Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes Mellitus: New Criteria

New recommendations for the classification and diagnosis of diabetes mellitus include the preferred use of
the terms type 1 and type 2 instead of IDDM and NIDDM to designate the two major types of
diabetes mellitus; simplification of the diagnostic criteria for diabetes mellitus to two abnormal fasting
plasma determinations; and a lower cutoff for fasting plasma glucose (126 mg per dL [7 mmol per L] or
higher) to confirm the diagnosis of diabetes mellitus. These changes provide an easier and more reliable
means of diagnosing persons at risk of complications from hyperglycemia. Currently, only one half of the
people who have diabetes mellitus have been diagnosed. Screening for diabetes mellitus should begin at 45
years of age and should be repeated every three years in persons without risk factors, and should begin
earlier and be repeated more often in those with risk factors. Risk factors include obesity, first-degree
relatives with diabetes mellitus, hypertension, hypertriglyceridemia or previous evidence of impaired
glucose homeostasis. Earlier detection of diabetes mellitus may lead to tighter control of blood glucose
levels and a reduction in the severity of complications associated with this disease.
Diabetes mellitus is a group of metabolic disorders with one common manifestation: hyperglycemia. Chronic
hyperglycemia causes damage to the eyes, kidneys, nerves, heart and blood vessels. The etiology and
pathophysiology leading to the hyperglycemia, however, are markedly different among patients with diabetes
mellitus, dictating different prevention strategies, diagnostic screening methods and treatments. The adverse impact
of hyperglycemia and the rationale for aggressive treatment have recently been reviewed. 1
In June 1997, an international expert committee released a report with new recommendations for the classification
and diagnosis of diabetes mellitus.2 These new recommendations were the result of more than two years of
collaboration among experts from the American Diabetes Association and the World Health Organization (WHO).
The use of classification systems and standardized diagnostic criteria facilitates a common language among
patients, physicians, other health care professionals and scientists.

Previous Classification
In 1979, the National Diabetes Data Group produced a consensus document standardizing the nomenclature and
definitions for diabetes mellitus.3 This document was endorsed one year later by WHO.4,5 The two major types of
diabetes mellitus were given names descriptive of their clinical presentation: insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus
(IDDM) and noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM). However, as treatment recommendations evolved,
correct classification of the type of diabetes mellitus became confusing. For example, it was difficult to correctly
classify persons with NIDDM who were being treated with insulin. This confusion led to the incorrect classification of
a large number of patients with diabetes mellitus, complicating epidemiologic evaluation and clinical management.
The discovery of other types of diabetes with specific pathophysiology that did not fit into this classification system
further complicated the situation. These difficulties, along with new insights into the mechanisms of diabetes
mellitus, provided a major impetus for the development of a new classification system.
The National Diabetes Data Group also established the oral glucose tolerance test (using a glucose load of 75 g) as
the preferred diagnostic test for diabetes mellitus. 3 However, this test has poor reproducibility, lacks physiologic
relevance and is a weaker indicator of long-term complications compared with other measures of
hyperglycemia.6 Furthermore, many high-risk patients are unwilling to undergo this time-consuming test on a repeat
basis. The new diagnostic criteria also address this issue.

