the World

Scholar’s Cup®
 MATH
®
CRAM KIT
I. WHAT IS A CRAM KIT?................................................................. 2
II. CRAMMING FOR SUCCESS……………………………………………… 2
III. GENERAL MATH……………………………………................................. 3
IV. ALGEBRA……………….……………....................................................... 5
V. GEOMETRY……………...…..………......................................................15
VI. TRIGONOMETRY……………………................................................... 22
VII. CALCULUS…......................................................................................26
VIII. CRUNCH KIT……………..................................................................... 33
IX. ABOUT THE AUTHOR………………………………………………………. 35

BY
STEVEN ZHU
HARVARD UNIVERSITY
FRISCO HIGH SCHOOL

EDITED BY
DEAN SCHAFFER SOPHY LEE
STANFORD UNIVERSITY HARVARD UNIVERSITY
TAFT HIGH SCHOOL PEARLAND HIGH SCHOOL

DEDICATED TO PYTHAGORAS,
FOR BEING SUCH A HOMIE.

© 2009 DEMIDEC

DemiDec, The World Scholar’s Cup, Power Guide, and Cram Kit are registered trademarks of the DemiDec Corporation.
Academic Decathlon and USAD are registered trademarks of the United States Academic Decathlon Association.
DemiDec is not affiliated with the United States Academic Decathlon.
 Math Cram Kit | 2

WHAT IS A CRAM KIT?

A Word from the Editor
COMPETITION IS NEARING… STRUCTURE OF A CRAM KIT
The handful of days before competition can be the most The main body of the Cram Kit is filled with charts and
overwhelming. You don’t have enough time to review diagrams for efficient studying. You’ll also find helpful
everything, so a strategic allocation of your resources is quizzes to reinforce the information as you review.
crucial. Cram Kits are designed with one goal in mind-----
The Crunch Kit presents the most important formulas
to provide you with the most testable and most easily
that you need to know for the math test. Realize,
forgotten facts.
however, that knowing when to apply each formula is
Math. The very word strikes fear into the hearts of half the battle. Plugging in the numbers is often the
many. But don’t be discouraged-----math, like any other easiest step.
event, can be mastered through studying, and perhaps
Last, but not least, remember to relax. In the final
more than any other event, through test-taking.
moments before you open your test booklet, confidence
Sounds simple, right? Unfortunately, Decathlon math is is your most important asset.
so broad that no guide could possibly hope to cover all
Good luck and happy cramming!
of nooks and crannies. This Cram Kit, then, is meant as
a quick review tool to cover last-minute formulas and to
correct minor misconceptions that may cost you points
in competition. I advise you to go through this guide
with textbooks nearby. Doing example problems is the Sophy Lee
best way to reinforce the concepts that you learn.

CRAMMING FOR SUCCESS

A Word from the Author
PIECES OF THE MATH PIE

General Math
10% 10%
Algebra
20%
Geometry
30%
Trigonometry

30% Differential
Calculus

TIME IS TICKING!
If you have one day left, read the whole guide.
*
If you have one hour left, read the Crunch Kit.
*
If you have one minute left, scan the List of Lists
*
If you have one second left, good luck.
 Math Cram Kit | 3

GENERAL MATH
The Deceptively Simple and the Utterly Confusing

INTEGERS, FRACTIONS, DECIMALS,

BASIC COUNTING TECHNIQUES
AND PERCENTS

FRACTIONS MULTIPLICATION PRINCIPLE

 Fractions must have a common denominator  Helps us find the total number of possibilities when
before we can add or subtract them we are choosing one item from each of several
groups
 When multiplying fractions, try to cancel out
common factors  Multiply the number of choices from each group
 When dividing fractions, flip over the second  If Sally can choose an outfit from 4 pairs of jeans,
fraction and multiply it by the first one 5 shirts, and 3 pairs of shoes, she has 4 x 5 x 3 =
  60 outfit choices
Step 1. Turn the second fraction upside-down
FACTORIALS, PERMUTATIONS, AND COMBINATIONS
(the reciprocal):
1 4 FACTORIALS
4   1  ‘‘!’’ denotes a factorial
   (50!  50 x 49 x 48... x 2 x 1)
Step 2. Multiply the first fraction by the reciprocal of the
second: PERMUTATIONS
1 4 1 × 4  4
×  =  =   Arrangements of a set of objects in which order
2 1 2 × 1  2 matters
Step 3. Simplify the fraction: 2  When arranging r objects out of a set of n total
n!
objects, the number of permutations is nPr 
(n-r)!
 A club of 12 people wants to elect a president, a
PERCENTAGES
vice-president, and a treasurer. How many
 1% represents one in 100 different results can this election have?
 Divide a percentage by 100 to convert it to a  The three positions are different, so order matters
decimal 12! 12!
 12 P3    12 x 11 x 10  1320
 Multiply a decimal by 100 to convert it t (n-3)! 9!
25 20
$40.00 x (1- ) x (1- )  $24 o a percentage COMBINATIONS
100 100
x  Arrangements of a set of objects in which order does
 Formula for sale prices: (1- )(originalprice) NOT matter
100
 When arranging r objects out of a set of n total
 Successive discounts do NOT have the same objects, the number of combinations is
effect as a cumulative discount n!
n Cr 
 If more than one discount applies to an item, keep (r!)(n-r)!
multiplying the right side of the above formula by
 A club of 12 people wants to elect three people to
discount
(1- ) a committee. How many different results can this
100 election have?
 A shirt originally priced $40.00 is marked  The three seats on the committee are the same,
down by 25%. Joe uses a 20%-off coupon to so order does not matter
purchase the shirt. How much does he have
12! 12! 12 x 11x 10
 12 C3     220
to pay for the shirt before tax?
3!(12-3)! 3!9! 3x2x1

TRY THIS MNEMONIC!
 Permutations = Prizes (order matters)
 Combinations = Committees (order doesn’t matter)
 Math Cram Kit | 4

GENERAL MATH
More Counting; Vegas
BASIC COUNTING TECHNIQUES (PT. 2) PROBABILITY OF EQUALLY LIKELY EVENTS

ARRANGEMENT RULES PROBABILITY

ARRANGEMENT PRINCIPLE The chance that an event will happen

 When a set has two or more identical objects, we RULES

need to take away the redundant arrangements  The probability that event A happens is P(A)
 csc 6x  2   8
caused by the identical objects
 To arrange the letters in CALIFORNIA, we
need to find the number of permutations and  The probability that independent, unrelated events A
divide by the factorials of the identical letters and B will occur is P(A+B) = P(A) x P(B)
 CALIFORNIA has two A’s and two I’s  If events A and B are not mutually exclusive, the
 possible arrangements probability of one or the other occurring is
P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) --- P(A+B)
ARRANGING OBJECTS IN CIRCLES USEFUL FACTS
 When we arrange objects in circles, we need to  A standard poker deck has 52 cards
make sure that each arrangement represents a  Such a deck has 4 suits (2 red and 2 black) of 13
distinct ordering of objects, not a mere rotation of cards each
another arrangement
 A deck’s face cards are the Jack, Queen, and King of
h each suit (12 face cards total in a standard poker
 Number of possible circular arrangements =
k deck)
 We have to keep one object in place to mark the  A standard die has 6 faces
‘‘beginning’’ of the arrangements
EXAMPLES
 How many different ways can four people sit
around a circular table?  What is the probability of rolling a sum of 9 with two
dice?
 Keep one person in place and rearrange the
other three  We have 4 outcomes with a sum of 9 (3-6, 6-3,
4-5, 5-4)
5
   The total possible number of outcomes is 6 x 6 =
3 36
 When arranging keys on a keychain, we must  The probability of rolling a sum of 9 is
divide the result by 2 since we can flip the Asin(kx  h)  b or Acos(kx  h)  b
keychain over, which makes arrangements that
are mirror images of each other identical  What is the probability of drawing a red Queen from
 In how many different ways can 4 keys be a standard deck of cards?
arranged on a keychain?  A 52-card deck has four Queens, two of which
5 are red
 2 1
3  P(Qr )  
52 26
CALCULATOR USE  What is the probability of a coin landing heads four
tosses in a row?
When dealing with permutations and combinations,
use the built-in functions on your scientific or 1
 For each toss, the chance of landing heads is
graphing calculator to avoid typing in the formulas. 2
Master these (and other calculator techniques)  The tosses are independent events, since each
before the test! toss does not affect the result of any other toss
4
 1 1
 P(4H)  P(H)  P(H)  P(H)  P(H)    
 2  16
 Math Cram Kit | 5

ALGEBRA
Separate but Equal
SOLVING POLYNOMIAL EQUATIONS SOLVING POLYNOMIAL EQUATIONS (LINEAR)
(THE BASICS)

