE + DngRT
Kirchoffs equation :
DET2 = DET1 + DCV (T2 T1) [constant V]

DH T2 = DH T1 + DCP (T2 T1) [constant P]

Entropy(s) : Measure of disorder or randomness
DS = SSpSSR
V2
P1
q rev
= 2.303 nR log V = 2.303 n R log P
T
1
2
Free energy change : DG = DH TDS
DG = W(maximum) PDV
DH DS DG
Reaction characteristics

+ Always negative Reaction is spontaneous at

all temperature.
+
Always positive Reaction is nonspontaneous
at all temperature

Negative at low Spontaneous at low temp. &

temperature but non spontaneous at high
positive at high temperature
temperature
+
+ Positive at low
Non spontaneous at low
temp. but
temp. & spontaneous at high
negative at high temp.
temperature

DS =

m = Z.I.t
ELECTROCHEMISTRY

l eq
Degree of dissociation : a = l 0 =
eq
Equivalent conductance at given concentration
equivalent conductance at infinite dilution

Specific conductance
1
1
l
1000
Lsp .
=
=
L sp =
; Lm =
S
RA / l RA
C
Kohlrauschs law : L 0m = xl 0A + yl 0B
Nernst Equation
[Products]
0.0591
E = E
log10
[Reactants]
n

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12
nE
& ECell = Eright + Eleft & Keq. = antilog

0.0591
DG = nFEcell & DG = nFE cell
DG

& Wmax= +nFE & DG = DH + T

T P
Calculation of pH of an electrolyte by using a calomel

electrode : pH =

-DG -nFEocell
h=
=
DH
DH

For H2O2 fuel cells it is 95%.

SOLUTION AND
COLLIGATIVE
PROPERTIES

Raoults law
P = pA + pB = pAXA + pBXB
Characteristics of an ideal solution:
(i) DsolV = 0
(ii) DsolH = 0
Relative lowering of vapour pressure
PAo PA
PAo

PAo PA

nB
= XB =
PAo
n A + nB
Colligative Number of particles
properties Number of ions (in case of electrolytes)
Number of moles of solute
Depression of freezing point, DTf = Kfm
Elevation in boiling point with relative lowering of vapour
pressure
1000K b po - p
DTb =

M1 po (M1 = mol. wt. of solvent)

Osmotic pressure (P) with depression in freezing point DTf
dRT
P = DTf
1000K f

Relation between Osmotic pressure and other colligative

properties:
p oA - p A dRT

Relative lowering of vapour pressure

o

pA M B

(i) p =

dRT
1000K b

dRT
(iii) p = DTf
1000K f

8RT
& Most probable speed =
M
Average speed = 0.9213 RMS speed
RMS speed = 1.085 Average speed
MPS = .816 RMS; RMS = 1.224 MPS
MPS : A.V. speed : RMS = 1 : 1.128 : 1.224

Average speed =

density of gas
van der Waals equation

n 2a
P
+

(V - nb) = nRT for n moles

V2

PV
; Z = 1 for ideal gas
nRT
Available space filled up by hard
spheres (packing fraction):

Z (compressibility factor) =

SOLID AND
LIQUID STATE

Simple cubic =

p
= 0.52
6

bcc =

p 3
= 0.68
8

fcc =

p 2
= 0.74
6

p 2
p 3
= 0.74 diamond =
= 0.34
6
6
Radius ratio and co-ordination number (CN)
Limiting radius ratio
CN
Geometry

hcp =

Depression in freezing point

Atomic radius r and the edge of the unit cell:

Pure elements :

n
n -1
i -1
& degree of dissociation (a) =
n -1

Degree of association a = (1 i)

2RT
M

Rate of diffusion

Elevation in boiling point

Observed osmotic pressure

Normal osmotic pressure

3RT
=
M

3P
d

[0.155 0.225]
[0.2550.414]
[0.4140.732]
[0.7321]

Normal molar mass

Observed colligative property
i=
=
Observed molar mass
Normal colligative property

3PV
=
M

RMS velocity C =

E cell - 0.2415
0.0591

Thermodynamic efficiency of fuel cells :

(ii) p = DTb

GASEOUS
STATE

Ideal gas equation : PV = nRT

(i) R = 0.0821 liter atm. deg1 mole1
(ii) R = 2 cals. deg.1 mole
(iii) R = 8.314 JK1 mole1
Velocities related to gaseous state

3
4
6
8

[plane triangle]
[tetrahedral]
[octahedral]
[bcc]

a
3a
2a
; bcc r =
; fcc =
2
4
4
Relationship between radius of void (r) and the radius of the
sphere (R) : r (tetrahedral) = 0.225 R ; r (octahedral) = 0.414 R
Paramagnetic : Presence of unpaired electrons [attracted by
magnetic field]
Ferromagnetic : Permanent magnetism [ ]
Antiferromagnetic : net magnetic moment is zero [ ]
Ferrimagnetic : net magnetic moment is three [ ]

Simple cubic = r =

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13

SURFACE
CHEMISTRY &
COLLOIDAL
STATE

Emulsion : Colloidal soln. of two

immiscible liquids [O/W emulsion,
W/O emulsion]
Emulsifier : Long chain
hydrocarbons are added to
stabilize emulsion.
Lyophilic colloid : Starchygum, gelatin
have greater affinity for solvent.

Lyophobic colloid : No affinity for solvent, special methods

are used to prepare sol. [e.g. As2S3, Fe(OH)3 sol]
Preparation of colloidal solution :
(i) Dispersion methods (ii) Condensation method.
Properties of colloidal solution :
(i) Tyndall effect (ii) Brownian movement (iii) Coagulation
(iv) Filtrability.

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
General electronic configuration
(of outer orbits)
s-block ns12
PERIODIC
p-block
ns 2 np 16
TABLE
d-block (n1)d110 ns12
f-block (n2) f114 s 2 p 6 d 10 (n
1)s2 p6d0 or 1 ns2
Property
Pr (L To R)
Gr (T to B)
(a) atomic radius

(b) ionisation potential

(c) electron affinity

(d) electro negativity

(e) metallic character or

electropositive character
(f) alkaline character

of hydroxides
(g) acidic character

(i) reducing property

(j) oxidising property

(k) non metallic character

1
1
IP
Reducing character
Metallic character
1
nuclear charge.
size
Second electron affinity is always negative.
Electron affinity of chlorine is greater than fluorine (small
atomic size).
The first element of a group has similar properties with the
second element of the next group. This is called diagonal
relationship. The diagonal relationship disappears after IV
group.
Atomic radii : Li < Na < K < Rb < Cs
Electronegativity : Li > Na > K >
Rb > Cs
First ionization potential : Li > Na
> K > Rb > Cs
s-BLOCK
Melting point Li > Na > K > Rb >
ELEMENTS
Cs
Colour of the flame Li - Red, Na Golden, K - Violet, Rb - Red, Cs Blue, Ca - Brick red, Sr - Blood red,
Ba-Apple green
Rb and Cs show photoelectric effect.
Stability of hydrides : LiH > NaH > KH > RbH > CsH
Basic nature of hydroxides : LiOH < NaOH < KOH < RbOH <
CsOH
Hydration energy : Li > Na > K > Rb > Cs
Reducing character : Li > Cs > Rb > K > Na