Changes in the Classification System

The new classification system identifies four types of diabetes mellitus: type 1, type 2, other specific types and
gestational diabetes. Arabic numerals are specifically used in the new system to minimize the occasional confusion
of type II as the number 11. Each of the types of diabetes mellitus identified extends across a clinical continuum
of hyperglycemia and insulin requirements.
Type 1 diabetes mellitus (formerly called type I, IDDM or juvenile diabetes) is characterized by beta cell destruction
caused by an autoimmune process, usually leading to absolute insulin deficiency.2,7The onset is usually acute,
developing over a period of a few days to weeks. Over 95 percent of persons with type 1 diabetes mellitus develop
the disease before the age of 25, with an equal incidence in both sexes and an increased prevalence in the white
population. A family history of type 1 diabetes mellitus, gluten enteropathy (celiac disease) or other endocrine
disease is often found. Most of these patients have the immune-mediated form of type 1 diabetes mellitus with islet
cell antibodies and often have other autoimmune disorders such as Hashimoto's thyroiditis, Addison's disease,
vitiligo or pernicious anemia. A few patients, usually those of African or Asian origin, have no antibodies but have a
similar clinical presentation; consequently, they are included in this classification and their disease is called the
idiopathic form of type 1 diabetes mellitus.2,7
Type 2 diabetes mellitus (formerly called NIDDM, type II or adult-onset) is characterized by insulin resistance in
peripheral tissue and an insulin secretory defect of the beta cell.2,7 This is the most common form of diabetes mellitus
and is highly associated with a family history of diabetes, older age, obesity and lack of exercise. It is more common
in women, especially women with a history of gestational diabetes, and in blacks, Hispanics and Native Americans.
Insulin resistance and hyperinsulinemia eventually lead to impaired glucose tolerance. Defective beta cells become
exhausted, further fueling the cycle of glucose intolerance and hyperglycemia. The etiology of type 2 diabetes
mellitus is multifactorial and probably genetically based, but it also has strong behavioral components.
Types of diabetes mellitus of various known etiologies are grouped together to form the classification called other
specific types. This group includes persons with genetic defects of beta-cell function (this type of diabetes was
formerly called MODY or maturity-onset diabetes in youth) or with defects of insulin action; persons with diseases of
the exocrine pancreas, such as pancreatitis or cystic fibrosis; persons with dysfunction associated with other
endocrinopathies (e.g., acromegaly); and persons with pancreatic dysfunction caused by drugs, chemicals or
infections.2,7 The etiologic classifications of diabetes mellitus are listed in Table 1.2
View/Print Table
TABLE 1

Etiologic Classifications of Diabetes Mellitus

Type 1 diabetes mellitus*

Type 2 diabetes mellitus*

Other specific types:

Genetic defects of beta-cell function

Genetic defects in insulin action

Diseases of the exocrine pancreas

Pancreatitis

Trauma/pancreatectomy

Neoplasia

Cystic fibrosis

Hemochromatosis

Others

Endocrinopathies

Acromegaly

Cushing's syndrome

Glucagonoma

Pheochromocytoma

Hyperthyroidism

Somatostatinoma

Aldosteronoma

Others

Drug- or chemical-induced

Vacor

Pentamidine

Nicotinic acid

Glucocorticoids

Thyroid hormone

Diazoxide

Beta-adrenergic agonists

Thiazides

Phenytoin

Alfa-interferon

Others

Infections

Congenital rubella

Cytomegalovirus

Others

Uncommon forms of immune-mediated diabetes

Other genetic syndromes sometimes associated with diabetes

Down syndrome

Klinefelter's syndrome

Turner's syndrome

Wolfram syndrome

Friedreich's ataxia

Huntington's chorea

Lawrence-Moon Beidel syndrome

Myotonic dystrophy

Porphyria

Prader-Willi syndrome

Others

Gestational diabetes mellitus

*Patients with any form of diabetes may require insulin treatment at some stage of the disease. Use of insulin does not, of itself,
classify the patient.
Vacor is an acute rodenticide that was released in 1975 but withdrawn as a general-use pesticide in 1979 because of severe
toxicity. Exposure produces destruction of the beta cells of the pancreas, causing diabetes mellitus in survivors.
Adapted with permission from Report of the Expert Committee on the Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes Mellitus. Diabetes
Care 1997;20:118397.

The definition and diagnosis of gestational diabetes mellitus was not altered in these new
recommendations.2 Gestational diabetes mellitus is an operational classification (rather than a pathophysiologic
condition) identifying women who develop diabetes mellitus during gestation. 7(Women with diabetes mellitus before
pregnancy are said to have pregestational diabetes and are not included in this group.) Women who develop type
1 diabetes mellitus during pregnancy and women with undiagnosed asymptomatic type 2 diabetes mellitus that is
discovered during pregnancy are classified with gestational diabetes mellitus. However, most women classified with
gestational diabetes mellitus have normal glucose homeostasis during the first half of the pregnancy and develop a
relative insulin deficiency during the last half of the pregnancy, leading to hyperglycemia. The hyperglycemia
resolves in most women after delivery but places them at increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes mellitus later
in life.