EQUATION LINEAR POLYNOMIALS

A mathematical statement that two expressions are Equations that have a degree of 1 and straight-line graphs
equal
 Examples SLOPE-INTERCEPT FORM
 3 + 7 = 14 --- 4  y = mx + b
 4x + 5 = 2y  m is slope
y2  y 1
POLYNOMIAL  m , given points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2)
x2  x 1
 An expression containing variables  b is the y-intercept
2
 5x  x  23
4
 b is the value of y when the line crosses the y-
9 axis, when x = 0
 The variables cannot be contained in fraction
denominators POINT-SLOPE FORM
 The variables also cannot be contained in  y  y 1  m(x  x1 )
exponents
 Polynomials with only one term are called  m is slope
monomials  (x1, y1) is a given point
 12x2y is an example of a monomial
STANDARD FORM
 Even though the expression has two variables,
x and y, the variables are contained in one  Ax  By  C
term A
  is slope
 The degree or order of a polynomial is the same B
as the degree of the term with the highest sum of
C
exponents  (0, ) is the y-intercept
4 2 B
 Consider 4xyz + 3x y --- 81z
 4xyz has a degree of 1 + 1 + 1 = 3
4 2
 3x y has a degree of 4 + 2 = 6
 -81z has a degree of 1
4 2 th
 Thus, 4xyz + 3x y --- 81z is a 6 order
polynomial
 The leading coefficient of a polynomial is the
coefficient of the term with the highest degree
3 2
 The leading coefficient of 7x --- 9x + 15x - 64
is -9
 Math Cram Kit | 6

ALGEBRA
The Root of the Problem
SOLVING POLYNOMIAL EQUATIONS SOLVING POLYNOMIAL EQUATIONS
(QUADRATIC AND HIGHER POWERS) (SPECIAL THEOREMS)

QUADRATIC EQUATIONS REMAINDER AND FACTOR THEOREMS

Equations that have a degree of 2  Remainder Theorem: To find the remainder when a
polynomial is divided by (x --- c), plug c into the
 The roots of a quadratic equation are the values polynomial
of x for which y = 0 (where the graph intersects 4
the x-axis)  What is the remainder when x --- 5x + 27 is
divided by x + 3?
 Roots are also called zeroes or x-intercepts
2  In this example, c = ---3, as x + 3 = x --- (---3)
 If the equation is in the form y = Ax + Bx + C, we 4
 The remainder is (---3) --- 5(---3) + 27 = 123
can use the quadratic formula to find the roots
 Factor Theorem: If dividing a polynomial by (x --- c)
B  B2  4AC yields a remainder of 0, then (x --- c) is a factor of the
 Quadratic formula: x 
2A polynomial
3 2
 The part of the2 quadratic formula under the  The remainder when x --- 5x --- x + 5 is divided by
3 2
radical sign, B --- 4AC, is called the discriminant (x --- 5) is (5) --- 5(5) + 5 = 0
3 2
 If the discriminant is positive, then the  Thus, (x --- 5) is a factor of x --- 5x --- x + 5
equation has two real roots (graph crosses
the x-axis twice)
 If the discriminant is 0, then the equation has
ROOT THEOREMS
one real root (graph touches the x-axis once)
 If the discriminant is negative, then the  Rational Roots Theorem: To find all of the possible
equation has no real roots (graph does not rational roots of a polynomial, divide all the factors of
intersect the x-axis) the constant by all the factors of the leading
coefficient
 Sometimes we can solve quadratic polynomials 2 3
 Find all possible rational roots of 3x --- 6 + 5x +
by factoring
2x
 Think of factoring as reverse distribution  The constant is ---6, and the leading coefficient is
 4x2  4x  3  0 5 because the third term has the highest degree
 (2x  3)(2x  1)  0  Now we list all the positive and negative factors
of -6 over all of the positive and negative factors
 If either factor equals 0, the whole expression
of 5
equals 0
 1 2 3 6 1 2 3 6
Thus, we will set both factors equal to 0 to   , , , , , , ,
find the roots 1 1 1 1 5 5 5 5
3  The list includes all possible rational roots, but
 2x  3  0  x  none of them has to be a root of the polynomial
2
2
1  Given a polynomial in the form Ax + Bx + C, two
 2x  1  0  x   formulas exist for finding the sum and the product of
2 the roots
B
1. Sum of roots formula: 
HIGHER ORDER EQUATIONS A
Equations that have a degree higher than 2 2. Product of roots formula:
C
 Some cubic polynomials are factorable  for odd  numberedpolynomials
A
 Sum of cubes formula: C
3 3 2 2
x + y = (x + y)(x --- xy + y ) and for even  numberedpolynomials
A
 Difference
3 3
of cubes formula:
2 2
x --- y = (x --- y)(x + xy + y )
 Math Cram Kit | 7

ALGEBRA
More or Less
SOLVING INEQUALITIES

INEQUALITY ABSOLUTE VALUE INEQUALITIES

A mathematical statement that two expressions  A number’s absolute value is its distance from 0 on a
are not equal number line

 As with solving an equation, solve an inequality  Absolute value is always non-negative (by definition)
by isolating the variable  When an inequality contains an absolute value, we
have to solve two inequalities based on the original
 When multiplying or dividing by a negative term,
flip the sign of the inequality  Consider 2x --- 3 < 5
 The first inequality is the same as the original, but
LINEAR INEQUALITY without the absolute value signs

 An inequality with a degree of 1  2x  3  5

 18 < ---5x --- 7  2x  8
 25 < ---5x  x4
 5>x  For the second inequality, we multiply the right
side by -1 and flip the sign of the inequality
QUADRATIC INEQUALITY  2x  3  5
 An inequality with a degree of 2  2x  2
 2x  3x  8  43
2
 x  1
 2x  3x  35  0
2
 Thus, 2x --- 3 < 5 holds true when x < 4 and x > ---1
 (2x  7)(x  5)  0
 At this point, we will plot the roots on a
number line, dividing it into three regions
7
-5
2

 We will pick a value in each of the three

regions to test the inequality in each region
 We will use -6, 0, and 4
 Plugging -6 and 4 into the polynomial satisfy
the inequality, so we will place checks in
those regions
 Plugging 0 into the polynomial makes the
inequality false, so we will place an ‘‘x’’ in that
region
7
–5  
2

7
 The inequality is true when x < ---5 or x >
2
 Math Cram Kit | 8

ALGEBRA
Putting the Fun in Function!
FUNCTIONS (BASICS) FUNCTIONS (COMPOSITE AND INVERSE)

WHAT IS A FUNCTION? TYPES OF FUNCTIONS (PART 1)

A relationship between an independent variable x and
a dependent variable y
 f(x) denotes a function
 Functions can only have one value of y for each
value of x
 Vertical-line test: If you can place a vertical line at
every x-value of an equation’s graph, and the line
crosses the graph at no more than one point, then
the equation is a function
 The following graph is not a function because
a vertical line would cross the graph at two
points whenever x > 0
COMPOSITE FUNCTION
 Combines two or more functions together
 For two functions f(x) and g(x), a possible composite
function is f(g(x)) or, written in another form,
(f  g)(x)
 In function (f  g)(x) , plug x into g(x) and plug that
result into f(x)
2
 Find a(b(x)) if a(x) = 3x , b(x) = 5x + 7, and x = 2
 b(2) = 5(2) + 7 = 17
2
 a(b(2)) = a(17) = 3(17) = 867
INVERSE FUNCTIONS
-1
 To find the inverse function f (x) of a function f(x),
replace f(x) with y and switch the positions of x and y
 The inverse of y = 3x +2 is x = 3y + 2
 Because we switch the x’s and the y’s, the graphs of
inverse functions are mirror images of the original
graphs across the line y = x

 
DOMAIN AND RANGE
 The domain of a function consists of all the x-
values that have corresponding y-values
1
 Find the domain of f(x) 
x
 At x = 0, the function is undefined (no
corresponding y-value), so the domain is all
real numbers except 0
 The range of a function consists of all its possible
y-values
 The following graph has a range of -1 to 1

 
 

 
 Math Cram Kit | 9

ALGEBRA
Functions: The Logarithm Strikes Back (With Rational Exponential Force)
FUNCTIONS FUNCTIONS
(RATIONAL, EXPONENTIAL, LOGARITHMIC) (OPERATIONS ON LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS)

