Chapter 1 Cellular Nature of Life

1.1 Characteristics of Living Things

Learning Points and Checkpoints
Learning Point
1. Define an organism and give several examples.
1. An organism is a living thing that exhibits characteristics of life. Examples are bears, plants,
birds, and insects.
Checkpoint Based on the information on this page, what is one characteristic of a
living thing?
Sample answers: Reproducing by making flowers is a characteristic of flowering
plants. Needing food and water are characteristics of animals.
Learning Point
2. List three needs of organisms.
2. Organisms need energy, food and certain materials such as nutrients, water, and certain
gases. They need a place to live and raise their young.
Checkpoint Why is sunlight important to animals?
Animals get energy indirectly from sunlight because they eat plants or other animals that eat
plants.
Checkpoint What needs are met when an animal eats food?
The animal gets food energy, nutrients, and water from food that it eats.
Learning Point
3. Name and describe six characteristics of living things
3. Organisms grow and develop, can reproduce, respond to their surroundings,
acquire and use energy to maintain homeostasis, are adapted to their environment,
and are made up of cells.
Checkpoint What is the difference between growth and development?
Growth means that the organism increases in size. Development means that the organism
changes over its lifetime and new structures appear.
Checkpoint How are a stimulus and a response related?
A response is the reaction of an organism to a stimulus.

Checkpoint Why must an organism control its internal environment?

Chemical processes take place only under certain conditions, such as a narrow temperature
range.
Checkpoint What is an adaptation?
An adaptation is a structure or behavior in a species that helps the species survive in its
environment.
Checkpoint How are the bodies of organisms organized?
The bodies of organisms are made up of cells, the basic unit of life. Cells are further organized
into more complex structures: tissues, organs, and organ systems.
Learning Point
4. Give examples of unicellular organisms and describe two of their characteristics.
4. Bacteria, protozoans, and yeasts are unicellular organisms. They are microscopic. In these
organisms, the single cell must carry out all of the basic functions needed to sustain the life of
the organism.
Checkpoint Why is a microscope needed to observe unicellular organisms?
Unicellular organisms are composed of a single small cell that cannot be seen without the aid of
a microscope.
Learning Point
5. Explain how a multicellular organisms body is organized.
5. The body of a multicellular organism is made up of many cells, which are grouped together
into larger parts. Each part performs a function for the organism.
Checkpoint What is an important difference between the cell of a unicellular organism and a
cell of a multicellular organism?
The cell of a unicellular organism carries out all of the organisms life functions. Each cell of a
multicellular organism carries out specific functions.
Learning Point
6. Explain how the development of the microscope changed the study of organisms.
6. The microscope allowed scientists to observe cells and how they function in an organism.
Checkpoint What two conclusions about cells did early scientists make?
All organisms are composed of cells. Cells carry out all the functions needed to support life.

Learning Point
7. Summarize the three parts of the cell theory.
7. All living things are made up of one or more cells. Cells carry out the functions needed to
support life. Cells come only from pre-existing cells.
Checkpoint What does it mean that cells come only from pre-existing cells?
Cells cannot arise spontaneously. They come only from cells that already exist.
Section Review
1. Recall How are clouds similar to living things?
Clouds move. Most organisms move.
2. Describe How would you describe the cells of a multicellular organism?
The cells of a multicellular organism are organized into larger and more complex body parts that
have specific functions. Each cell of a multicellular organism is specialized to carry out specific
functions.
3. Explain What is meant by the statement Life comes from life?
Living cells give rise to new living cells by cell division.
4. Relate How are the needs of an organism related to its characteristics?
An organism needs to take in energy and certain materials such as nutrients, water, and gases
to carry out reproduction, homeostasis, growth and development, and other characteristics of
life.
5. Contrast How does the way plants obtain energy differ from the way animals obtain
energy?
Plants obtain energy from food that they make. Animals obtain energy from food that they eat.
6. Predict How would plants and animals be affected if light from the sun disappeared from
Earth?
Plants would die because they could not get energy by making food. Animals that eat plants
would then die without food. Animals that eat other animals would then die.
7. Apply A scientist discovers an object on the rain forest floor. How might she determine
whether or not the object is alive?
Answers may vary. She might examine the object under a microscope to see whether it is
composed of cells.
8. Interpret How does the cell theory explain the spoilage of food by microorganisms when the
food is left at room temperature?
The cell theory states that cells come from existing cells. If even one microorganism exists in
food or in the air around the food, it will multiply until the food spoils.