New Diagnostic Criteria for Diabetes Mellitus

The new diagnostic criteria for diabetes mellitus have been greatly simplified (Table 2).2
View/Print Table
TABLE 2

Criteria for the Diagnosis of Diabetes Mellitus and Impaired Glucose Homeostasis
Diabetes mellituspositive findings from any two of the following tests on different days:

Symptoms of diabetes mellitus* plus casual plasma glucose concentration 200 mg

per dL (11.1 mmol per L)

or

FPG 126 mg per dL (7.0 mmol per L)

or

2hrPPG 200 mg per dL (11.1 mmol per L) after a 75-g glucose load

Impaired glucose homeostasis

Impaired fasting glucose: FPG from 110 to <126 (6.1 to 7.0 mmol per L)

Impaired glucose tolerance: 2hrPPG from 140 to <200 (7.75 to <11.1 mmol per L)

Normal

FPG <110 mg per dL (6.1 mmol per L)

2hrPPG <140 mg per dL (7.75 mmol per L)

FPG = fasting plasma glucose; 2hrPPG = two-hour postprandial glucose.

*Symptoms include polyuria, polydipsia or unexplained weight loss.
Casual is defined as any time of day without regard to time since last meal.
Adapted with permission from Report of the Expert Committee on the Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes Mellitus. Diabetes
Care 1997; 20:118397.

The oral glucose tolerance test previously recommended by the National Diabetes Data Group has been replaced
with the recommendation that the diagnosis of diabetes mellitus be based on two fasting plasma glucose levels of
126 mg per dL (7.0 mmol per L) or higher. Other options for diagnosis include two two-hour postprandial plasma
glucose (2hrPPG) readings of 200 mg per dL (11.1 mmol per L) or higher after a glucose load of 75 g (essentially,
the criterion recommended by WHO) or two casual glucose readings of 200 mg per dL (11.1 mmol per L) or higher.
Measurement of the fasting plasma glucose level is the preferred diagnostic test, but any combination of two
abnormal test results can be used. Fasting plasma glucose was selected as the primary diagnostic test because it
predicts adverse outcomes (e.g., retinopathy) as well as the 2hrPPG test but is much more reproducible than the
oral glucose tolerance test or the 2hrPPG test and easier to perform in a clinical setting.
The choice of the new cutoff point for fasting plasma glucose levels is based on strong evidence from a number of
populations linking the risk of various complications to the glycemic status of the patient.Figure 1 shows the risk of
diabetic retinopathy based on the glycemic status of 40- to 74-year-old participants in the National Health and
Nutritional Epidemiologic Survey (NHANES III).2 The risk of retinopathy greatly increases when the patient's fasting
plasma glucose level is higher than 109 to 116 mg per dL (6.05 to 6.45 mmol per L) or when the result of a 2hrPPG
test is higher than 150 to 180 mg per dL (8.3 to 10.0 mmol per L). However, the committee decided to maintain the
cutoff point for the 2hrPPG test at 200 mg per dL (11.1 mmol per L) because so much literature has already been
published using this criterion. They selected a cutoff point for fasting plasma glucose of 126 mg per dL (7.0 mmol
per L) or higher. This point corresponded best with the 2hrPPG level of 200 mg per dL (11.1 mmol per L). The risk of
other complications also increases dramatically at the same cutoff points.