TYPES OF FUNCTIONS (PART 2) WORKING WITH LOGS

RATIONAL FUNCTIONS ADDITION
 Functions in which variables are in the  When adding two logarithms of the same base, we
denominators of fractions can combine them into one logarithm with the
arguments multiplied together
 Fractions are ratios, hence, rational functions
 log 12 (x  1)  log 12 (x  3)  log 12 ((x  1)(x  3))
5x4  41
 is a rational function
2x3
SUBTRACTION
EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS  When subtracting two logarithms of the same base,
we can combine them into one logarithm with the
 Functions in which the independent variable x is first argument divided by the second
in an exponent
x  x1 
 3 is an exponential function  log 12 (x  1)  log 12 (x  3)  log 12  
x  x3 
 A common exponential function is e
 e is a constant like  and can be found on a
scientific or graphing calculator OTHER CASES

 e = 2.71828…  When the entire argument of a logarithm has an

exponent, we can turn the exponent into a coefficient
of the logarithm
LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS
 log((5x2  9)3 )  3log(5x2  9)
 Functions in which the independent variable x is
in the argument of a logarithm  We can pull the 3 out because it applies to the
whole argument
 Logarithms are the reverse of exponents
 We cannot pull the 2 out because it only applies
 Logarithms follow the form logbase (argument) =
exponent to one term in the argument
exponent, such that base = argument
nd
 Log7(49) = 2 because 49 is 7 to the 2
power REVERSAL

 When the logarithm does not have a base written,
assume that the base is 10
3
 Log(1000) = 3, since 10 = 1000
 Logs with a base of e are called natural logarithms
 Natural logarithms are denoted ln(x)
 Logarithms and exponential expressions cancel
each other out to yield the exponent when the
bases are the same
 Ln(e13 )  13
 Log 4 (4 )  x
x
 These three rules can also be used in reverse
 A logarithm whose argument is a product can be split
into the sum of two logarithms whose arguments are
that product’s factors
 Log12((x --- 5)(x + 9)) = Log12(x --- 5) + Log12(x + 9)
 A logarithm with one argument divided by another
can be split into the difference of two logarithms,
such that the divisor becomes the argument of the
subtracted logarithm
 x5 
 log    log 12 (x  5)  log 12 (x  9)
 x9
 A coefficient of a logarithm can become the exponent
of the logarithm’s entire argument
2 2 3
 3(Log(5x + 9)) = Log((5x + 9) )
 Math Cram Kit | 10

ALGEBRA
Use Your Imagination; Walk the Line
COMPLEX NUMBERS READING GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS (LINEAR)

WHAT IS A COMPLEX NUMBER? LINEAR FUNCTIONS

Any number in the form a + bi
 a and b are real numbers
 i is an imaginary number such that i  1

OPERATIONS WITH COMPLEX NUMBERS

 We can simplify higher powers of i
47
 Find i
2
 We know that i = ---1
47 46
 i is the same as (i )(i)
46 2 23
 (i )(i) = (i ) (i)
47 23
 Thus, i = (---1) (i)
47
 i = ---1

COMPLEX CONJUGATES
 Pairs of complex numbers in forms a + bi and a ---  
bi
 Linear functions are always straight lines
 A fraction with an imaginary number in the  First, we find the y-intercept of the function
denominator is simplified by multiplying its
numerator and denominator by the complex  The line above crosses the y-axis at y = 3
conjugate of the denominator  In slope-intercept form, which is y = mx + b, the y-
1 i intercept is b, so b = 3
 Simplify
2  3i  To find m, the slope, we need two points from the
graph
1  i 2  3i 2  3i  2i  3 1  5i
     We already know that the y-intercept is (0,3)
2  3i 2  3i 4  6i  6i  9 13
 We can also read the x-intercept from the graph,
 Notice that multiplying by the complex which is (---6,0)
conjugate removes i from the denominator
y2  y 1
 Using the formula for slope, m  , we find
COMPLEX QUADRATIC ROOTS x2  x1
2 0  3 3 1
 In a quadratic equation whose discriminant (b --- that the slope is m   
4ac) is negative, the roots are complex numbers 6  0 6 2
 If the roots are complex numbers, they will be 1
 Therefore, the graph above represents y  x  3
complex conjugates 2
 A polynomial with the root 35 + 9i must also
have the root 35 --- 9i
 Math Cram Kit | 11

ALGEBRA
Read Between the Curves
READING GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS READING GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS (HIGHER
(QUADRATIC) ORDER)

QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS HIGHER ORDER EQUATIONS

 If the degree of the equation is even, the graph will
start and end on the same side of the y-axis
1
 The following graph represents y  x6  x3 ,
4
which starts and ends on the positive side of the
y-axis

 
 Quadratic functions are always U-shaped or n-
shaped
 The graphs of quadratic equations are called
parabolas
 The standard form for the equation of a parabola
is  
2
y = A(x --- h) + k
 The point (h,k) is the vertex-----the turning point of  If the degree of the equation is odd, the graph will
the curve start and end on opposite sides of the y-axis
7 4
 In the graph above, the vertex is (---2,1)  The following graph represents y = ---x + x ,
which starts on the positive side of the y-axis and
 We can plug points into the standard form for the ends on the negative side
equation of a parabola to obtain the equation of
the graph
 We can plug the vertex of the graph above to
get
2
y = A(x --- (---2)) + 1, which becomes
2
y = A(x + 2)) + 1
 We still need to find A by plugging in a point
for (x,y)
 We can read from the graph the point (0,---1)
 1  A(0  2)2  1
2
 A
4
1
 A
2
 Thus, the equation of the graph above is  
1
y   (x  2)2  1
2
 Math Cram Kit | 12

ALGEBRA
Flipped Functions and Arithmetic Arrangements
READING GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS SEQUENCES, SERIES, AND MEANS
(EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC) (ARITHMETIC)

EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS ARITHMETIC SEQUENCE

 Exponential functions create graphs with Pattern of numbers that has a common difference d
horizontal asymptotes  1, 8, 15, 22, 29
 Asymptotes are lines at which the x or y value of  Common difference is 7 because each term is 7
a function approaches infinity or negative infinity more than the previous one
(but never reaches it)
x  Formula to find the nth term of an arithmetic
 The following graph represents y = e , which has a sequence: nth term = first term + d(n --- 1)
horizontal asymptote at y = 0 th
 Find the 9 term of the sequence: 68, 64, 60,
 As x approaches negative infinity, y will 56…
approach 0 but will never reach it
 n = 9 and d = ---4 (---4 = 64 --- 68 = 60 --- 64, and so
on)
th
 9 term = 68 + (---4)(9 --- 1) = 68 --- 32 = 36
ARITHMETIC SERIES
The sum of an arithmetic sequence
 Formula to find the sum of the first n terms:
(first term  last term)
n
2
 Formula to find n, the number of terms in the series:
(last term  first term)
n 1
d
 Find the sum of the arithmetic progression: 17,
  20, 23…44, 47, 50
LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS  d = 3, the last term is 50, and the first term is 17
 Logarithmic functions create graphs with vertical (50  17)
 n  1  12
asymptotes 3
 The following graph represents y = ln(x), which (17  50)
has a vertical asymptote at x = 0  Now we can find the sum  12   402
2
As x approaches 0, y approaches negative
infinity  Summation problems may use sigma () notation
5
  k = the sum of the numbers 1 through 5
k 1

 The index k starts at 1, the lower bound, and

increases by 1 for each term until it reaches 5
 The expression on the right side of the sigma sign
(here, k) represents an element of the series
 The expression above is the same as 1+2+3+4+5
ARITHMETIC MEAN
The average of two or more numbers
 The arithmetic mean of 1, 4, 7, 10, and 13 is
1  4  7  10  13
7
5
 Math Cram Kit | 13

ALGEBRA
Rational Commonists
SEQUENCES, SERIES, AND MEANS SEQUENCES, SERIES, AND MEANS
(GEOMETRIC) (GEOMETRIC AND INFINITE)

GEOMETRIC SEQUENCE GEOMETRIC MEAN

Pattern of numbers with a common ratio r The square root of the product of two terms
 2, 6, 18, 54… k 1
10
3
 The common ratio is 3 because each term is 3  Find 
k 1
(4)  
2
times the previous one
 What is the geometric mean of 4 and 64?
 Formula to find the nth term of a geometric
sequence: nth term  (first term)rn1  4  64  16

th
What is the 8 term of the sequence that  4, 16, and 64 form a geometric series with a
begins: 625, 125, 25, 5…? common ratio of 4
1
 The common ratio is
5
7
 1  1  1 INFINITE SERIES
 8th term  (625)    (625)   
5  78125  125 The sum of a sequence with an infinite number of terms
 For an infinite series to be solvable, r has to be less
than 1
GEOMETRIC SERIES
 The infinite series of the sequence that begins
The sum of a geometric sequence 1 1 1
with 2,1,  , ,  ... will have a value because
 Formula to find the sum of the first n terms of a 2 4 8
(first term)(1  rn ) 1
each term is  times the previous one
geometric sequence:
1r 2
k 1  The terms will eventually be so close to 0 that
10
3
 Find 
k 1
(4)  
2
adding them to the series does not change the
sum
 We plug in k  1 to find the first term:  These types of series are said to converge, or reach a
1 1 definite sum
3
(4)   4
2  If r is 1 or higher, the sequence will keep generating
larger numbers, and the series will have an indefinite
 We’re trying to find the sum of the terms value
from  The series of the sequence that begins with ---2, 4,
k =1 to k = 10, so n = 10 ---8, 16, ---32… does not have a value because every
 The ratio that we multiply to find each term is -2 times the previous one
3 3  The terms will keep increasing, and the sum will
consecutive term is , so r =
2 2 never stay at a definite number
  3 10   These types of series are said to diverge, or not reach
(4)  1     a definite sum
 2 
 Thus, the sum is    453.32
3
1
2
 Math Cram Kit | 14