9. Evaluate Anton van Leeuwenhoek called the organisms he found in pond water little
animals. Do you think this name was accurate? Why or why not?
It was accurate for the time because they moved like animals do. Today, we know that these
organisms are not multicellular animals.

Trends in Science

What had to happen before a unicellular organism became a multicellular organism?

Individual organisms grouped together, and some of the cells became specialized.

How is a colony of organisms different from a true multicellular organism?

The cells of a colony can live apart, but the cells of a true multicellular organism cannot.

Classroom Activity Examining Onion Cells

Draw Conclusions
1. Observe What is the general shape of an onion cell?
The cells are somewhat rectangular.
2. Interpret Data Is onion skin composed of one cell or many cells?
Onion skin is composed of many cells that are packed together.
3. Relate Cause and Effect What was the purpose of adding iodine stain?
It made the cells easier to see.
4. Analyze Data Were the onion skin cells close together or far apart? What might be an
advantage of this cell arrangement?
They were packed close together. This probably made the skin stronger.
5. Interpret Data How did the appearance of the onion skin differ when you switched to using
the microscope?
Answers may vary. Students may say that the cells appear larger and they can observe
more detail.
Lab Investigation Examining Organisms in Pond Water
Analysis and Conclusion
1. Explain Do you think the organisms you observed are unicellular or multicellular? Give a
reason why you think so.
I think they are unicellular because they are so small.

2. Draw Conclusions List the characteristics of the organisms in pond water that led you to
conclude they were alive.
They swam in jerky movements. They seemed to change directions in response to objects in
their way.
3. Compare and Contrast Describe some similarities and differences between the cell from
one of these organisms and the cell from a plant or an animal.
It is much smaller than either a plant or an animal cell. Most plant and animal cells cannot
swim. All cells have a nucleus, ribosomes, and other organelles.
4. Predict How might the organisms meet their need to stay cool during summer?
They might swim beneath vegetation or to the bottom of the pond.
5. Identify Limitations What factors in your experiment prevent you from seeing all the
organisms present in the pond water and all of their cell parts?
The microscope showed only a small part of the drop of pond water. The magnification of
the microscope was not high enough to show most of the cell parts.
Further Investigation
Design an experiment to test a characteristic of microscopic living things other than
movement.
Possible investigations could include observing for reproduction (increased number of
individuals through asexual reproduction); placing organisms in light and dark areas and
comparing responses; observing cellular makeup and using higher magnification to identify cell
parts.
Section 1.2 Inside a Cell
Learning Points and Checkpoints
Learning Point
8. Describe the importance of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, and
water to living things.
8. Carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins provide energy and are components of cell
membranes. Proteins are used to build and repair body parts. Enzymes, which are
necessary for many chemical processes, are proteins. Nucleic acids include DNA,
which has the genetic information for making proteins, and RNA, which is involved in
making proteins. Almost all chemical processes within a cell take place in water.
Water helps a cell keep its shape and maintains homeostasis.
Checkpoint What are two functions of carbohydrates?
Carbohydrates are a source of energy and components of cell membranes and cell walls.

Checkpoint Why is cholesterol required by the body, and how is too much cholesterol harmful?
Cholesterol is a component of cell membrane, but too much cholesterol clogs blood vessels.
Checkpoint What are three functions of proteins?
Proteins are building materials for cell and body parts. They are used to repair body parts. They
control chemical processes in the body.
Checkpoint What is the function of DNA?
DNA contains the genetic instructions for making proteins that a cell needs.
Checkpoint Why is water so important to living things?
Water makes up most of a cell and helps the cell keep its shape. It dissolves substances in a
cell and participates in chemical processes. It keeps the body temperature constant. It
transports materials in and out of a cell.
Learning Point
9. Describe the different structures of a cell and their functions.
9. Cytoplasmjellylike material that contains organelles; organellessmall
structures within the cytoplasm that have specific functions; cell membrane
separates the inside of the cell from its external environment, holds the cell together,
and gives shape; cell wallsupports and protects the cell.
Checkpoint What are organelles and what are their functions in cells?
Organelles are small structures in the cytoplasm of a cell. Each kind of organelle performs a
specific function for the cell.
Checkpoint What are three functions of a cell membrane?
The cell membrane separates the inside of a cell from the outside environment, it holds the cell
together, and it controls what enters and leaves the cell.
Learning Point
10. Describe the nucleus of a cell.
10. A nucleus is a large oval organelle. It is surrounded by a double membrane that contains
pores. It contains DNA.
Checkpoint How are DNA, chromosomes, and the nucleus related?
DNA coils up into chromosomes which are located in a cells nucleus.
Learning Point
11. Describe the organelles that provide energy to plant and animal cells.
11. Chloroplasts are green disklike organelles that make sugars during
photosynthesis. Mitochondria are rod-shaped organelles that convert the energy in
sugars into a form that plant and animal cells can use.