View/Print Figure

FIGURE 1.
Prevalence of retinopathy by deciles of the distribution of FPG, 2hrPPG and HbAlc in 40- to 74-year-old participants in the
National Health and Nutritional Epidemiologic Survey (NHANES III). The x-axis labels indicate the lower limit of each decile
group. (FPG = fasting plasma glucose; 2hrPG = two-hour postprandial plasma glucose; HbA1c = glycosylated hemoglobin)

A normal fasting plasma glucose level is less than 110 mg per dL (6.1 mmol per L) and normal 2hrPPG levels are
less than 140 mg per dL (7.75 mmol per L). Blood glucose levels above the normal level but below the criterion
established for diabetes mellitus indicate impaired glucose homeostasis. Persons with fasting plasma glucose levels
ranging from 110 to 126 mg per dL (6.1 to 7.0 mmol per L) are said to have impaired fasting glucose, while those
with a 2hrPPG level between 140 mg per dL (7.75 mmol per L) and 200 mg per dL (11.1 mmol per L) are said to
have impaired glucose tolerance. Both impaired fasting glucose and impaired glucose tolerance are associated with
an increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes mellitus. Lifestyle changes, such as weight loss and exercise, are
warranted in these patients.
The committee chose not to address the current controversies surrounding the diagnosis of gestational diabetes
mellitus and did not alter the diagnostic criteria in this area. Screening for gestational diabetes mellitus is generally
accomplished with administration of a 50-g glucose load one hour before determining a plasma glucose level. A
positive screen (defined as a plasma glucose level of 140 mg per dL [7.75 mmol per L] or higher) should prompt a
diagnostic test: fasting plasma glucose levels should be measured after a 100-g glucose load at baseline and at
one, two and three hours after the glucose load. Two of the four values must be abnormal (105 mg per dL [5.8 mmol
per L] or higher; 190 mg per dL [10.5 mmol per L] or higher; 165 mg per dL [9.15 mmol per L] or higher; and 145 mg
per dL [8.05 mmol per L] or higher) for a patient to be diagnosed with gestational diabetes mellitus. The WHO
criteria use a glucose load of 75 g with a test two hours after the glucose load, using the same criterion for the
diagnosis of gestational diabetes mellitus.

Glycated Hemoglobin
Measurements of glycated hemoglobin have commonly been used to monitor the glycemic control of persons
already diagnosed with diabetes mellitus. Measurements of this hemoglobin, also called glycosylated hemoglobin,
glycohemoglobin, hemoglobin A1c or hemoglobin A1, aid in the evaluation of the stable linkage of glucose to minor

hemoglobin components. There is currently no agreement on standardization, so a variety of measurement methods

and normal ranges are being used.
Some experts argue that a glycated hemoglobin test could be used for the diagnosis of diabetes mellitus. 8,9 Glycated
hemoglobin levels are as highly correlated to adverse clinical outcomes (e.g., retinopathy) as are fasting plasma
glucose or postprandial plasma glucose levels and are as reproducible as fasting plasma glucose levels. The major
advantage of measuring glycated hemoglobin is that the specimen can be collected without regard to when the
patient last ate.
The expert committee, however, did not include glycated hemoglobin measurement in the recommendations for
international standards for the diagnosis of diabetes mellitus.2 They noted the lack of standardization and normal
ranges among the various tests, making it difficult to dictate a standard cutoff point. The test for measuring glycated
hemoglobin is not widely available in developing countries; consequently, it was not favored for use as an
international criterion. There is also some overlap in the levels of glycated hemoglobin in patients with diabetes
mellitus and those without it.
Although it was not specifically recommended by the National Diabetes Data Group as a diagnostic test for diabetes
mellitus, glycated hemoglobin may, in some cases, be used to diagnose diabetes mellitus. The diagnosis of diabetes
mellitus is made in the following fashion.8,9 A glycated hemoglobin level of 1 percent above the reference laboratory's
upper range of normal is consistent with diabetes mellitus and has a specificity of 98 percent. 8 People with normal
glycated hemoglobin levels (i.e., within the laboratory's published normal range) either do not have diabetes mellitus
or have well-controlled diabetes mellitus (i.e., a false-negative test). However, incorrectly diagnosing these persons
as normal would not alter their treatment because exercise and diet are adequately controlling their blood glucose
levels. People who are not diagnosed with diabetes mellitus and who have near-normal glycated hemoglobin levels
(less than 1 percent above the normal range) may be advised of the high probability that they have diabetes mellitus
and may be offered the same treatment as a person with mild diabetes mellitus (i.e., dietary and exercise
counseling), followed by repeat testing of glycated hemoglobin several months later. This method of screening and
counseling high-risk persons is easier for many patients and clinicians because the blood specimen can be drawn at
the time of the patient visit.