ALGEBRA
Can You See the Pattern?
SEQUENCES, SERIES, AND MEANS (GRAPHING) SEQUENCES, SERIES, AND MEANS (GRAPHING)

Arithmetic Sequence Geometric Sequence

20 300
250
15
200
10 150
100
5
50
0 0
0 5 10 0 2 4 6 8 10

 In arithmetic sequences, the terms have equal  In the above geometric sequence, each term is twice
vertical distances between them because the as large the previous one
common difference d never changes

Arithmetic Series Geometric Series

80 5
70
60 4
50 3
40
30 2
20 1
10
0 0
0 5 10 0 50 100 150
 

 In an arithmetic series, the sums do not have  In the above geometric series, the sum approaches 4
equal vertical distances between them because as n extends to infinity, meaning that the series
each term added is larger than the previous term converges
 In a diverging series, the sum would approach infinity
 Math Cram Kit | 15

GEOMETRY
Triangles with Little Squares in the Corner
RIGHT TRIANGLES SPECIAL RIGHT TRIANGLES

PYTHAGOREAN THEOREM 45-45-90 TRIANGLES

c  45
a  s 2
s
b 
 
45
 A right triangle contains a right angle (90°)
s 
 The two sides adjacent to the right angle are  
called legs
 45-45-90 triangles are right triangles with legs of
 In the above diagram, a and b are legs equal length
 The hypotenuse is the side opposite the right
 They are also called right isosceles triangles
angle
 In the above diagram, c is the hypotenuse  The hypotenuse is equal to 2 times a side
 The Pythagorean theorem states a relationship
between the three sides
 a2  b2  c2 30-60-90 TRIANGLES
 The theorem can also give us information about
other types of triangles in which c is the longest
60
side
2s 
 If a2  b2  c2 , then the triangle is acute (all s
angles are less than 90°)
 If a2  b2  c2 , then the triangle is obtuse (one 30
angle is greater than 90°) s 3
 A Pythagorean triple is a set of three integers that  
fit the theorem
 The shorter leg is opposite the 30° angle
 3, 4, 5
 5, 12, 13
 The hypotenuse is twice the length of the shorter leg

 7, 24, 25  The longer leg, which is opposite the 60 angle, is
 8, 15, 17 3 times the shorter leg
 9, 40, 41
 Any multiple of a Pythagorean triple will also be a
Pythagorean triple
 6, 8, 10
 10, 24, 26
 Math Cram Kit | 16

GEOMETRY
Point-Line Coordination
COORDINATE GEOMETRY (POINTS) COORDINATE GEOMETRY (LINES)

MIDPOINT PARALLEL AND PERPENDICULAR LINES

The point that is exactly in the middle of two other  Two lines are parallel if they have the same slope
points
 A line that crosses two parallel lines is called a
 Given two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2), their transversal
midpoint is the average of their coordinates:
 x 1  x2 y 1  y2 
 , 
 2 2  8
5
 Find the midpoint of (-2, 3) and (5, -6) 7
6
 2  5 3  (6)   3 3  4
  2 , 2    2 , 2  1
    3
2

SLOPE
The rate of change of a line  Two angles that add up to 180 degrees are called
supplementary angles (1 & 2, 4 & 3, 1 & 4, etc.)
 In other words, slope is a ratio of how fast the line
 Two angles that add up to 90 degrees are called
is changing vertically over how fast the line is complementary angles
changing horizontally
 All of the larger angles (1, 3, 5, 7) are equal to each
 Given two points (x1,y1) and (x2,y2) that lie on the other
y y
same line, the slope of the line is m  2 1  All of the smaller angles (2, 4, 6, 8) are equal to each
x2  x 1 other
 Note that slope is change in y (vertical) over  The sum of any larger angle and any smaller angle is
change in x (horizontal) 180°
 Thus, slope can be remembered as ‘‘rise over  Two lines are perpendicular if they intersect and form
run’’ right angles
 In equations, slope is usually denoted as m  The slopes of perpendicular lines are negative
reciprocals of each other (the product of their slopes
is -1)
 Find the slope of a line perpendicular to the line
DISTANCE FORMULA
4
 The distance between two points (x1, y1) and y  x 3
7
(x2, y2) is: (x1  x2 )2  (y1  y2 )2 4
 The slope of the given line is , so the slope of
7
7
the perpendicular line is 
4
 Math Cram Kit | 17

GEOMETRY
Four-sided Shapes That Are Almost, but Not Entirely, Unlike Triangles
COORDINATE GEOMETRY (QUADRILATERALS)

QUADRILATERAL RECTANGLE
A four-sided polygon  A parallelogram with four right angles
TRAPEZOID
 A quadrilateral with one pair of parallel sides

 Area = (base)(height)
 In a coordinate system, opposite sides have the same
 The parallel sides are called bases slope and length, and adjacent sides must be
perpendicular
 The non-parallel sides are called legs
 The height is the distance from one base to the RHOMBUS
other
 A parallelogram with four congruent sides
1
 Area = (base1 + base2)(height)
2
 In a coordinate system, the two parallel bases
have the same slope, and the two legs have
different slopes

PARALLELOGRAM  The diagonals form right angles

 A quadrilateral with two pairs of parallel sides
 The diagonals bisect each other and bisect the
angles, forming four congruent right triangles
1
 Area = (diagonal1)(diagonal2)
2
 In a coordinate system, the diagonals are
perpendicular, and the side lengths are all equal

SQUARE
   A quadrilateral with four congruent sides and four
right angles, making it both a type of rectangle and
 Opposite sides are congruent (equal in rhombus
magnitude)
 Opposite angles are congruent
 Consecutive angles are supplementary (add up to
180°)
 Area = (base)(height)
 In the above diagram, the base is the side on the
2
bottom, and the height is the vertical dotted line  Area = (side)
 In a coordinate system, opposite sides have the  In a coordinate system, all sides have the same
same slope and length length, and adjacent sides are perpendicular
 Math Cram Kit | 18

GEOMETRY
Movin’ On Up, Dimensionally
PLANE AND SOLID FIGURES (AREA) PLANE AND SOLID FIGURES (VOLUME)

AREA OF A TRIANGLE VOLUME OF SOLID FIGURES


1
Area  (base)(height)  Prism: V = (area of base)(height)
2 1
 Works best for right triangles and triangles
 Pyramid: V  (area of the base)(height)
3
whose base and height are known
 Cylinder: V =  r h
2

 Heron’s Formula: Area  (s)(s  a)(s  b)(s  c)  r is the radius of the base
 a, b, and c are the sides of the triangle, and  h is the height of the cylinder
ab c 4
s  Sphere: V =  r
3
2 3
 When using this formula, find s first and store  r is the radius of the sphere
it as a variable in your calculator
1
Cone: V =  r h
2
 Be careful to calculate the formula correctly 
3
 This formula works for any triangle, but you
 r is the radius of the base
need to know the lengths of all three sides
 h is the height of the cone
1
 Area = ab(sinC)
2
 a and b are two sides, and C is the angle
between them

SURFACE AREA OF SOLID FIGURES

 Prism: SA = Area of 2 bases + area of lateral faces
 Pyramid: SA = Area of the base + area of lateral
triangles
 Cylinder: SA = 2  r + 2  rh
2

 r is the radius of the base, and h is the height

of the cylinder
 Sphere: SA = 4  r
2

 r is the radius of the sphere

 Cone: SA =  r +  r r2  h2
2

 r is the radius of the base, and h is the height

of the cone
 r2  h2 is the lateral height, the distance
from the edge of the base to the apex of the
cone
 If the lateral height is given, substitute it for
r2  h2
 Math Cram Kit | 19

GEOMETRY
Circle Time
PLANE AND SOLID FIGURES (CIRCLES)

MEASURING CIRCLES LINES AND CIRCLES (PART 1)