EA

Stability of +3 oxidation state : B >

Al > Ga > In > Tl
Stability of +1 oxidation state : Ga
BORON
< In < Tl
Basic nature of the oxides and
FAMILY
hydroxides :
B < Al < Ga < In < Tl
Relative strength of Lewis acid :
BF3 < BCl3 < BBr3 < BI3
Ionisation energy : B > Al < Ga > In < Tl
Electronegativity : Electronegativity first decreases from B to
Al and then increases marginally.
Reactivity : C < Si < Ge < Sn < Pb
Metallic character : C < Si < Ge <
Sn < Pb
Acidic character of the oxides :
CARBON
CO2 > SiO2 > GeO2 > SnO2 > PbO2
FAMILY
Weaker acidic (amphoteric)
Reducing nature of hydrides
CH4 < SiH4 < GeH4 < SnH4 < PbH4
Thermal stability of tetrahalides
CCl4 > SiCl4 > GeCl4 > SnCl4 > PbCl4
Oxidising character of M+4 species
GeCl4 < SnCl4 < PbCl4
Ease of hydrolysis of tetrahalides
SiCl4 < GeCl4 < SnCl4 < PbCl4
Acidic strength of trioxides : N2O3
> P2O3 > As2O3
Acidic strength of pentoxides
N2O5 > P2O5 > As2O5 > Sb2O5 >
NITROGEN
Bi2O5
Acidic stren gth of oxides of
FAMILY
nitrogen
N2O < NO < N2O3 < N2O4 < N2O5
Basic nature, bond angle, thermal
stability and dipole
moment of hydrides
NH3 > PH3 > AsH3 > SbH3 > BiH3
Stability of trihalides of nitrogen : NF3 > NCl3 > NBr 3
Lewis base strength : NF3 < NCl3> NBr3 < NI3
Ease of hydrolysis of trichlorides
NCl3 > PCl3 > AsCl3 > SbCl3 > BiCl3
Lewis acid strength of trihalides of P, As and Sb
PCl3 > AsCl3 > SbCl3
Lewis acid strength among phosphorus trihalides
PF3 > PCl3 > PBr3 > PI3
Nitrogen displays a great tendency to form pp pp multiple
bonds with itself as well as with carbon and oxygen.
The basic strength of the hydrides
NH3 > PH3 > AsH3 > SbH3

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14
The thermal stability of the hydrides decreases as the atomic
size increases.
Melting and boiling point of hydrides
H2O > H2Te > H2Se > H2S
Volatility of hydrides
H2O < H2Te < H2Se < H2S
OXYGEN
Reducing nature of hydrides
FAMILY
H2S < H2Se < H2Te
Covalent character of hydrides
H2O < H2S < H2Se < H2Te
The acidic character of oxides
(elements in the same oxidation state)
SO2 > SeO2 > TeO2 > PoO2 ; SO3 > SeO3 > TeO3
Acidic character of oxide of a particular element (e.g. S)
SO < SO2 < SO3 ; SO2 > TeO2 > SeO2 > PoO2
Bond energy of halogens : Cl2 >
Br2 > F2 > I2
Solubility of halogen in water : F2
> Cl2 > Br2 > I2
Oxidising power : F2 > Cl2 > Br2 >
I2
Enthalpy of hydration of X ion :
F > Cl > Br > I
Reactivity of halogens : F > Cl > Br > I
Ionic character of M - X bond in halides
M F > M Cl > M Br > M I
Reducing character of X ion : I > Br > Cl > F
Acidic strength of halogen acids : HI > HBr > HCl > HF
Conjugate base strength of halogen acids
I < Br < Cl < F
Reducing property of hydrogen halides
HF < HCl < HBr < HI
Oxidising power of oxides of chlorine
Cl2O > ClO2 > Cl2O6 > Cl2O7
Acidic character of oxyacids of chlorine
HClO < HClO2 < HClO3 < HClO4
Oxidising power of oxyacids of chlorine
HClO > HClO2 > HClO3 > HClO4
The element with exceptional
configuration are
Cr24[Ar] 3d54s1, Cu29[Ar] 3d104s1
Mo 42 [Kr] 4d 5 5s 1 , Pd 46 [Kr]
4d10 5s0
TRANSITION
Ag 47 [Kr] 4d 10 5s 1 , Pt 78 [Xe]
ELEMENTS
4f145d106s0
Ferromagnetic substances are
(d- and f-BLOCK
those in which there are large
ELEMENTS
number of electrons with unpaired
spins and whose magnetic
moments are aligned in the same
direction.
Inner Transition Elements
HALOGEN
FAMILY

(i) Electronic Configuration - The general electronic

configuration of these elements is

[ Xe ] 4f 0 -14 5d

0 -1

6s 2

(iii) Magnetic properties - Magnetic properties have spin and

orbit contributions (Contrast spin onlyof transition
metals). Hence magnetic momentums are given by the
formula.
m = 4 S (S + 1) + L(L + 1)

Coordination number is the number of

the nearest atoms or groups in the
coordination sphere.
Ligand is a Lewis base donor of
COORDINATION
electrons
that bonds to a central metal
COMPOUNDS
atom in a coordination compound.
Paramagnetic substance is one that is
attracted to the magnetic field, this results
on account of unpaired electrons present
in the atom/molecule/ion.
Effective atomic number EAN
= (Z Oxidation number) + (2 Coordination number)
Factors affecting stability of complex
(i) Greater the charge on the central metal ion, greater is the
stability.
(ii) Greater the ability of the ligand to donate electron pair
(basic strength) greater is the stability.
(iii) Formation of chelate rings increases the stability.
Isomerism in coordination compounds :
(i) Structural Isomers
(ii) Ionization Isomers
(iii) Hydration Isomers
(iv) Linkage Isomers
(v) Coordination Isomerism
(vi) Ligand isomerism
(vii) Polymerisation Isomerism (viii) Valence Isomerism
(ix) Coordination position isomerism
(x) Stereo isomerism
(a) Geometrical
(I) Square planar complexes of the type
MA2X2 ; MABX2 ; MABXY
(II) Octahedral of the type : MA4XY, MA4X2 MA3X3
MA2X2Y2. M(AA)2X2 and M(ABCDEF).
(b) Optical isomerism
The
order
of
decreasing
electronegativity of hybrid orbitals is sp
> sp2 > sp3.
Conformational isomers are those
isomers which arise due to rotation
GOC
around a single bond.
A meso compound is optically
inactive, even though it has asymmetric
centres (due to internal compensation of
rotation of plane polarised light)
An equimolar mixture of enantiomers
is called racemic mixture, which is optically inactive.
Reaction intermediates and reagents :
Homolytic fission Free radicals
Heterolytic fission ions (Carbonium, ion carbonium, etc.)
Nucleophiles electron rich
Two types : 1. Anions 2. Neutral molecules
with lone pair of electrons (Lewis bases)
Electrophiles : electron deficient.
Two types : 1. Cations 2. Neutral molecules with vacant
orbitals (Lewis acids).
Inductive effect is due to s electron displacement along a
chain and is permanent effect.
+I (inductive effect) increases basicity, I effect increases
acidity of compounds.
Resonance is a phenomenon in which two or more structures
can be written for the same compound but none of them
actually exists.