Impact of the New Diagnostic Criteria

Physicians may be concerned that the new diagnostic criteria for diabetes mellitus, including the lower cutoff for
fasting plasma glucose levels, may greatly increase the number of people who are diagnosed with diabetes mellitus
in their practices. Concerns about overdiagnosis include the harm created by anxiety, the risks and costs of
unnecessary treatment, and possible insurance discrimination, especially if the condition that is being diagnosed is
relatively benign or if no effective treatment is available. On the other hand, underdiagnosing a condition is harmful if
early treatment can make a difference in patient outcome, especially if the treatment is relatively benign and
inexpensive.
It is true that a rigorous screening program will increase the number of persons who are diagnosed with diabetes
mellitus. However, currently one half of the people who have diabetes mellitus according to the old criteria have not
been diagnosed and may remain undiagnosed for up to 10 years.10 People who are asymptomatic and undiagnosed
continue to develop the complications of diabetes mellitus.1

Screening Recommendations
The expert committee provided guidelines governing the selection of patients to be tested for diabetes and the
frequency of that testing (Table 3).2 Testing should be considered for all persons who are 45 years or older and
should be repeated at three-year intervals.

View/Print Table
TABLE 3

Recommendations for Diabetes Screening of Asymptomatic Persons

Timing of first test and repeat tests

Test at age 45; repeat every three years:

Patients 45 years of age or older

Test before age 45; repeat more frequently than every three years if patient has one or more of the
following risk factors:

Obesity: 120% of desirable body weight or BMI 27 kg per m2

First-degree relative with diabetes mellitus

Member of high risk-ethnic group (black, Hispanic, Native American, Asian)

History of gestational diabetes mellitus or delivering a baby weighing more than 4,032 g (9 lb)

Hypertensive ( 140/90 mm Hg)

HDL cholesterol level 35 mg per dL (0.90 mmol per L) and/or triglyceride level 250 mg per dL
(2.83 mmol per L)

History of IGT or IFG on prior testing

BMI = body mass index; HDL = high density lipoprotein; IGT = impaired glucose tolerance; IFG = impaired fasting glucose.
Adapted with permission from Report of the Expert Committee on the Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes Mellitus. Diabetes
Care 1997;20:118397.

Testing should be considered at a younger age and be performed more frequently in persons who are obese (120
percent of desirable body weight or greater or a body mass index of 27 kg per m 2 or greater); who have a firstdegree relative with diabetes mellitus; who are black, Hispanic or Native American; who have delivered a baby
weighing more than 4,032 g (9 lb), or who were diagnosed with gestational diabetes mellitus during pregnancy; are
hypertensive; or have a high-density lipoprotein level of 35 mg per dL (0.90 mmol per L) or lower and/or a
triglyceride level of 250 mg per dL (2.83 mmol per L) or higher. In addition, any patient with impaired
glucohomeostasis should be reevaluated on a more frequent basis.
The expert committee recommended that screening for gestational diabetes mellitus be reserved for use in women
who meet one or more of the following criteria: 25 years of age or older, obese (defined as more than 120 percent

above their desirable body weight), a family history of a first-degree relative with diabetes mellitus, and belong to a
high-risk ethnic population.

Final Comment
The changes recommended by the expert committee for the diagnosis of diabetes mellitus should prove beneficial
to patients. Measurement of fasting plasma glucose levels should be more acceptable to patients than the oral
glucose tolerance test and can be readily incorporated with fasting lipid determinations. Identifying asymptomatic
persons earlier in the disease process will allow earlier institution of lifestyle changes and medical therapy that may
decrease the complications of hyperglycemia. The National Diabetes Data Group emphasizes that these changes in
diagnostic criteria have not changed the treatment goals in patients with diabetes mellitus. These goals include
maintaining a fasting plasma glucose level of less than 120 mg per dL (6.65 mmol per L) and a glucose hemoglobin
measurement of less than 7.0 percent.