CIRCUMFERENCE OF A CIRCLE  Tangents are lines that intersect a circle at one point
 A tangent will be perpendicular to the radius of
 Circumference = 2  r the circle at the point where it touches the circle
 Circumference is the perimeter of a circle
AREA OF A CIRCLE
 Area =  r
2

 r is the radius of the circle

LOOKING INSIDE
ANGLES IN A CIRCLE
 
 A circle has 360° or 2  radians
 180° =  radians
 Secants are lines that intersect a circle at two points
 A central angle has the same measure as its
intercepted arc

   Chords are line segments that have endpoints on the

rim of a circle

 An inscribed angle has half the measure of its

intercepted arc

90

45  
 The longest chord is the diameter
 If two chords are the same distance from the
center of a circle, they have the same length and
intercept the same-sized arc
 
 Math Cram Kit | 20

GEOMETRY
Circle Time: Part Deux
PLANE AND SOLID FIGURES (CIRCLES) (CONT’D)

LINES AND CIRCLES (PART 2) LINES AND CIRCLES (PART 3)

TWO CHORDS A TANGENT AND A SECANT

   
 In the above diagram, two chords intersect at a  In the above diagram, AB is a tangent and AC is a
point E secant that intersects the circle at point D
  DC
 
 AEB  CED 
AB BC  BD
and  A 
2 2
  BC
AD 
AEB  BEC   (AB)2  AD  AC
2
 AE  EC  BE  ED

TWO TANGENTS TWO SECANTS

   
 In the above diagram, two tangents have a  In the above diagram, two secants originating from
common endpoint at A and intersect circle O at B point A intersect a circle at points D and E
and C BC  
DE
 The lengths of the two tangents are the same  A 
2
 The two radii OB and CO are perpendicular to  AD  AB  AE  AC
their respective tangents
major arc 
BC  minor arc 
BC
 A 
2
 Math Cram Kit | 21

GEOMETRY
A Striking Resemblance
CONGRUENCE SIMILARITY

PROPERTIES OF CONGRUENT FIGURES PROPERTIES OF SIMILAR FIGURES

 Two figures are congruent if their corresponding
sides have the same length and the sides form the
same angles
 The figures may be flipped or rotated
 The following figures are all congruent
 Two figures are similar if corresponding sides form
equal ratios and the sides form the same angles
 The figures may be flipped or rotated
 The following figures are all similar

SIMILAR TRIANGLES
CONGRUENT TRIANGLES  SSS: If the corresponding sides of two triangles form
equal ratios, then the triangles are similar
 SSS (Side-Side-Side): If the corresponding sides  A triangle with side lengths 4, 7, and 9 is similar
of two triangles are congruent, the triangles are
congruent to a triangle with side lengths 8, 14, and 18
 A triangle with side lengths 3, 4, and 5 is  SAS: If two triangles have the same angle, and the
congruent to a triangle with side lengths 3, 4, corresponding sides adjacent to the angle form equal
and 5 ratios, then the triangles are similar
 A triangle with side lengths of 3 and 5 separated
 SAS (Side-Angle-Side): If two triangles have the by an angle of 80 degrees is similar to a triangle
same angle, and the corresponding sides adjacent
to the angle are congruent, then the triangles are with side lengths of 12 and 20 separated by 80
congruent degrees
 A triangle with side lengths of 2 and 6  AA (Angle-Angle): Triangles with two corresponding
separated by an angle of 54 degrees is angles are similar
congruent to another triangle with side  Since a triangle only has three angles, the third
lengths of 2 and 6 separated by 54 degrees one can be found if two of them are known
 ASA (Angle-Side-Angle): If two triangles have
two matching angles, and the sides between both
angles are congruent, then the triangles are
congruent
 A triangle with angles of 34 and 89 degrees
separated by a side of length 7 is congruent to
another triangle with angles of 34 and 89
degrees separated by a side of length 7
 Math Cram Kit | 22

TRIGONOMETRY
Sine Here
RIGHT TRIANGLE RELATIONSHIPS TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

SIDES AND ANGLES TRIG FUNCTIONS AND QUADRANTS

 To remember what the trig functions mean, use
the mnemonic SOHCAHTOA (soak-a-toe-a)
Opposite
 Sine(angle) 
Hypotenuse
Adjacent
 Cosine(angle) 
Hypotenuse
 
Opposite
 Tangent(angle)   Each trig function is only positive in certain quadrants
Adjacent (mnemonic: All Students Take Classes)
 All of the trig functions have positive values in
Quadrant I
 Sine is positive in Quadrant II
 Tangent is positive in Quadrant III
 Cosine is positive in Quadrant IV
 Each reciprocal function-----cosecant, secant, and
cotangent-----has the same sign as its corresponding
function
REFERENCE ANGLES

   When drawing angles, we place the initial side at the

positive x-axis and go counter-clockwise, ending with
a
 sinA  cosB  a terminal side
c
 A reference angle is the angle between the terminal
b side and the x-axis
 sinB  cosA 
c
 The sine, cosine, and tangent of an angle is
a numerically equivalent to its corresponding reference
 tanA  cotB 
b angle, but the sign may need to be adjusted
depending on the quadrant in which the terminal side
b
 tanB  cotA  is located
a
c
 secA  cscB 
b
c
 secB  cscA 
a
 csc (cosecant) is the reciprocal of sin (sine)
 sec (secant) is the reciprocal of cos (cosine)
 
 cot (cotangent) is the reciprocal of tan (tangent)
 The above angle is 225°, and it lies in Quadrant III
 Its reference angle is 225° --- 180° = 45°
 sin(225°) is numerically equivalent to sin(45°),
but sine values are negative in Quadrant III
 sin(225°) = ---sin(45°) = ---0.707
 Math Cram Kit | 23

TRIGONOMETRY
The Arc Side and Graphic Descriptions
INVERSE TRIG FUNCTIONS PROPERTIES OF TRIG GRAPHS

THE BASICS PERIOD

 Inverse trig functions reverse the effects of trig The smallest interval taken for function values to repeat
functions
 All trig functions are periodic (they repeat)
 If sinA = B, then arcsinB = A  The period of a function is always positive
1  1
 sin(30 )  , and arcsin    30  Sine, cosine, and their reciprocal functions (cosecant
2 2 2
and secant) have a period of , where k is the
 The inverse trig functions are arcsin, arccos, k
arctan, arccsc, arcsec, and arccot coefficient of x in the argument
 The inverse trig functions can also be notated: 2 
 The function sin(6x) has a period of 
sin1 ,cos1 ,tan1 ,csc1 ,sec1 ,cot1 6 3
2 2 1 
 Unlike sin x, which means (sinx) , sin x does not  Tangent and cotangent have periods of , where k is
k
mean (sinx)1
the coefficient of x

 The function cot(---7x) has a period of
DOMAIN AND RANGE 7

 Inverse trig functions do not pass the vertical line

test unless we limit their domains and ranges
AMPLITUDE
 The following limits allow us to work with inverse Half of the distance between the maximum and
trig functions as true functions
minimum values of the function
 Sin and cos have amplitudes determined by the
Function Domain Range coefficient of the function
 The function 3cos(5x) has an amplitude of 3
π π
arcsin [1,1] [- , ]
2 2
HORIZONTAL (PHASE) SHIFT
arccos [1,1] [0, π]
 A constant term inside the function shifts the graph
π π horizontally
arctan ( , ) ( , )
2 2 h
 A function with argument (kx --- h) is shifted units
k
π π from x = 0
arccsc (–  ,–1] [1,  ) [ ,0)  (0, ]
2 2  What is the phase shift of the function
tan(3x + 5)?
π π  First, we need to put the argument into the form
arcsec (–  ,–1] [1,  ) [0, )  ( , π] (kx --- h)
2 2
 tan(3x + 5) = tan(3x --- (---5))
arccot ( , ) (0, )  We know k = 3 and h = ---5, so the function is
h 5
shifted   units from x = 0 (in the negative
 

k 3
direction, or to the left)
 Math Cram Kit | 24

TRIGONOMETRY
Ooh, Pretty Wave; Identity Quandary
MORE PROPERTIES OF TRIG GRAPHS IDENTITIES

VERTICAL SHIFT WHY DO WE USE IDENTITIES?