Checkpoint How do chloroplasts and mitochondria work together to provide energy for a plant
cell?
Chloroplasts change the energy from sunlight into food. Mitochondria change the
energy in the food into a form that plant cells can use.
Learning Point
12. Describe how the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi body work together to
process and transport cell materials.
12. The Golgi body receives material from the ER. Together, they process and transport cell
materials.
Checkpoint How is the endoplasmic reticulum like a highway system?
It consists of a network of passageways through which proteins and other materials are
transported from one place to another in a cell.
Checkpoint What is the function of the Golgi body?
The Golgi body receives materials from the ER and finishes processing and packaging them.
Then it distributes the materials to other locations in the cell or sends them out of the cell.
Learning Point
13. Describe the functions of vacuoles and lysosomes as organelles that store
materials.
13. Vacuoles store water, food, and other materials. Lysosomes are bags of powerful enzymes
that break down large food particles and worn-out cell parts.
Checkpoint How does the central vacuole of a plant cell compare with a vacuole of an animal
cell?
A plants central vacuole is very large and takes up most of the cell. It supports the cell and
gives it its shape. An animals vacuole is much smaller. Both vacuoles store water, food, and
other materials.
Checkpoint Why must a lysosome be surrounded by a membrane?
A lysosome holds chemicals that can digest a cell. These chemicals must be kept isolated.
Learning Point
14. Compare and contrast plant cells and animal cells.
14. Both have cell membranes, cytoplasm, mitochondria, ER, ribosomes, nuclei, and Golgi
bodies. Animal cells have small vacuoles, and plants have a large central vacuole. Animal cells
have lysosomes, while plant cells do not. Plant cells have chloroplasts and a cell wall, while
animal cells do not.

Section Review
1. Predict Certain cells produce protein hormones, which are substances that act on many
parts of the body. Through which organelles would you predict a hormone might travel after
it is produced?
The hormones are produced in ribosomes and transported through the endoplasmic reticulum
to the Golgi body, where they are packaged and sent out of the cell.
2. Contrast How is the cell of a bacterium different from the cells of plants and animals?
The cell of a bacterium has no nucleus. It lacks organelles with membranes. All life processes
take place in the cytoplasm.
3. Apply You cut your skin in an accident. Which of the four major large molecules
(carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, lipids) do you think would be most important to your
cells? Explain why.
Proteins would probably be most important because they are needed to repair body parts.
4. Analyze Why is the nucleus often called the control center of a cell?
The nucleus contains DNA, which controls the production of proteins. Proteins take part in all
the functions of a cell.
5. Compare and Contrast Fill in the table to show how a cell wall and cell membrane compare
by placing checkmarks in the correct boxes.
Function

Surrounds a cell
Protects a cell
Allows only certain
materials to pass
through
Is thin and flexible

Cell Membrane

Is thick and rigid

Present in animals
Present in plants

Cell Wall

Classroom Activity Modeling the Cell Membrane

Draw Conclusions
1. Observe What substance did the strainer allow to pass through?
The sugar passed through the strainer.
2. Observe What substance did the strainer prevent from passing through?
The grains of rice did not pass through the strainer.
3. Interpret Data What cell structure did you model in this activity?
I modeled a cell membrane.
4. Infer What might be an advantage to a cell of having a membrane that functions similar to
the way the strainer functioned?
Answers may vary. Materials that could harm a cell are kept out, while needed materials are
allowed to pass into the cell.

Section 1.3 Cell Differentiation

Learning Points and Checkpoints
Learning Point
15. Give an example of a cell type that is specialized to do a certain job and explain how it is
specialized.
15. Examples will vary. A nerve cell has projections through which messages can be sent and
received.
Checkpoint Why cant a single cell from a multicellular organism live independently?
It cannot perform all the life functions it needs to survive.
Checkpoint How are plant root cells adapted to absorbing water and minerals from soil?
Plant root cells have tiny extensions that increase the surface area for absorbing water and
minerals from soil.
Learning Point
16. Explain how a multicellular organism is organized into cells, tissues, organs, and
organ systems.
16. Similar cells are organized into tissues. Several kinds of tissues are organized into organs.
Several kinds of organs are organized into an organ system. All the organ systems make up the
body of the organism.
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Checkpoint What is an example of specialization in cells?