where L = Orbital quantum number, S = Spin quantum number

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15

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Pyrolytic cracking is a process in
which alkane decomposes to a mixture
of smaller hydrocarbons, when it is
heated strongly, in the absence of
oxygen.
Ethane can exist in an infinite number
of conformations. They are

ALKANES

HH

H
H

H H

H
H

HH

H
q = 60 Staggered

Eclipsed

H H
q < 60 > 0 Skew
H

Conformations of Cyclohexane : It exists in two nonplanar,

strainless forms, the boat and the chair form

The order of reactivity is

(a) RI > RBr > RCl > RF
(b) Allyl halide > Alkyl halide > Vinyl
HALOGEN
halide
COMPOUNDS
(c) Alkyl halide > Aryl halide
SN1 reaction : Mainly 3 alkyl halides
undergo this reaction and form racemic
mixture. SN1 is favoured by polar solvent
and low concentration of nucleophile.
SN2 reaction : Mainly 1 alkyl halides undergo this
substitution. Walden inversion takes place. SN2 reaction is
preferred by non-polar solvents and high concentration of
nucleophile.
Reaction with metals:
(i)

Dry ether
R X + Mg
R Mg X
Alkyl
halides

Grignard reagent

(ii) Wurtz reaction:

Chair form
Most Stable

Half Chair

Twist Boat

Boat form
(Least Stable)

In
dehydration
and
dehydrohalogenation the preferential
order for removal of hydrogen is 3 > 2 >
1 (Saytzeffs rule).
ALKENES
The lower the DHh (heat of
hydrogenation) the more stable the
alkene is.
Alkenes undergo anti-Markonikov
addition only with HBr in the presence
of peroxides.
Alkynes add water molecule in
presence of mercuric sulphate and dil.
H2SO4 and form carbonyl compounds.
Terminal alkynes have acidic H-atoms,
ALKYNES
so they form metal alkynides with Na,
ammonical cuprous chloride solution and
ammoniacal silver nitrate solution.
Alkynes are acidic because of H-atoms
which are attached to sp C atom which (a) has more
electronegativity (b) has more s character than sp2 and
sp3 C atoms.
All o and p-directing groups are ring
activating groups
(except X)
They are : OH, NH2, X, R,
OR, etc.
ARENES
All m-directing groups are ring
deactivating groups.
They are : CHO, COOH, NO2,
+

Dry ether
R X + 2 Na + X R
R - R + 2Na + X
Alkane

ALCOHOLS

Alkenes are converted to alcohol in

different ways as follows
Reagent Types of addition
dil H2SO4
Markovnikov
B2H6 and H2O2, OH
Anti-Markovnikov
Oxymercuration demercuration

Markovnikov
Oxidation of
1 alcohol
aldehyde
carboxylic acid
(with same no.
(with same no. of
of C atom)
C atom)
2 alcohol
ketone
carboxylic acid
(with same no.
(with less no. of
of C atom)
C atom)
3 alcohol
ketone
carboxylic
acid

(with less no. (with less no. of

of C atom)
C atom)
CHCl /OH Q

3
Phenol
Phenolic
aldehyde

PHENOLS

(Reimer-Tieman reaction)
CO

2 Phenolic carboxylic
Phenol
D

acid (Kolbe reaction)

Acidity of phenols
(a) Increase by electron withdrawing substituents like
+

NO2, CN, CHO, COOH, X, - N R 3

(b) decrease by electron releasing substituents like
R, OH, NH2, NR2, OR

CN, NR 3 , etc.
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16
Al O
250C

2 3 R - O - R + H O
2ROH
2

RONa + X - R '
ROR '+ NaX
(Williamson's synthesis)

ETHERS

dil. H SO
D

2 4 2ROH
ROR + H 2 O

Formation of alcohols using RMgX

(a) Formaldehyde + RMgX

CARBONYL
COMPOUNDS

Hydrolysis

1 alcohol
Hydrolysis
(b) Aldehyde + RMgX

2 alcohol
(other than HCHO)

Hydrolysis
(c) Ketone + RMgX

3 alcohol
Cannizzaro reaction (Disproportionation)
Hot conc.

Aldehyde Alcohol + Salt of acid

alkali

(no a H-atom)
Aldol condensation :
Carbonyl compound + dil. alkali b-hydroxy carbonyl
(with a H-atom)
compound
Benzoin condensation
ethanolic
Benzaldehyde
Benzoin
NaCN

The relative reactivities of different acid derivatives towards

nucleophilic acyl substitution reactions follow the order:
O
O
O
O
O
||
||
||
||
||
R C Cl > R C O C R ' > R C OR ' > R C NH 2
Acid chloride

Anhydride

CARBOXYLIC
ACIDS

NITROGEN
COMPOUNDS

Ester

Amide

The rate of esterfication decreases

when alcohol, acid or both have
branched substituents.
Or tho effect : All ortho
substituted benzoic acids (irrespective
of type of substituent) are stronger than
benzoic acid.
Order of basicity : (R = CH3 or
C2H5)
2 > 1 > 3 > NH3
Hofmann degradation

Br2 /KOH
Amides
1 amine
The basicity of amines is
(a) decreased by electron withdrawing
groups
(b) increased by electron releasing groups
Reduction of nitrobenzene in different media gives different
products
Medium
Product
Acidic
Aniline
Basic
Azoxy, Azo and finally hydrazobenzene
Neutral
Phenyl hydroxylamine

Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy

aldehydes or ketones.
Monosaccharides are simple sugars,
CARBOHYDRATES,
containing three to nine carbon atoms.
AMINO ACIDS AND
Characteristic reactions :
Homologous series
POLYMERS
Type of reactions
(a) Alkanes
Substitution
(Mostly free radical
(b) Alkenes and alkynes
Electrophillic addition
(c) Arenes
Electrophillic substitution
(d) Alkyl halides
Nucleophillic substitution
(e) Aldehyde and ketones
Nucleophillic addition
Tests to differentiate :
1, 2 and 3 alcohols
(1) Lucas test
(2) Victormeyers test
1, 2 and 3 amines
Hinsberg test
1, 2 and 3 nitro compounds Test with HNO2 and KOH
Aryl halides and alkyl halides Test with AgNO3
solution
Aldehydes and ketones
Tollens test/Fehlings
test
Aromatic aldehydes and
Fehlings test
Aliphatic aldehydes
Dil H2SO4 [or Conc. H2SO4 + H2O]
Use Hydrating agent (+HOH)
Alc. KOH or NaNH2(Use -HX)

IMPORTANT
REAGENT

alc.KOH
CH3CH2Cl
CH2=CH2
Lucas reagent ZnCl2 + Conc. HCl
Use for distinction between 1, 2
& 3 alc.
Tilden Reagent NOCl (Nitrosyl
chloride)

NOCl
C2H5NH2
C2H5Cl
Alkaline KMnO4(Strong oxidant)
Toluene Benzoic acid
Bayers Regent : 1% alkaline KMnO4(Weak oxidant)
Use: For test of > C = C < or C = C
BR
CH2=CH2+H2O+[O]
CH2OHCH2OH
[O]
Acidic K2Cr2O7 (Strong oxidant) : RCH2OH
RCHO
n
SnCl2/HCl or Sn/HCl use for red of nitrobenzene in acidic
medium.
SnCl / HCl

2
C6H5NH2
C6H5NO2
6H

Lindlars Catalyst = Pd/CaCO3

+ in small quantity (CH3COO)2Pb
"
2 butye + H2
Cis-2-butene
(main product)
Ziegler Natta Catalyst (C2H5)3Al + TiCl4
Use In Addition polymerisation
IDENTIFICATION TESTS :
(a) Unsaturated compound (Bayers reagent)
Decolourising the reagent
(b) Alcohols (Ceric ammonium nitrate solution)
Red colouration
(c) Phenols (Neutral FeCl3 solution)
Violet/deep blue colouration
(d) Aldehydes and ketones (2, 4-D.N.P.)
Orange precipitate
(e) Acids (NaHCO3 solution)
Brisk effervescence (CO2 is evolved)
(f) 1 amine (CHCl3 + KOH)
Foul smell (isocyanide)
(g) 2 amine (NaNO2 + HCl)
Yellow oily liquid (Nitrosoamine)

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17

MATHEMATICS
A relation R from a set A to a set B is
a subset of the cartesian product A B
obtained by describing a relationship
RELATIONS
between the first element x and the second
AND
element y of the ordered pairs in A B.
FUNCTIONS
Function : A function f from a set A to
a set B is a specific type of relation for
which every element x of set A has one
and only one image y in set B. We write
f : A B, where f (x) = y.
A function f : X Y is one-one (or injective) if
f (x1) = f (x2) x1 = x2 " x1, x2 X.
A function f : X Y is onto (or surjective) if given any
y Y, $ x X such that f (x) = y.
Many-One Function :
A function f : A B is called many- one, if two or more
different elements of A have the same f- image in B.
Into function :
A function f : A B is into if there exist at least one element
in B which is not the f - image of any element in A.
Many One -Onto function :
A function f : A R is said to be many one- onto if f is onto
but not one-one.
Many One -Into function :
A function is said to be many one-into if it is neither one-one
nor onto.
A function f : X Y is invertible if and only if f is one-one
and onto.
General Solution of the equation
sinq = 0:
when sinq = 0
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
q = np : n I i.e. n = 0, 1, 2...........
AND
General solution of the equation
EQUATIONS
cosq = 0 :
when cosq = 0
q = (2n + 1)p/2, n I. i.e. n = 0, 1, +2.......
General solution of the equation tanq = 0:
General solution of tanq = 0 is q = np; n I
General solution of the equation
(a) sinq = sina : q = np + (1)na ; n I
(b) sinq = k, where 1 < k < 1.
q = np + (1)na, where n I and a = sin 1k
(c) cosq = cosa : q = 2np a, n I
(d) cosq = k, where 1 < k < 1.
q = 2np a, where n I and a = cos1 k
(e) tanq = tana : q = np + a ; n I
(f) tanq = k, q = np + a, where n I and a = tan1k
(g) sin2q = sin2a : q = np a; n I
(h) cos2q = cos2a : q = np a ; n I
(i) tan2q = tan2a : q = np a ; n I

sina + sin (a + b) + sin (a +2b) +........ to n terms

n - 1 nb
b sin
sin a +
2 2

=
; b2np
sin (b / 2)
cosa + cos (a + b) + cos (a +2b) +........ to n terms

n -1
cos a +
b sin
2

=
b
sin
2

nb

2

; b 2np

B-C b-c
A
tan
=
cot
2 b + c
2

A
(s - b)(s - c)
sin =
2
bc

(s - b)(s - c)
A
tan =
s (s - a)
2

a
b
c
=
=
2sin A 2sin B 2sin C
abc
R=
4D

R=

A
B
C
r = 4R sin . sin . sin
2
2
2
a = c cos B + b cos C

Maximum value of a sin q + b cos q = a 2 + b2 and minimum

value of a sin q + b cos q = - a 2 + b 2

INVERSE
TRIGONOMETRIC
FUNCTIONS

Properties of inverse trigonometric

function
tan1 x + tan1 y =

-1 x + y
tan
, if x,y < 1
1 - xy

if x > 0, y > 0

-1 x + y
p + tan
,
and xy > 1
1 - xy

if x < 0, y < 0

-p + tan -1 x + y ,

and xy > 1
1 - xy

tan1 x tan1y =

-1 x - y
, if xy > -1
tan
1 + xy

-1 x - y
, if x > 0, y < 0 and xy < -1
p + tan
1 + xy

-1 x - y
-p + tan 1 + xy , if x < 0, y > 0 and xy < -1

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18
sin1 x + sin1 y =

sin - 1{x 1 - y 2 + y 1 - x 2 },

2
2
-1
p - sin {x 1 - y + y 1 - x },

-1
2
2
- p - sin {x 1 - y + y 1 - x },

if - 1 x , y 1 and x 2 + y 2 1
or if xy < 0 and x 2 + y 2 > 1
if 0 < x, y 1
and x 2 + y 2 > 1
if - 1 x , y < 0 and