 A constant term outside the function shifts the To convert between different trigonometric
graph vertically functions to solve a problem
 What is the vertical shift of csc(6x + 2) --- 8? RECIPROCAL IDENTITIES
 The constant term outside the function is ---8,
1 1
so the graph is shifted 8 units in the negative  sinx  ; cscx 
direction (down) cscx sinx
1 1
CONSOLIDATION (SINE/COSINE)  cosx  ; secx 
secx cosx
 Asin(kx  h)  b or Acos(kx  h)  b
1 1
 tanx  ; cotx 
 Amplitude = A cotx tanx
2
 Period =
k QUOTIENT IDENTITIES
h sinx
 Horizontal shift =
k
 tanx 
cosx
 Vertical shift = b cosx
 cotx 
 Note that for tangent and cotangent functions, sinx

period is equal to , and amplitude is largely
k PYTHAGOREAN IDENTITIES
irrelevant in graphs
 sin2 x  cos2 x  1
ALL TOGETHER NOW  tan2 x  1  sec2 x
 The following graph represents 5sin(4x --- 8) + 2  1  cot2 x  csc2 x

OTHER IMPORTANT IDENTITIES

 sin(x  y)  (sinx)(cosy)  (cosx)(siny)
 cos(x  y)  (cosx)(cosy)  (sinx)(siny)
tanx  tany
 tan(x  y) 
1  (tanx)(tany)
   sin(x  y)  (sinx)(cosy)  (cosx)(siny)
 Amplitude (marked by the green line from the  cos(x  y)  (cosx)(cosy)  (sinx)(siny)
middle to the trough of the wave) is 5
tanx  tany
 Period (marked by the bracket that covers one  tan(x  y) 
2  1  (tanx)(tany)
complete cycle) is 
4 2  sin(2x)  2sinxcosx
h 8 cos(2x)  cos2 x  sin2 x
 Horizontal shift is   2 units from x = 0 (to
k 4  1  2sin2 x
the right)

 2cos2 x  1
 5sin(4x  8)  2  5sin(4x  8)  2
2tanx
 Vertical shift is 2 units up because the constant  tan(2x) 
term outside the function is 2 1  tan2 x
 Math Cram Kit | 25

TRIGONOMETRY
Triangular Relationships; Finding a Good Angle
LAW OF SINES AND COSINES ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS INVOLVING TRIG
FUNCTIONS

SOLUTIONS
 Unless domain and range are limited, trig functions
can have an infinite number of solutions
 The answers to these functions will repeat every
360° or 2π radians
 The same reference angle in different quadrants can
produce the same result in a trig function
SOLVING
 We usually want to turn all the different types of trig
functions into just one type by substituting identities
  or by canceling out common terms
 Then, we can isolate the trig expression and solve for
the angle
LAW OF SINES 2 2
 1 --- cos x + sin x = 0
 In a triangle, the ratio of the sine of an angle to its  1 --- (1 --- sin2x) + sin2x = 0
opposite side is the same for all three angles
2 2
sinA sinB sinC  sin x + sin x = 0
   
2
2sin x = 0
a b c 2
 sin x = 0
 sinx = 0
 x = 0°, 180°, 360°…
LAW OF COSINES
 With a slight modification, the Pythagorean
theorem can work for any triangle, producing the
Law of Cosines
 Given two sides and the angle between them, we
can find the length of the third side
 c2  a2  b2  2ab(cosC)
 a2  b2  c2  2bc(cosA)
 b2  a2  c2  2ac(cosB)
 Math Cram Kit | 26
CALCULUS
Take It to the Limit
BASIC LIMITS
LIMIT
The y-value of a function as it gets infinitely close
to an x-value
 Limits are notated lim f(x) , where c is the value
x c
that x approaches
 When evaluating a limit, plug in c for x
 lim (x2  5)  32  5  4
x 3
 A limit can be evaluated at infinity or negative
infinity
 x2  5x 
 lim  2  removable discontinuity exists at c
x  3x  1 
 
2
 At infinity, the terms containing x will be so
large in value that the other terms will have
little effect on the result of the limit
 Thus, the limit becomes essentially
 x2 
lim  2 
x  3x
 
2 1
 Canceling out the x gives us
3
 If the denominator of a rational expression
has a higher degree than the numerator, the
limit as x approaches infinity is 0, since the
denominator will become much larger than
the numerator
 If the numerator of a rational expression has a
higher degree than the denominator, the limit
as x approaches infinity is infinity, since the
numerator will become much larger than the
denominator
 Limits can be specifically left-handed or right-
handed
 A left-hand limit approaches the x-value from the
left side of a graph
 lim f(x) is a left-hand limit where x
x c
approaches c from the left (negative) side
 A right-hand limit approaches the x-value from
the right (positive) side of a graph
 lim f(x) is a right-hand limit where x
x c
approaches c from the right side
 A function has a limit at c only when the left-hand
limit and the right-hand limit at c are equal
 In other words, a function has a limit at c
when f(x) approaches the same y-value on
both sides of c
CONTINUITY AND L’HOPITAL’S RULE
CONTINUITY
 A function exhibits continuity when its graph has no
gaps
 A function is continuous at an x-value c if its limit at c
equals its y-value at c
 lim f(x)  f(c) for the function to be continuous at
x c
c
 If the limit exists at c, but it does not equal
f(c) , then
we say that a removable discontinuity exists at c
 If the limit does not exist at c, then we say that a non-
L’HOPITAL’S RULE
 This topic requires knowledge of derivatives, so skip
ahead if you need to refresh (or perhaps learn how
they work)
 After plugging c into a limit, if the limit is
indeterminate, we can use L’Hopital’s rule to try to
convert the limit into a determinate one
0 
 Indeterminate limits come in the form of and
0 
 L’Hopital’s rule takes the derivative of the numerator
and denominator of a limit separately
 After the derivatives, plug in c again to see if the
limit has become determinate
 x2  2x  8 
 lim  
x 4
 x4 
0
 If we plug in ---4, we get , an indeterminate
0
form
 After taking the derivative of the numerator and
the denominator separately, we have
 2x  2 
lim 
1 
x 4 
 Plugging in ---4 again, we find that the limit has
become determinate and equals ---6
 If the limit does not become determinate after the
first application of the rule, you can keep using the
rule until you reach a definite answer
 Math Cram Kit | 27

CALCULUS
Spin-Offs
DERIVATIVES

WHAT IS A DERIVATIVE? ELEMENTARY POWER RULE

n n-1
The rate of change of a function at any point  The derivative of a term ax is nax
FIRST DERIVATIVES  In other words, we take the exponent and multiply it
by the coefficient; then we subtract 1 from the
dy
 Notated , y', or f'(x) exponent
dx
 The derivative of a constant is 0
 The first derivative of a curve or line is essentially 
0
Constant a can be written as a(1) = ax ; taking
an ‘‘instantaneous slope’’ the derivative will yield 0
 The derivative of f(x) is the slope of a line 3
tangent to the function at x  If f(x) = 4x --- 5x + 27, find f'(2)
 Each term either only has one variable or is a
constant, so we can apply the power rule to each
term
 f' (x)  3(4x31 )  1(5x11 )  0
 f' (x)  12x2  5
 f' (2)  12(2)2  5  43

SECOND DERIVATIVES
The rate of change of a function’s first derivative
 The second derivative of a displacement function is
acceleration
 The second derivative is the changing rate of velocity
   Second derivatives reveal the concavity of a function
 In the above graph, the tangent line touches and possible inflection points
the curve where x = 1  If the second derivative is positive, then the original
 The tangent line has a slope of 2, so the curve function is concave up
at  If the second derivative is negative, then the original
x = 1 has a derivative of 2 function is concave down
 If a function represents displacement, then its
first derivative represents velocity
 Displacement tells us where something is
 Velocity us tells how fast something is
moving
 Thus, velocity is the derivative, or the rate of
change, of displacement
 The sign of the first derivative indicates how the
original function is changing Concave Up Concave Down

 If the first derivative is negative, then the  

original function is decreasing in value  If the second derivative is 0, then the original function
 If the first derivative is positive, then the may have a point of inflection
original function is increasing in value  A point of inflection is where concavity changes
 If the first derivative is 0, then the original from up to down or from down to up
function is not changing in value
 Taking (finding) a derivative is called
differentiation
 Math Cram Kit | 28

CALCULUS
Derive Safely
DIFFERENTIATION RULES

PRODUCT RULE CHAIN RULE

 When taking the derivative of a term that is the  When taking the derivative of a function within a
product of two expressions, we need to use the function (a composite function), we need to use the
product rule chain rule
 If f(x) = uv, then f'(x) = (u')(v) + (v')(u)  If f(x) = g(h(x)), then f'(x)  g'(h(x))  h'(x)
 f(x)  (x2  5)(3x  2)  f(x)  6(8x2  13)4
 u  x2  5  h(x)  8x2  13
 u'  2x  h'(x)  16x
 v  3x  2
 g(x)  6x4
 v'  3
 f'(x)  (2x)(3x  2)  (3)(x2  5)  g'(x)  24x3

 f'(x)  6x2  4x  3x2  15  f'(x)  24(8x2  13)3 (16x)

 f'(x)  9x2  4x  15  f'(x)  384x(8x2  13)