A leaf cell makes food, but it cannot absorb water and minerals from the soil.
Checkpoint What is a tissue?
A tissue is a group of similar cells that all do the same job.
Checkpoint What is an organ?
An organ is a body part made up of two or more kinds of tissues.
Checkpoint What are the organs that make up a complex animals digestive system?
The organs of a dogs digestive system include an esophagus, a stomach, small and large
intestines, a liver, a gallbladder, and a pancreas.
Section Review
1. Identify What are the organ systems of a maple tree?
Shoot system: stems and leaves
Root system: roots
2. Identify What level of organization is composed only of cells of the same kind?
A tissue contains only one kind of cell.
3. Explain What is the difference between a tissue and an organ?
A tissue contains only one kind of cell. An organ contains two or more kinds of cells.
4. Apply You examine a body part and observe that it is composed of five different kinds of
cells. What is the level of organization of that body part?
It is an organ.
5. Analyze Why is specialization of cells an advantage to an organism?
With specialization, cells can do a single function and do it well. Organisms can be larger and
more complex, which may help them to survive.
6. Differentiate How is a muscle cell different from the undifferentiated cell of a bacterium?
A muscle cell is specialized to contract. It doesnt perform most other functions. A bacterial cell
performs all the functions the bacterium needs to survive.
7. Synthesize What are the characteristics of a skin cell? What is its job?
A skin cell is thin and flat. Its job is to cover and protect the outside of an organism.
8. Synthesize A bone has two different areas. The middle of the bone contains dense
compact bone that gives the bone strength. The ends of the bone contain spongy bone that
has many holes and spaces. Bone marrow, which makes blood cells, is found here. Are the
two kinds of bone material different tissues? Explain your answer.
The two kinds of bone are different tissues because they have different characteristics and
different functions.
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Trends in Science

How might stem cells help a person who needs a heart transplant because her heart is worn
out?

A new heart could be built using stem cells that become all the kinds of cells in a heart.

What might an embryo be like if it had no stem cells?

It would probably be a mass of undifferentiated cells.

Classroom Activity Modeling Tissues and Organs

Draw Conclusions
1. Interpret Models What was represented by each color of clay?
Each color represented a kind of specialized cell.
2. Interpret Models What did your model represent when you grouped the balls of clay in step
2? Step 3? Step 4?
Step 2tissue; step 3organ; step 4organ system
3. Interpret Data Which level of organization has the most cell diversity?
An organ system has the most cell diversity.
Lab Investigation Estimating Cell Size
Analysis and Conclusion
1. Calculate What is the actual size of a cell if the cell measures 100 m under the microscope
and the total magnification of the microscope is 100X?
1 m
2. Compare and Contrast How are the sizes of typical plant cells and animal cells alike and
different?
Both are microscopic, but plant cells are usually larger than animal cells.
3. Compare and Contrast How are the shapes of typical plant cells and animal cells alike and
different?
Both are three-dimensional. Plant cells are usually rectangular and boxlike. Animal cells are
round or irregular in shape.
4. Identify Limitations What are some limitations of estimating the size of cells by this
method?
Answers will vary. A possible source of error is estimating the number of cells that fit across
the field of view.

11

Further Investigation
Estimating cell size can be made more accurate by using a higher power objective lens.
However, you cannot use a ruler under this objective. Predict how your cell size data would
change if you used a 40X objective instead of a 10X objective.
A 40X objective would produce a field of view that was one-fourth the diameter of the field of
view seen with a 10X objective. If 12 cells fit across the 10X field, 3 cells would fit across the
40X field. This estimate would be much more accurate, although the estimated cell size
would not differ appreciably.

Chapter 1 Exercises
Part I Reviewing Key Terms
A. Fill in each blank with the most appropriate key term.
1. An organelle that holds digestive enzymes is a lysosome.
2. Protein synthesis is carried out by ribosomes.
3. A body part that consists of two or more tissues is a(n) organ.
4. A cell is filled with jellylike cytoplasm.
5. A nucleus is the control center of a cell.
6. Food, water, and wastes are stored in a vacuole.

B. Write the word that identifies each diagram.

1. mitochondrion
2. chloroplast

C. If the statement is true, write true next to it. If it is false, change the underlined word(s) to
different words that make the statement true.
1. The Golgi body processes proteins and sends them to the endoplasmic reticulum. False.
endoplasmic reticulum; Golgi body
2. A cell is the basic unit of life. True
3. An organism that is made up of specialized cells is multicellular. True
4. The need for a cell to keep its internal conditions constant is called stabilization. False.
homeostasis
5. An enzyme is a carbohydrate. False. protein

12

D. Circle the letter of the term that best completes each sentence.
1. The reaction of an organism to a stimulus is a b
a. reaction.
b. response.
c. behavior.
d. movement.
2. A chromosome is made of a
a. DNA.
b. carbohydrates.
c. enzymes.
d. lipids.
3. A body part that contains only one kind of cell is d
a. an organ.
b. an organ system.
c. an organelle.
d. a tissue.
4. An organism that is made up of a cell that must perform all the functions of the organism b
a. is multicellular.
b. is unicellular.
c. is specialized.
d. contains an organ system.