x 2 + y2 > 1

cos1 x + cos1 y =
cos -1{xy - 1 - x 2 1 - y 2 }
, if - 1 x, y 1 and x + y 0

-1
2
2
2p - cos {xy - 1 - x 1 - y }, if - 1 x, y 1and x + y 0

1
1

-1
2
x
sin (2x 1 - x ) , if 2
2

1
-1
2
1
x 1
2 sin x = p - sin (2x 1 - x ) , if
2

-p - sin -1 (2x 1 - x 2 ) , if - 1 x - 1

2
-1 2x
, if - 1 < x < 1
tan

1 - x2

2x
2 tan1 x = p + tan -1
,
if x > 1
1 - x 2

-1 2x
,
if x < -1
-p + tan
1 - x 2

QUADRATIC
EQUATIONS
AND
INEQUALITIES

Roots of a Quadratic Equation : The

roots of the quadratic equation are given by
x=

- b b 2 - 4ac
2a

Nature of roots : In Quadratic equation

ax2 + bx + c = 0. The term b2 4ac is called
discriminant of the equation. It is denoted

by D or D.
(A) Suppose a, b, c R and a 0
(i) If D > 0 Roots are Real and unequal
(ii) If D = 0 Roots are Real and equal and each equal to
b/2a
(iii) If D < 0 Roots are imaginary and unequal or
complex conjugate.
(B) Suppose a, b, c Q and a 0
(i) If D > 0 and D is perfect square Roots are unequal and
Rational
(ii) If D > 0 and D is not perfect square Roots are irrational
and unequal.
Condition for Common Root(s)
Let ax2 + bx + c = 0 and dx2 + ex + f = 0 have a common root
a (say).
a b c
= =
d e f
If p + iq (p and q being real) is a root of the quadratic equation,

Condition for both the roots to be common is

Exponential Form: If z = x + iy is a
complex number then its exponential form
is z = reiq where r is modulus and q is
COMPLEX
amplitude of complex number.
NUMBERS
(i) | z1 | + | z 2 | | z1 + z 2 | ; here
equality holds when arg(z1/z2) = 0 i.e. z1 and
z2 are parallel.
(ii) || z1 | - | z 2 || | z1 - z 2 | ; here equality holds when
arg(z1/z2) = 0 i.e. z1 and z2 are parallel.
(iii) | z1 + z2 |2 + | z1 z2 |2 = 2( | z1 |2 + | z2 | 2 )
arg(z1z 2 ) = q1 + q2 = arg(z1 ) + arg(z 2 )
z
arg 1 = q1 - q 2 = arg(z1 ) - arg(z 2 )
z2

For any integer k, i4k = 1, i4k + 1 = i, i4k + 2 = 1, i4k + 3 = i

| z - z1 | + | z - z 2 | = l , represents an ellipse if
| z1 z2 | < l, having the points z1 and z2 as its foci. And if
| z1 - z 2 | = l , then z lies on a line segment connecting z1
and z2.
Properties of Cube Roots of Unity
(i) 1 + w + w 2 = 0

(ii) w3 = 1

(iii) 1 + w n + w 2n = 3 (if n is multiple of 3)

(iv) 1 + w n + w 2n = 0 (if n is not a multiple of 3).
The number of permutations of n
different things, taken r at a time, where
PERMUTArepetition is allowed, is nr.
TIONS AND
Selection of Objects with Repetition :
COMBINAThe total number of selections of r
TIONS
things from n different things when each
thing may be repeated any number of times
is n+r+1Cr
Selection from distinct objects :
The number of ways (or combinations) of n different things
selecting
at
least
one
of
them
is
nC + nC + nC + .....+ nC = 2n 1. This can also be stated as
1
2
3
n
the total number of combination of n different things.
Selection from identical objects :
The number of ways to select some or all out
of (p + q + r) things where p are alike of first kind, q are alike
of second kind and r are alike of third kind is
(p + 1) (q + 1) (r + 1) 1
Selection when both identical and distinct objects are
present:
If out of (p + q + r + t) things, p are alike one kind, q are alike
of second kind, r are alike of third kind and t are different,
then the total number of combinations is
(p + 1)(q + 1)(r + 1) 2t 1
Circular permutations:
(a) Arrangements round a circular table :
The number of circular permutations of n different things

where i = - 1 , then p iq is also a root of the quadratic

n
Pn
= (n 1) !, if clockwise and
taken all at a time is
equation.
n
Every equation of n th degree (n 1) has exactly n roots and
anticlockwise orders are taken as different.
if the equation has more than n roots, it is an identity.
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19
(b) Arrangements of beads or flowers (all different) around
a circular necklace or garland:
The number of circular permutations of n different things
1
taken all at a time is (n 1)!, if clockwise and anticlockwise
2

orders are taken to be some.

Sum of numbers :
(a) For given n different digits a1, a2, a3 ......an the sum of the
digits in the unit place of all numbers formed (if numbers are
not repeated) is
(a1 + a2 + a3 + .....+ an) (n 1) !
(b) Sum of the total numbers which can be formed with given
n different digits a1, a2, .........an is
(a1 + a2 + a3 + .........+ an) (n 1)! . (111 ........n times)
Greatest binomial coefficients : In a
binomial expansion binomial coefficients of
the middle terms are called as greatest
binomial coefficients.

BINOMIAL
THEOREM

(a) If n is even : When r =

n
i.e. nCn/2 takes
2

maximum value.
(b) If n is odd : r =
n

i.e.

n -1
n +1
or
2
2

times the single AM between a and b i.e.

C n -1 = C n +1
2

and take maximum value.

(1+ x)n = 1 + nx +
+ ......+

n(n - 1).....(n - r + 1) r
x + .......
r!

(b) (1 x)n = 1 nx +
+ ......+

n(n - 1) 2
x
2!

n(n - 1) 2 n(n - 1)(n - 2) 3

x
x
2!
3!

n(n - 1).....(n - r + 1)
(x)r + .......
r!

Properties related to A.P. :

Common difference of AP is given by
d = S2 2S1 where S2 is sum of first
two
terms and S1 is sum of first term.
SEQUENCE
(ii)
If
for
an AP sum of p terms is q, sum of
AND SERIES
q terms is p, then sum of (p + q) term is
(p + q).
(iii)
In an A.P. the sum of terms
equidistant from the beginning and end is constant and
equal to sum of first and last terms.
(iv) If terms a1, a2, ..., an, an+1, ..., a2n+1 are in A.P., then sum of
these terms will be equal to (2n + 1)an+1.
(v) If for an A.P. sum of p terms is equal to sum of q terms
then sum of (p + q) terms is zero
(i)

Ar

= nA

r =1

a+b
2
The geometric mean (G.M.) of any two positive numbers a

where A =

and b is given by ab i.e., the sequence a, G, b is G.P..

n GM's between two given numbers: If in between two
numbers 'a' and 'b', we have to insert n GM G1,G2,.......... Gn
then a1, G1,G2,........Gn , b will be in G.P.
The series consist of (n +2) terms and the last term is b and
first term is a.
1

arn + 2 1

b n +1
=b r=
a

G1 = ar, G2 = ar2 ........Gn = arn or Gn = b/r

Use of inequalities in progression :
(a) Arithmetic Mean Geometric Mean
(b) Geometric Mean Harmonic Mean :
AGH
An acute angle (say q) between lines
L1 and L2 with slopes m1 and m2 is given by