 We can think of the chain rule
2
as multiplying the
3
‘‘normal’’ derivative, 24(8x + 13) , by the derivative
of the inside of the parentheses, 16x
QUOTIENT RULE
 In other words, multiply the derivative of the
 When taking the derivative of a term that is the ‘‘outside’’ piece and by the derivative of the ‘‘inside’’
quotient of two expressions, we need to use the piece
quotient rule
u (v)(u')  (u)(v')
 If f(x)  , then f'(x) 
v v2 OTHER COMMON DERIVATIVES
x  7x
3
d
 f(x)   sin(u)  (cos(u))(u')
9x2 dx
 u  x3  7x d
 cos(u)  (sin(u))(u')
 u'  3x2  7 dx
d
 v  9x2  tan(u)  (sec2 (u))(u')
dx
 v'  18x
d
(9x2 )(3x2  7)  (x3  7x)(18x)  cot(u)  (csc2 (u))(u')
 f'(x)  dx
(9x2 )2
d
 sec(u)  (sec(u))(tan(u))(u')
27x  63x  18x  126x
4 2 4 2
dx
 f'(x) 
81x4 d
 csc(u)  (csc(u))(cot(u))(u')
9x4  63x2 dx
 f'(x) 
81x4 d u u
 e  e (u')
x2  7 dx
 f'(x) 
9x2 d  1
 ln(u)    (u')
dx u
 Math Cram Kit | 29

CALCULUS
Ain’t It Great?
INDEFINITE INTEGRALS DEFINITE INTEGRALS

ANTIDERIVATIVE INDEFINITE VS. DEFINITE

A possible function that has a known derivative; also Definite integrals produce a value because they have
known as an integral bounds. Indefinite integrals do not produce a value
because they include an unknown constant C.
ANTIDIFFERENTIATION
 The process of finding antiderivatives is called
antidifferentiation or integration HOW TO FIND A DEFINITE INTEGRAL
 We begin the integration the same way we do for
 The integration symbol is  indefinite integrals

 (15x  3x5  2)dx

4

HOW TO FIND AN INDEFINITE INTEGRAL
 Notice that the integral now has bounds at 0 and
 We basically reverse the steps of differentiation 1
  (6x2  3x  5)dx 
1
After integrating, we get 3x5  x6  2x
1
2 0
 The dx at the end of the expression tells us
that the argument in the integration is a  Because this is a definite integral, we do not need
derivative a C at the end of the polynomial
 Each term either only has one variable or is a  Next, we plug in each bound
constant, so we can reverse the power rule for 1 1
each term  3(1)5  (1)6  2(1)  4
2 2
 To reverse the power rule, we will add one to
1
the exponent and divide the coefficient by the  3(0)5  (0)6  2(0)  0
new exponent 2
 The first term has a power of 2, which means  Finally, we find the difference between the result
its integral must have a power of 3 of the upper bound and the result of the lower
 The first term of the integration becomes bound
6 3 1 1
x  2x3  4 0  4
3 2 2
3
 The second term becomes x2
2
 The third term becomes ---5x
3
 Put together, the integral is 2x3  x2  5x  C
2
 The C at the end is an unknown constant
 Because all constants differentiate to 0,
we have to account for the possibility of a
constant when we integrate
 The C is what makes this integral indefinite: C
could be any value
 Math Cram Kit | 30

CALCULUS
Divination
GRAPHS OF DERIVATIVES GRAPHS OF DERIVATIVES

READING INFORMATION FROM GRAPHS

 Graph 1 is the original function, y
 Graph 2 is the first derivative, y'
 From ---∞ < x < 0, the y' is negative, which means
that y is decreasing
 At x = 0, y' is 0, which means that y is neither
increasing nor decreasing
 From 0 < x < ∞, y' is positive, which means that y
is increasing
 The change from a negative y' to a positive y' at x = 0
means that y has a minimum (explained later) at x =
0
1.   
 Graph 3 is the second derivative, y''
   Y'' stays positive over its entire domain
 Thus, y is concave up over its entire domain
 If we were only given graph 2 or graph 3, we would be
able to find the shape, but not the vertical alignment,
of their integrals

2.   

3.   
 Math Cram Kit | 31

CALCULUS
The Magic Touch; Speed
TANGENT LINES RATES OF CHANGE

WHAT IS A TANGENT LINE? SINGLE VARIABLE PROBLEMS

A line which touches a graph at a point and has the  Single variable rate of change problems usually
same slope as the graph at that point involve displacement, velocity, and acceleration
HOW TO FIND A TANGENT LINE  If the displacement of a car is represented by the
2
3 2
function s(t) = 15t + 5t + 10, what is the acceleration
 Find the tangent line of f(x) = x --- 5x --- 8 at x = 2 of the car when t =4?
 The derivative of any function is its slope, so the  To find the acceleration equation, we need to
derivative at a point is also the slope of the take two derivatives of the displacement
tangent line at that point equation
 f'(x)  3x2  10x  s'(t) = v(t) = 30t + 5
 s''(t) = v'(t) = a(t) = 30
 f'(2)  8  In this case, acceleration is a constant, so it will
 We know that the slope of the tangent line is - equal 30 when t = 4
8 RELATED RATE PROBLEMS
 Since the tangent line meets the function at x
= 2, it will have the same y-value as the  Related rate problems involve at least two variables
function at that point  When more than two variables exist in a problem, we
will try to reduce them to two variables
 Thus, one of the points on the tangent line is
2
(2,-20), as f(2) = 8 --- 5(2) --- 8 = ---20  Implicit differentiation is often used because you
often have to take the derivative of a physical
 We have the slope and one point, so we can
dimension (volume, radius, etc.) with respect to time
use point-slope form, which is y---y1 = m(x---x1),
to find the equation of the tangent line  An inverted cone with a height of 10 ft and a base
radius of 5ft is being filled with sand at a rate of
 y  (20)  8(x  2)
ft3
 y  20  8x  16 2 . How fast is the height of the sand changing
min
 The tangent line is y = ---8x --- 4 when it is 6 ft high?
 The sand is essentially forming a cone that
IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION increases in volume
 The formula for the volume of a cone is
Usually, you take the derivative of a term with respect
1
to the same variable as the one in the term. For V  r2h , (r is the radius of the base, h is the
3 3
example, taking the derivative of 2x with respect to x
2 cone’s height)
yields 6x . When taking the derivative with respect to
a variable other than the one in the term, use implicit  We know that the ratio of the height to the radius
3
differentiation. Taking the derivative of 2x with 10 2 1
is or , so we can substitute r  h into the
dx 5 1 2
respect to t yields 6x2 . 2
dt 1 1  1
volume equation to get V    h  h  h3
 This problem combines the power and product 3 2  12
rules dV 1 2 dh
5 2
 Derive x + 3xy = 15y --- 18 with respect to x  Take a derivative to get  h
dt 4 dt
dy dy dV
 5x51  3y2  (3x)(2y)  15  0  Plugging in h = 6 and  2 , we get
dx dx dt
dy dy 1 dh
 5x4  3y2  6xy  15 2  (6)2
dx dx 4 dt
dh 2 ft
5x4  3y2 dy   , so the height of the sand is
  dt 9 min
15  6xy dx
changing at a rate of about 0.07 ft when the
min
height is 6 ft
 Math Cram Kit | 32
CALCULUS
Highs and Lows
MAXIMA AND MINIMA
DEFINITIONS
 The absolute/global maximum of a function is the
highest y-value that it reaches
 The absolute/global minimum of a function is the
lowest y-value that it reaches
 A relative/local maximum is a point whose y-
value is higher than its surrounding points
 The peaks of ‘‘hills’’ in a graph
 A relative/local minimum is a point whose y-
value is lower than it surrounding points
 The bottoms of ‘‘valleys’’ in a graph
 Maxima and minima are collectively known as
extrema
FINDING LOCAL EXTREMA
 Take the first derivative of a function
 Solve for the zeroes of the first derivative
 These zeroes are called critical points
 Place the critical points on a number line, dividing
the number line into regions
 Find the sign of the first derivative in these
regions
 Going from left to right, if the sign changes from
negative to positive around a critical point, then a
local minimum exists at that point
 The original function goes from decreasing to
increasing, forming a ‘‘valley’’
 If the sign changes from positive to negative
around a critical point, then a local maximum
exists at that point
 The original function goes from increasing to
decreasing, forming a ‘‘hill’’
FINDING ABSOLUTE EXTREMA
 Take the first derivative of a function and
 Find all the critical points
 Plug all the critical points into the original equation to
find their y-values
 If the graph has endpoints, plug the endpoints into
the original equation to find their y-values
 Compare the y-values to find the highest (maximum)
and the lowest (minimum)
 Not all functions have absolute extrema since their y-
values may go to infinity or negative infinity
MAX/MIN WORD PROBLEMS
 Problems may ask you to optimize a construction
under a constraint
 A farmer wants to build a fence that encloses the
largest possible area. He only has 30 yards of
fence. What should the rectangle’s dimensions
be?
 The area of a rectangle is A = LW, where L is
length and W is width
 The perimeter of a rectangle is P = 2L + 2W
 We know that the perimeter is 30, so 2L + 2W =
30
 L + W = 15
 L = 15 --- W
 Substituting into the area formula, we get
A = (15 --- W)(W)
2
 A = 15W --- W
 Next, we take the derivative and find the critical
point(s)
 A' = 15 --- 2W
 0 = 15 --- 2W
 2W = 15
 W = 7.5
 L = 15 --- W = 15 --- 7.5 = 7.5
 The dimensions should be 7.5 yards by 7.5 yards
 Note that a square maximizes area for rectangles
 A square only maximizes area if all four sides
are limited by the perimeter
 If fewer than four sides are limited (say the
fence is being built against a barn), then a
square will not maximize area
 Math Cram Kit | 33