5. An example of a structure that is not an organelle is a c

a. mitochondrion.
b. vacuole.
c. cell membrane.
d. nucleus.
E. Answer each question.
1. Name a structure that surrounds all animal cells. cell membrane
2. Identify the outer boundary of a plant cell. cell wall
3. What causes a response in an organism? a stimulus

13

4. Which of the four kinds of large molecules of life is DNA? nucleic acid
5. What is a group of organs that perform a major job for an organism? organ system
Part II Developing Skills
A. Circle the letter of the term or phrase that best answers each question.
1. Which of the following is not a characteristic of all living things? b
a. organized into cells
b. moves from place to place
c. reproduces
d. grows
2. What is the ultimate source of all energy for living things? c
a. raw materials
b. lipids
c. the sun
d. proteins
3. Which of the following structures is the smallest? c
a. an organ
b. a cell
c. an organelle
d. a tissue
4. Which of the following were discovered using a microscope? d
a. organs.
b. multicellular organisms.
c. atoms.
d. cells.
B. Compare and Contrast To compare plant and animal cells, place a checkmark under the
kind of cell where each cell part is found.

Cell Part

Plant Cell

Large central vacuole

Mitochondria

Animal Cell

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Cell membrane

Cell wall

Lysosome

C. Critical Thinking Answer each question.

1. Apply Concepts Choose a characteristic of living things and explain how that characteristic
would be affected if a plant lost all its chloroplasts. Answers will vary with the characteristic
chosen. Because the chloroplasts capture the suns energy and make food, the plant would
have no energy. This would affect its ability to grow and develop.
2. Predict Can a cell survive with a cell wall but without a cell membrane? Give reasons to
support your answer. Answers may vary. The cell membrane controls what goes in and out of
a cell. The cell is not likely to survive without a membrane because needed raw materials
would flow in and out of the cell randomly. Food in the cell would flow out and not be broken
down for energy. Wastes and harmful materials would freely enter the cell.
3. Infer Describe the path of a protein from the location where it is made to the location where it
is used to repair damaged muscle tissue. The protein is synthesized by ribosomes in a
muscle cell that is part of the damaged tissue. It moves into the endoplasmic reticulum to be
processed, then is transferred to the Golgi body for packaging. The protein moves out of the
muscle cell and into the damaged part of the muscle tissue.
4. Sequence Arrange the following terms from smallest to largest: digestive system, blood cell,
nucleus, blood, horse, liver. nucleus, blood cell, blood, liver, digestive system, horse
5. Draw Conclusions Louis Pasteur did a series of experiments in which he showed that a
sterile liquid must be exposed to air if bacteria were to grow in it. How did Pasteurs
experiments support the cell theory? There were no living bacteria in the sterile liquid before
it was exposed to air. If there were bacteria in the liquid after it was exposed to air, they had
to have come from bacteria in the air. This conclusion supports the third part of the cell theory
stating that cells come only from pre-existing cells.

Part III Thinking Further

Choose a unicellular organism such as a paramecium or a euglena. Research the organism to
find out what organelles and other cell parts it has. Do any of the organelles have special
functions? How do these special organelles contribute to the characteristics of life?
Students may choose a paramecium, which has a contractile vacuole, or a euglena, which has
a chloroplast and a red eyespot. The contractile vacuole pumps excess water out of a cell,
maintaining homeostasis. An eyespot allows the euglena to respond to its environment.

15

Chapter 2 Cell Processes

2.1

Cell Transport

Learning Points and Checkpoints

Learning Point
1. Explain two ways that molecules move by passive transport within a cell.
1. Small molecules such as oxygen and water can pass freely through the cell membrane,
which is selectively permeable. Large molecules such as glucose and amino acids pass
through the membrane with the help of transport proteins. This process is passive because
it does not use energy.
Checkpoint Why is the cell membrane considered selectively permeable?
Because it allows some materials to pass through while preventing passage of other
materials.
Checkpoint What is passive transport?
It is the movement of molecules through the cell membrane without using energy.
Learning Point
2. Explain how diffusion occurs across the cell membrane.
2. Molecules move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration
without energy.
Checkpoint What can happen to a fish if the concentration of carbon dioxide in the surrounding
water is too high?
Carbon dioxide will not diffuse out and will build up in the fishs cells. The fish could eventually
die.
Learning Point
3. Describe the process of osmosis.
3. During osmosis, water molecules move across a selectively permeable membrane from
where there are more water molecules to where there are fewer water molecules. Osmosis is
passive transportit does not require energy.
Checkpoint How is water important to a cell?
Most substances are dissolved in water. The dissolved substances take part in chemical
processes.
Checkpoint In what direction do water molecules move during osmosis?
They move from where there are more water molecules to where there are fewer water
molecules relative to the amount of solute.
16