Important Expansions :
If | x | < 1 and n Q but n N, then
(a)

(vi) Sum of n AM's inserted between a and b is equal to n

STRAIGHT
LINES

tan q =

m2 - m2
, 1 + m1m 2 0
1 + m1m 2

Three points A, B and C are collinear,

if and only if slope of AB = slope of BC.
The equation of the line having normal distance from origin
is p and angle between normal and the positive x-axis is w, is
given by x cos w + y sin w = p.
Co-ordinate of some particular points :
Let A(x1,y1), B(x2,y2) and C(x3,y3) are vertices of any
triangle ABC, then
Incentre : Co-ordinates of incentre
ax1 + bx 2 + cx 3 ay1 + by 2 + cy3
,

a+b+c
a + b + c

where a, b, c are the sides of triangle ABC

Area of a triangle : Let (x1, y1), (x2, y2) and (x3, y3)
respectively be the coordinates of the vertices A, B, C of a
triangle ABC. Then the area of triangle ABC, is
1
[x (y y )+ x2 (y3 y1) + x3 (y1 y2)]
2 1 2 3
Or

x1
1 x
2
=
2 x
3

y1 1
y2 1
y3 1

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20
Condition of Tangency : Circle
x2 + y2 =a2 will touch the line.

CONIC
SECTIONS

y = mx + c if c = a 1 + m 2
Pair of Tangents : From a given point
P( x1,y1) two tangents PQ and PR can be
drawn to the circle S = x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy +
c = 0. Their combined equation is SS1 = T2.
Condition of Orthogonality : If the angle of intersection of
the two circle is a right angle (q = 90) then such circle are
called Orthogonal circle and conditions for their orthogonality
is 2g1g2 + 2f1f2 =c1 +c2
Tangent to the parabola :
Condition of Tangency : If the line y = mx + c touches a
parabola y2 = 4ax then c = a/m
Tangent to the Ellipse:
Condition of tangency and point of contact :
The condition for the line y = mx + c to be a tangent to the
ellipse

x2
a

y2
b

= 1 is that c2 = a2m2 + b2 and the coordinates

a 2m

a 2 m 2 + b2

of the points of contact are

,m

a 2 m 2 + b2
b2

Normal to the ellipse

(i) Point Form : The equation of the normal to the ellipse

a 2 x b2 y
= a2 b2
x1
y1
a 2 b2
(ii) Parametric Form : The equation of the normal to the
x2

y2

= 1 at the point (x1, y1) is

x2

y2

= 1 at the point (a cosq, b sinq) is

a 2 b2
ax secq by cosecq = a2 b2
Tangent to the hyperbola :
Condition for tangency and points of contact : The condition
for the line y = mx + c to be a tangent to the hyperbola
ellipse

x2
a2

y2
b2

= 1 is that c2 = a2m2 b2 and the coordinates of the

point P (x1, y1) to the hyperbola

where T

xx1

yy1

x2
a2

y2
b2

= 1 is T = 0

a2
b2
Equation of normal in different forms :
Point Form : The equation of the normal to the hyperbola
a2

y2
b2

x 2 y2
THREE
the hyperbola 2 - 2 = 1 in terms of slope
a
b
DIMENSIONAL
'm'
is
GEOMETRY
m(a 2 + b 2 )

y = mx

a 2 - b2 m 2
Conditions of Parallelism and Perpendicularity of Two
Lines:
Case-I : When dc's of two lines AB and CD, say l1 , m1, n1
and l2 , m2, n2 are known.
AB | | CD l1 = l2 , m1 = m2, n1 = n2
AB ^ CD l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2 = 0
Case-II : When dr's of two lines AB and CD, say a1, b1 c1 and
a2, b2, c2 are known

a1 b1 c1
AB | | CD a = b = c
2
2
2

AB ^ CD a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 = 0

If l1, m1, n1 and l2, m2, n2 are the direction cosines of two
lines; and q is the acute angle between the two lines; then
cos q = | l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2 |.
Equation of a line through a point (x1, y1, z1) and having
x - x1 y - y1 z - z1
=
=
l
m
n
r
r
r r
r r
Shortest distance between r = a1 + lb1 and r = a 2 + mb2
r r
r
r
(b1 b 2 ).(a 2 - a1 )
r
r
is
| b1 b 2 |

direction cosines l, m, n is

Let the two lines be

x - a1 y - b1 z - g 1
=
=
l1
m1
n1

and

..........(1)

x - a2 y - b2 z - g 2
=
=
l2
m2
n 2 ..........(2)

These lines will coplanar if

a2m
b2
,

points of contact are 2 2

a m - b2
a 2 m 2 - b2
Chord of contact :
The equation of chord of contact of tangent drawn from a

x2

Slope Form : The equation of normal to

= 1 at the point (x1, y1) is

a 2 x b2 y
+
= a2 + b2
x1
y1

a 2 - a1 b2 - b1
l1

l2

g 2 - g1

m1

n1

m2

n2

=0

The plane containing the two lines is

x - a1
l1

l2

y - b1

z - g1

m1

n1

m2

n2

=0

The equation of a plane through a point whose position

r
vector is ar and perpendicular to the vector N is
r r r
(r - a).N = 0

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21
Vector equation of a plane that passes through the
rr
rr
intersection of planes r.n1 = d1 and r.n 2 = d 2 is
r r
r
r.(n1 + ln 2 ) = d1 + ld 2 , where l is any nonzero constant.
r
r
r r
r r
Two planes r = a1 + lb1 and r = a 2 + mb2 are coplanar if
r r
r r
(a 2 - a1 ) + (b1 b2 ) = 0

Differentiation of infinite series:

(i) If y = f (x) + f (x) + f (x) + ........

2y

LIMIT
Existence Of Limit :

DIFFERENTIAL lim f (x) exists lim- f (x) = lim+ f (x) = l

xa
x a
x a
CALCULUS
Where l is called the limit of the function

x a

(ii)

x a

If f(x) g(x) h (x) for every x in the deleted nbd of a

f(x) = l = xlim
h (x) then xlim
g(x) = l
and xlim
a
a
a

(iii)

lim fog (x) = f lim g (x) = f (m) where lim g (x) = m

xa

x a
x a

1
=0
f (x)
CONTINUITYAND DIFFERENTIABILITY OFFUNCTIONS
(iv) If xlim
f(x) = + or , then xlim
a
a

A function f(x) is said to be continuous at a point x = a if

lim f (x) = lim f (x) = f(a)
-

x a +

x a

Discontinuous Functions :
(a) Removable Discontinuity:
A function f is said to have removable discontinuity at x = a
if lim- f (x) = lim+ f (x) but their common value is not
x a
x a
equal to f (a).
(b) Discontinuity of the first kind: A function f is said to
have a discontinuity of the first kind at x = a if lim- f(x) and
x a
lim f (x) both exist but are not equal.
+

x a

(c) Discontinuity of second kind: A function f is said to

have a discontinuity of the second kind at x = a if neither
lim f (x) nor lim f (x) exists.
+

x a

x a

f (x) does not exist, then f is said to have

Similarly, if xlim
a +
discontinuity of the second kind from the right at x = a.
For a function f :
Differentiability Continuity;
Continuity
/ derivability
Not derivibaility
/ discontinuous ;
But discontinuity Non derivability

dy
dy
= f ' (x) +
dx
dx

(ii) If y = f (x)f (x)

f (x)....

f '(x)
dy
=
2y - 1
dx

then y = f (x)y.