CRUNCH KIT
Formula Frenzy (Page 1)
GENERAL MATH GEOMETRY
n! Pythagorean theorem: a  b  c
2 2 2
 Permutations: nPr  
(n-r)!
 x1  x2 y 1  y 2 
n!  Midpoint formula:  , 
 Combinations: n Cr   2 2 
(r!)(n-r)!
 Circular arrangements: (n --- 1)!  Distance formula: (x 1  x2 )2  (y 1  y2 )2
 Probability that two independent events will occur:
1
P(A+B) = P(A) x P(B)  Area of a trapezoid: Area = (base1 + base2)(height)
 Probability that one of two mutually exclusive events 2
will occur: P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) --- P(A+B)  Area of a parallelogram: Area = (base)(height)
ALGEBRA  Area of a rectangle: Area = (base)(height)
y2  y 1 1
 Slope: m   Area of a rhombus: Area = (diagonal1)(diagonal2)
x2  x 1 2
 Area of a square: Area = (side)2
 Point-slope form: y  y 1  m(x  x 1 )
1
 Slope-intercept form: Area  (diagonal1)2
2
 Standard form of a linear function: Ax  By  C
1
 Area of a triangle: Area  (base)(height)
B  B  4AC
2
2
 Quadratic formula: x 
2A ab c
Area  (s)(s  a)(s  b)(s  c) , where s 
 Sum of cubes: x + y = (x + y)(x2 --- xy + y2)
3 3
2
 Difference of cubes: x3 --- y3 = (x --- y)(x2 + xy + y2) 1
Area = ab(sinC)
B 2
 Sum of roots: 
A  Surface area of prism:
SA = Area of 2 bases + area of lateral faces
 Product of roots:
C  Surface area of pyramid:
 for odd  numbered polynomials SA = Area of the base + area of lateral triangles
A
 Surface area of cylinder: SA = 2πr2 + 2πrh
C
and for even  numbered polynomials  Surface area of sphere: SA = 4πr2
A
 nth term of an arithmetic sequence:  Surface area of cone: SA = πr2 + πr r2  h2
nth term = first term + d(n --- 1)  Volume of prism: V = (area of base)(height)
 Number of terms in an arithmetic series: 1
(last term  first term)  Volume of pyramid: V  (area of the base)(height)
n 1 3
d  Volume of cylinder: V = πr2h
 Sum of first n terms of an arithmetic series:
4
(first term  last term)  Volume of sphere: V = πr3
n 3
2
1 2
 nth term of a geometric sequence:  Volume of cone: V = πr h
nth term --- (first term)rn---1 3
 Sum of first n terms in a geometric series:  Circumference of circle: 2πr
(first term)(1  r )n  Area of circle: πr2
1r  180° =  radians
 Central angle = intercepted arc
 Geometric mean: xy
1
 Inscribed angle = intercepted arc
2
 Math Cram Kit | 34

CRUNCH KIT
Formula Frenzy (Page 2)
TRIGONOMETRY CALCULUS
Opposite d
 Sine(angle)   Power rule: (axb )  abxb 1
Hypotenuse dx

Adjacent
 Product rule: If f(x) = uv, then f'(x) = (u')(v) + (v')(u)
 Cosine(angle) 
Hypotenuse u (v)(u')  (u)(v')
 Quotient rule: If f(x)  , then f '(x) 
v v2
Opposite
 Tangent(angle)   Chain rule: If f(x) = g(h(x)), then f '(x)  g '(h(x))  h'(x)
Adjacent
d
1 1  sin(u)  (cos(u))(u')
 sinx  ; csc x  dx
csc x sinx
d
1 1  cos(u)  (sin(u))(u')
 cos x  ; sec x  dx
sec x cos x
d
1 1  tan(u)  (sec2 (u))(u')
 tanx  ; cot x  dx
cot x tanx
d
sinx  cot(u)  (csc2 (u))(u')
 tanx  dx
cos x
d
cos x  sec(u)  (sec(u))(tan(u))(u')
 cot x  dx
sinx
d
 sin2 x  cos2 x  1  csc(u)  (csc(u))(cot(u))(u')
dx
 tan x  1  sec x
2 2
d
 eu  eu (u')
 1  cot2 x  csc2 x dx
 sin(x  y)  (sinx)(cos y)  (cos x)(siny) d  1
 ln(u)    (u')
 cos(x  y)  (cos x)(cos y)  (sinx)(siny) dx u
 sin(x  y)  (sinx)(cos y)  (cos x)(siny)
 cos(x  y)  (cos x)(cos y)  (sinx)(siny)
 sin(2x)  2sinx cos x
cos(2x)  cos2 x  sin2 x
  1  2sin2 x
 2cos2 x  1
sinA sinB sinC
 Law of sines:  
a b c
 Law of cosines: c  a  b  2ab(cosC)
2 2 2
 Math Cram Kit | 35

FINAL TIPS AND ABOUT THE AUTHOR

FINAL TIPS ABOUT THE AUTHOR

 Do the easy problems first; all the questions are They say Steven Zhu shot a
worth the same points, and the easy problems man down in Reno, but that
may be at the end of the test was just a lie. Keb’ Mo’
references aside, this much
 Use a timer in practice and at competition is known about Steven: he is
 Use all 30 minutes to work-----don’t give up! an economics major at
 When you have 5 minutes left, guess on all Harvard University, he
remaining unanswered questions before returning competed with the Frisco
to your current problem High School decathlon
team, and he once won a
 Be familiar with your calculator state championship in some
 If you don’t know how to do a problem, try place called Texas. After a stint at the Federal Reserve
plugging in the answers, since they’re given to you Bank of Dallas this summer, Steven hopped around
 Make sure your calculator is in degree mode various cities in China, land of Mao and slow internets. He
when working with degrees and in radian mode would like to maximize happiness instead of utility
when working with radians someday, but in the meantime, he will settle for a nap.
 Before you begin the test, pick your favorite
guessing letter, and use it every time you cannot
eliminate any answer choices

ABOUT THE EDITOR

SOPHY LEE
After 19 years of planning and pondering, Sophy Lee has decided that the best things in life emerge
from coincidence. She discovered her favorite book, Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance,
tucked away in the corner of an lawyer’s bookshelf. At the age of 11, she learned about Alexander the
Great in middle school and asked her parents to name her little brother Alex. In her junior year, she
joined Academic Decathlon and watched the program change the lives of her entire team. A year later,
she led the Pearland High School Acadec team to its first state championship. These days, you can
find Sophy looking for coincidences and braving the cold at Harvard University. She welcomes your
thoughts on Zen and motorcycles at sophy@demidec.com.

ABOUT THE EDITOR/POWER ALPACA

DEAN SCHAFFER
Dean Schaffer believes that in his former life, he was either an owl (wise and nocturnal), a
lolcat (prone to nonsensical utterances), or a Microsoft Word spellchecker (compulsive but
vulnerable to glitches). In this life, he attends Stanford University, majors in American
Studies, minors in Classics, and doesn’t really know what he wants to do when he grows
up-----something he constantly hopes he’ll never have to do.
Since joining DemiDec to write the Renaissance Music Power Guide, Dean has taken turns
making the Power Guide more powerful, the flashcard a lot flashier, and the Cram Kit a
bit…crammier? This season marks Dean’s fifth with DemiDec, and his lengthy tenure has,
thus far, given him a glimpse of the ineffable quirks of the English language and, more
notably, of the ineffable cuteness of the three puppies which inhabit DemiDec HQ (and are
probably the single biggest productivity drain on DemiDec Dan).
In his spare time, Dean ponders whether he’ll ever be able to handle the luxury of spare time; luckily, he avoids this
metaphysical quandary altogether by choosing not to affiliate himself with relaxation of any form. Instead, he
occupies himself with songwriting, playing guitar, and parallel structure-ing. When he isn’t doing those things, he’s
considering the merits of democratic elections, oligarchic disinterestedness, and delicious gouda cheese.