Learning Point
4. Explain why a cell must be in an environment in which the relative amounts of
water and solutes are similar to those in the cytoplasm.
4. If there is more water outside the cell than inside, water will move into the cell by osmosis and
cause it to swell and possibly burst. If there is more water inside the cell than outside, water will
move out of the cell by osmosis and cause it to shrink. If the relative amounts of water and
solutes are similar inside and outside the cell, then the cell can maintain its shape and function.
Checkpoint What happens to a cell that has been placed in a salt water solution? A solution of
pure water?
A cell placed in salt water shrinks because water leaves the cell. A cell placed in
pure water swells and may burst because too much water enters the cell.
Learning Point
5. Describe three types of active transport that occur in cells.
5. Transport proteins pick up molecules on one side of the cell membrane and release them on
the other side. In endocytosis, the cell membrane wraps around large particles to bring them
into the cell. In exocytosis, vesicles that contain large particles fuse with the cell membrane to
move the particles out of the cell. All three use energy.
Checkpoint How does a transport protein move materials by active transport?
A transport protein picks up a molecule on one side of the cell membrane, carries it through,
and releases it on the other side using energy.
Checkpoint What is endocytosis?
Endocytosis is the active transport process in which part of the cell membrane wraps itself
around a large molecule or particle and brings it into the cell, using energy in the process.
Checkpoint How does exocytosis move materials?
Large molecules are moved into a vesicle in the cytoplasm. The vesicle moves to the cell
membrane and fuses with the membrane, releasing its contents outside the cell.
Learning Point
6. Summarize the reasons why a cell must remain small.
6. As a cell grows, its volume increases much faster than its surface area does. If a cell
becomes too large, its cell membrane cannot bring in needed materials as fast as the cell
needs them. It also cannot remove wastes fast enough.
Checkpoint What limits how large a cell can grow?
The amount of surface area as compared to volume limits how large the cell can grow.

17

Section Review
1. Define What is osmosis?
Osmosis is the movement of water through a selectively permeable membrane from an area
where there are more water molecules to an area where there are fewer water molecules
relative to the amount of solute.
2. Identify What is an important difference between diffusion and osmosis?
Diffusion can take place without a membrane being present. Osmosis must take place through a
selectively permeable membrane.
3. Classify Which of the following are classified as active transport, and which are classified as
passive: osmosis, exocytosis, diffusion, protein transport protein?
Active transport: exocytosis, transport proteins for moving materials from low to high
concentration. Passive transport: osmosis, diffusion, transport proteins for large molecules.
4. Identify What determines how large a cell grows? Explain.
The amount of surface area as compared to volume determines how large the cell will grow. If
the cell grows too large, needed materials will not enter the cell or diffuse throughout the
cytoplasm fast enough. Wastes might poison the cell if they cannot be removed fast enough.
5. Explain Why is selective permeability of the cell membrane so important to a cell?
If the cell membrane were not able to prevent some molecules from leaving the cell, everything
would leak out of the cell. If the cell membrane were not able to prevent some molecules
from entering the cell, unwanted or toxic materials would enter the cell.
6. Infer A cell needs to take in a large protein molecule such as a hormone. How will this
molecule enter the cell?
The protein molecule is probably too large to pass through the cell membrane. It will most likely
enter the cell by endocytosis.
7. Apply A unicellular protist that lives in freshwater streams has more salt inside its cell than
there is in the surrounding water. In which direction does water move through the protists
cell membrane? Explain.
There is more solute and less water inside the cell than outside. So water will move from the
freshwater environment into the cell.
8. Compare and Contrast How are passive transport and active transport alike? How are they
different?
Both move materials into and out of a cell. Passive transport uses no energy. Active transport
requires the cell to use energy.
9. Compare and Contrast How are exocytosis and endocytosis alike? How they are different?
Both require energy to move molecules and particles. Endocytosis brings particles into a cell;
exocytosis moves particles out of the cell.
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10.