\ log y = y log [f(x)]

1 dy y '.f '(x)
dy
=
+ log f (x).
dx
y dx
f (x)

(i) If f(x) g(x) for every x in the deleted

nbd of a, then lim f(x) lim g(x)

y = f (x) + y y2 = f (x) + y

dy
y 2 f '(x)
=
dx f (x)[1 - y log f (x)]

(iii) If y = f (x) +

1
f (x) +

1
1
+
f (x) f (x)

........ then

dy
y f '(x)
=
dx 2y - f (x)
Interpretation of the Derivative : If
y = f (x) then, m= f (a) is the slope of the
DIFFERENTIAtangent line to y = f (x) at x = a
TION AND
Increasing/Decreasing :
APPLICATION
(i) If f (x) > 0 for all x in an interval I then
f (x) is increasing on the interval I.
(ii)
If f (x) < 0 for all x in an
interval I then f (x) is decreasing on the interval I.
(iii) If f (x) = 0 for all x in an interval I then f (x) is constant on
the interval I.
Test of Local Maxima and Minima
First Derivative Test Let f be a differentiable function defined
on an open interval I and c I be any point. f has a local maxima
or a local minima at x = c, f (c) = 0.
dy
= 0 and solve this equation for x. Let c1, c2........cn
dx
be the roots of this.

Put

If dy changes sign from +ve to ve as x increases

dx
through c1 then the function attains a local max at x = c1
dy
changes its sign from ve to +ve as x increases
dx
through c1 then the function attains a local minimum at x = c1

If

dy
does not changes sign as increases through c1
dx
then x = c1 is neither a point of local maxm nor a point of local
minm. In this case x is a point of inflexion.

If

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22
Rate of change of variable :
dy
The value of
at x = x0 i.e.
dx

g(x)

dy
represents the rate
dx
x=x
0

of change of y with respect to x at x = x0

dy dy / dt
dx
=
If x = f(t) and y = y (t), then
, provided that
0
dx dx / dt
dt
Thus, the rate of change of y with respect to x can be
calculated by using the rate of change of y and that of x each
with respect to t.
dx
dy
Length of Subtangent = y
; Subnormal = y
;
dy
dx

dx 2
y 1 +
Length of tangent =
dy

Two standard forms of integral :

[f (x) + f ' (x)

dx = ex f (x) + c

e x [f (x) + f '(x)] dx = e x f (x)dx +

f ' (x) dx

= ex f (x) e x f '(x) dx + e x f' (x)

(on integrating by parts) = ex f (x) + c

Table shows the partial fractions corresponding to different
type of rational functions :
S.
No.

Form of rational
function

Form of partial
fraction

1.

px + q
(x - a) (x - b)

A
B
+
(x - a) (x - b)

2.

3.

px + qx + r
2

(x - a) (x - b)
px 2 + qx + r
2

(x - a) (x + bx + c)

is f (x) dx
0

Area between curves :

b

y = f (x) A = [upper function] - [lower function] dx

1
(x x1)
dy


dx P

INTEGRAL
CALCULUS

dy
y y1 = (x x1)
dx P
The equation of the normal at
P (x1, y1) to the curve y = f (x) is

1 r = n -1 r
1 r =n r
f

f
n r =0 n or n r =1 n , then its limit as n

and x = f (y) A = [right function] - [left function] dy

Equations of tangent and normal : The equation of the

tangent at P (x1, y1) to the curve y = f(x) is

If a series can be put in the form

2
dy
y
1
+

Length of normal =
dx

y y1 = -

d
Leibnitz rule : dx F(t) dt = g (x)F(g(x)) - f (x)F(f (x))
f (x)

A
B
C
+
+
(x - a) (x - a) 2 (x - b)

A
Bx + C
+ 2
(x - a) x + bx + C

If the curves intersect then the area of each portion must be

found individually.
Symmetrical area : If the curve is symmetrical about a
coordinate axis (or a line or origin), then we find the area of
one symmetrical portion and multiply it by the number of
symmetrical portion to get the required area.
Probability of an event: For a finite
sample space with equally likely outcomes
Probability of an event is
PROBABILITY
n(A)
P(A) =
, where n (A) = number of
n(S)
elements in the set A, n (S) = number of
elements in the set S.
Theorem of total probability : Let {E1, E2, ...,En} be a partition
of a sample space and suppose that each of E1, E2, ..., En has
nonzero probability. Let A be any event associated with S,
then P(A) = P(E1) P (A | E1) + P (E2) P (A | E2) + ... + P (En)
P(A | En)
Bayes' theorem: If E1, E2, ..., En are events which constitute
a partition of sample space S, i.e. E1, E2, ..., En are pairwise
disjoint and E1 E2 ... En = S and A be any event with
nonzero probability, then
P (E i | A) =

P(E i ) P (A | E i )
n

P(E j ) P(A | E j )
j=1

Let X be a random variable whose possible values x 1, x2, x3,

..., xn occur with probabilities p1, p2, p3, ... pn respectively.
n

The mean of X, denoted by , is the number x i pi

i =1

The mean of a random variable X is also called the

expectation of X, denoted by E (X).