Relate Cause and Effect What will happen when a red blood cell is placed in a drop of
pure water? Explain.

There are more water molecules outside the cell than inside it, so water will move into the cell.
The cell will swell and may burst.

Classroom Activity Finding Surface Areas and Volumes

Draw Conclusions
1. Interpret Data How did the surface area and the volume change as the size of the cube
increased?
Both surface area and volume increased, but the volume increased much faster than the
surface area did.
2. Relate Cause and Effect How did the surface-area-to-volume ratio change as the size of
the cube increased?
The surface-area-to-volume ratio decreased as the size of the cube increased.
3. Infer What did the cubes represent?
The cubes represented cells of different sizes or one cell as it grew.
4. Predict Suppose diffusion of a substance takes place at the surface of each cube. In which
cube would the substance reach the center first?
The substance would reach the center of the smallest cube first.
5. Develop Hypotheses What might happen if the largest cube increased in size?
Answers will vary. If the cube were a cell, it would probably divide to form two cells, or it might
die because it is unable to meet its needs.

Lab Investigation
Observing Osmosis
Analysis and Conclusion
1. Observe What changes, if any, did you observe in the dimensions of each potato cylinder?
The dimensions of the potato soaked in distilled water increased. There was little or no change
in the dimensions of the potato soaked in 10% salt solution. The dimensions of the potato
soaked in 20% salt solution decreased.

19

2. Observe What did you observe about the texture of each potato cylinder after soaking?
The texture of the potato soaked in distilled water was hard and crisp. It snapped when I broke
it. The texture of the potato soaked in 20% salt solution was very soft and rubbery. I could
not break it. The texture of the potato soaked in 10% salt solution did not change. It was
firm.
3. Interpret Data Explain your results in terms of how the cells in the potato cylinders
responded to soaking in the different solutions.
The cells swelled in distilled water. In 20% salt water, the cells shrank. Cells did not change in
10% salt water.
4. Infer How did the water move in each solution? Explain why.
Water moved from distilled water into the potato because there was more water outside the
cells than inside. Water moved from the potato into 20% salt solution because there was
more water inside the cells than outside. As much water moved into the cell as moved out of
the cell in the 10% salt solution.
5. Infer What is the percent of solutes inside potato cells? Explain your answer.
The percent of solutes in a potato cell must be about 10% because there was no change in the
potato when it was soaked in 10% salt solution.

Further Investigation
Design an experiment in which you examine under a microscope the effects of distilled water,
0.9% salt solution, and 1.75% salt solution on red blood cells.
Distilled water: red blood cells will gain water. A 0.9% salt solution will not cause a gain or a loss
of water. A 1.75% salt solution will cause the cells to lose water.

2.2 Photosynthesis
Learning Points and Checkpoints
Learning Point
7. Compare the way photoautotrophs and heterotrophs get chemical energy.
7. Photoautotrophs get chemical energy by capturing energy from the sun and using
it to make food that is rich in chemical energy. Heterotrophs get chemical energy by
consuming other organisms.
Checkpoint How could lack of food intake and a feeling of tiredness be related?
Carbohydrates and lipids in food provide the energy needed to do all activities, such as moving,
breathing, responding to the environment, thinking, and writing.

20

Checkpoint Grasshoppers are animals that feed on plants. Many grasshoppers are green in
color. Is a green grasshopper considered a photoautotroph? Explain.
No. A photoautotroph makes its own food using the energy captured from sunlight.
Checkpoint What is a heterotroph? Give an example.
A heterotroph is an organism that consumes other organisms. Crickets and robins are
heterotrophs.
Checkpoint Why is glucose important for photoautotrophs and heterotrophs?
Both need glucose for chemical energy.
Learning Point
8. Describe the energy changes that take place during photosynthesis.
8. Energy from sunlight is absorbed by chlorophyll during Part 1 of photosynthesis.
During Part 2, the solar energy is used to produce glucose from carbon dioxide.
Chemical energy is stored in the chemical bonds of glucose.
Checkpoint What is the role of chlorophyll in a cell?
Chlorophyll captures the energy in sunlight, which sets off a series of reactions that produce the
chemical energy used to power the second part of photosynthesis.
Checkpoint What events take place during the second part of photosynthesis?
The cell uses the hydrogen and energy from Part 1 in addition to carbon dioxide to produce
sugars.
Learning Point
9. List the starting materials of photosynthesis and specify how the plant gets each
one.
9. Carbon dioxide and water are the starting materials of photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide in the
air enters the leaves through stomata. Water from the soil is picked up by roots.
Checkpoint What are stomata, and where are they located?
Stomata are tiny openings on the surface of leaves that control the amount of carbon dioxide,
oxygen, and water vapor that move in and out of a plant.
Learning Point
10. List the products of photosynthesis.
10. Sugars and oxygen are the products of photosynthesis.
Checkpoint What happens to the sugars that are made during photosynthesis?
Some are used to power life processes. Some are stored in the photoautotrophs body. Most
are converted to other carbohydrates, amino acids, and lipids. Plants also store excess sugars
to make wood.
Learning Point
21