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23
Trials of a random experiment are called Bernoulli trials, if
they satisfy the following conditions :
(a) There should be a finite number of trials. (b) The trials
should be independent. (c) Each trial has exactly two
outcomes : success or failure. (d) The probability of success
remains the same in each trial.
For Binomial distribution B (n, p),
P (X = x) = nCx qnx px, x = 0, 1,..., n (q = 1 p)
Properties of adjoint matrix : If A, B
are square matrices of order n and In is
corresponding unit matrix, then
(i) A (adj. A) = | A | In = (adj A) A
MATRICES
(ii) | adj A | = | A |n1 (Thus A (adj A) is
always a scalar matrix)
(iii) adj (adj A) = | A |n2 A
(iv) | adj (adj A) | = | A |(n -1)

1
= | A |1
|A|

(vii) If A = diag (a1,a2.....,an), then

A1 = diag (a11, a21, .........an1)
(viii) A is symmetric matrix A1 is symmetric matrix.

f (x) g(x)
Differentiation of a matrix : If A =
then
h(x) l(x)
dA f '(x) g '(x)
=
is a differentiation of Matrix A.
dx h '(x) l '(x)
Properties of Transpose
(i) (AT)T = A
(ii) (A B)T = AT BT
T
T
T
(iii)(AB) = B A
(iv) (kA)T = k(A)T
T
(v) I = I
(vi) tr (A) = tr (A)T
T
(vii) (A1A2A3.....An1 An) = AnT An1T.....A3TA2TA1T
Rank of a Matrix : A number r is said to be the rank of a
m n matrix A if
(a) Every square sub matrix of order (r + 1) or more is singular
and (b) There exists at least one square submatrix of order r
which is non-singular.
Thus, the rank of matrix is the order of the highest order
non-singular sub matrix.

x
y
z
1
D1
D2
=
=
=
D1 D 2 D 3 D i. e. x = D , y = D ,

DETERMINANTS

z=
Case-I : If D 0

D3
D

D3
D1
D2
, y=
,z=
D
D
D
\ The system is consistent and has unique solutions.
Case-II if D = 0 and
(i) If at least one of D1, D2, D3 is not zero then the system
of equations a inconsistent i.e. has no solution.
(ii) If d1 = d2 = d3 = 0 or D1, D2, D3 are all zero then the
system of equations has infinitely many solutions.

Then x =

(v) adj (AT) = (adj A)T

(vi) adj (AB) = (adj B) (adj A)
(vii) adj (Am) = (adj A)m, m N
(viii) adj (kA) = kn1 (adj. A), k R
(ix) adj (In) = In
Properties of Inverse Matrix : Let A and B are two invertible
matrices of the same order, then
(i) (AT)1 = (A1)T
(ii) (AB)1 = B1A1
(iii) (Ak)1 = (A1)k, k N
(iv) adj (A1) = (adj A)1
(v) (A1)1 = A
(vi) | A1 | =

Using Crammer's rule of determinant

we get

VECTOR
ALGEBRA

r
r
r
Given vectors x1 a + y1 b + z1 c ,
r
r
r
r
r
r
x 2 a + y2 b + z 2 c , x 3 a + y3 b + z3 c , where
r r r
a, b, c are non-coplanar vectors, will be
x1
x2
coplanar if and only if
x3

y1
y2
y3

z1
z2
=0
z3

Scalar triple product :

r
r
(a) If a = a1i + a 2 j + a 3k , b = b1i + b 2 j + b3 k and
r
c = c1i + c 2 j + c3 k then
a1 a 2
r r r r rr
(a b).c = [a b c] = b1 b 2
c1

c2

a3
b3
c3

(b) [a b c] = volume of the parallelopiped whose

r r r
coterminous edges are formed by a, b, c
rrr
r r r
(c) a, b, c are coplanar if and only if [a b c] = 0
r r r r
(d) Four points A, B, C, D with position vectors a, b, c, d
respectively are coplanar if and only if
uuur uuur uuur
[AB AC AD] = 0 i.e. if and only if
r r r r r r
[b - a c - a d - a] = 0
(e) Volume of a tetrahedron with three coterminous edges
r r r 1 r r r
a , b, c = [ a b c]
6
(f) Volume of prism on a triangular base with three
r r r 1 r r r
coterminous edges a , b, c = [ a b c]
2
Lagrange's identity :
r r urr
r r r r
rr rr
rr rr
a.c a.d
(a b).( c d) = r r r r = (a.c)(b.d) - (a.d)(b.c)
b.c b.d

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24

r r r
Reciprocal system of vectors : If a, b, c be any three non
coplanar vectors so that
r r r
rrr
[a b c] 0 then the three vectors a ' b 'c ' defined by the
r r
r r
r r
r
bc r
ca r
ab
equations a ' = r r r , b ' = r r r , c ' = r r r are called
[a b c]
[a b c]
[a b c]
r r r
the reciprocal system of vectors to the given vectors a, b, c .
Relation between A.M., G.M. and H.M.
A.M. G.M. H.M.
Equality sign holds only when all the
observations in the series are same.
STATISTICS
Relationship between mean, mode and
median :
(i) In symmetrical distribution
Mean = Mode = Median
(ii) In skew (moderately symmetrical) distribution
Mode = 3 median 2 mean
Mean deviation for ungrouped data

| xi - x | ,
M.D.(x) =
M.D.(x) =

fi | x i - x | ,

M.D.(M) =

dy =

dy
= f (x) g(y)
dx

dy

fi | xi - M | ,

1
fi x i2 - ( fi xi )2
N

s
100, x 0
x
For series with equal means, the series with lesser standard
deviation is more consistent or less scattered.
Methods of solving a first order first
degree differential equation :
(a) Differential equation of the form

DIFFERENTIAL dy = f (x)
dx
EQUATIONS
dy
= f (x) dy = f (x) dx
dx

f (x) dx + c

1 dv

dv
= dx
a + b f (v)

a + b f (v) = dx
dv

dy f (x, y)
can be put in the form dx = g (x, y) where f (x ,y) and g

1
fi (xi - x)2
N

Coefficient of variation (C.V.) =

(d) Differential Equation of homogeneous type :

An equation in x and y is said to be homogeneous if it

Variance and standard deviation of a continuous frequency

distribution
1
fi (xi - x)2 , s =
n

dy
=
g (y)

ax + by + c = v and dx = b dx - a

(x ,y) are both homogeneous functions of the same

degree in x & y .
So to solve the homogeneous differential equation
dy f (x, y)
dy
dV
=
=v+x
dx g (x, y) , substitute y = vx and so dx
dx

Thus

Variance and standard deviation of a discrete frequency

distribution

s2 =

dy
= f (ax + by + c) :
dx
To solve this type of differential equations, we put

1
(xi - x)2
n

1
s = fi (x i - x) 2 , s =
n

dy
= f (x) g(y)
dx

(c) Differential equation of the form of

Variance and standard deviation for ungrouped data

f (x) dx + c

(b) Differential equation of the form

where N = fi

1
s 2 = (xi - x)2 , s =
n

f (x) dx + c or y =

So solution is by integrating

| xi - M |
M.D.(M) =

n
Mean deviation for grouped data

Integrating both sides we obtain

v+x

dv
dx
dv
= f (v)
=
dx
x f (v) - v

Therefore solution is

dx
=
x

dv
+c
f (v) - v

Linear differential equations :

dy
+ Py = Q
dx

....... (1)

Where P and Q are either constants or functions of x.

Multiplying both sides of (1) by e P dx , we get
dy

P dx
+ Py = Q e
dx

On integrating both sides with respect to x we get

e

P dx

P dx
P dx
y e
= Q e
+c

which is the required solution, where c is the constant and

e

P dx

is called the integration factor..

P dx
P dx
y e
= Q e
+c

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