11. Describe how sugars are stored for future use in a plant.
11. Sugars are linked together to form starch molecules that are stored in a plants roots, stems,
and other parts.
Checkpoint What is the structure of a starch molecule?
A starch molecule is a large molecule made up of thousands of glucose subunits linked
together.
Section Review
1. Define What is glucose? What is its role in photosynthesis?
Glucose is a sugar that is a product of photosynthesis. The chemical bonds of glucose store
energy.
2. Review Where is chlorophyll found in a cell?
Chlorophyll is found within membranes in chloroplasts.
3. Explain Why is photosynthesis so important to heterotrophs?
Photosynthesis produces sugars and oxygen. Heterotrophs eat organisms whose bodies
contain chemical energy that came from the sugars. Heterotrophs also need to breathe
oxygen.
4. Identify What is missing from the following chemical equation?
sunlight energy
6CO2 + 6XXX > C6H12O6 + 6O2
chlorophyll
H2O (water) is missing.
5. Sequence What events take place during the two parts of photosynthesis?
In Part 1, chlorophyll absorbs energy from sunlight and use it to split water molecules into
hydrogen and oxygen. In a series of reactions, chemical energy that powers the second part
is produced. In Part 2, the cell uses the energy and hydrogen from Part 1 in addition to
carbon dioxide to produce sugars.
6. Apply Concepts Why does a corn plant produce cornstarch? How is cornstarch made?
The corn plant stores excess sugars from photosynthesis in the form of starch. It makes starch
by linking molecules of glucose together.
7. Compare and Contrast How is chlorophyll similar to a solar cell in a calculator? How is it
different?
Both capture energy from sunlight. The solar cell uses the energy to power the calculator.
Chlorophyll uses the energy to power Part 2 of photosynthesis.
8. Infer In plants that live in hot and dry regions, would you expect stomata to open during the
day or at night? How do you think this affects photosynthesis in these plants?
22

Stomata open during the night to reduce water loss. Carbon dioxide enters the plant only when
it is needed during Part 2 of photosynthesis. Thus, Part 2 of photosynthesis occurs at night.
9. Relate Cause and Effect Environmental scientists say that the amount of carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere is increasing. What effect might this have on Earths plant life?
An increase in carbon dioxide might increase the amount of photosynthesis. This could increase
the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere that could then increase the growth of plant life.
10.

Solve a Problem You find an organism you have never seen before. Without using a
microscope, how can you determine whether the organism is a photoautotroph or a
heterotroph? How can you confirm using a microscope?

If the organism is green, it may be a photoautotroph. Observe it to see if it moves about and
eats food. If it does, it is a heterotroph. You can confirm if it is a photoautotroph by observing
chloroplasts in its cells.
Trends in Science

Were van Helmonts conclusions correct? Explain.

They were partly correct. Plants do not use soil as food but they need something
besides water to grow in weight.

What would you conclude if you were doing this experiment today?
A plant needs energy, water, and a gas from the air (carbon dioxide) to grow and gain
weight.

Classroom Activity Testing for Starch

Draw Conclusions
1. Observe Which food samples tested positive for starch?
Answers will vary according to samples used. Potatoes, corn, carrots, and soaked beans will
test positive for starch. Fresh apples will test positive. As the apple ripens, its starch content
decreases.
2. Classify Which food samples did not test positive for starch?
Answers will vary according to samples used. Tomatoes and cucumbers will not test positive for
starch. .
3. Interpret Data Which parts of a plant contain starch?
Answers will vary with samples used. Roots, tubers, and seeds tend to contain starch.

4. Infer Why do these plant parts contain starch?

The starch is stored there as a future energy source.
23

Lab Investigation Photosynthesis and Carbon Dioxide

Analysis and Conclusion
1. Interpret Data How can you interpret your data in terms of rate of photosynthesis?
The number of bubbles of oxygen produced in 3 minutes indicated the rate of photosynthesis.
The rate was faster with sodium bicarbonate than with calcium hydroxide.
2. Develop Hypotheses Was your hypothesis correct? If not, what would have been a better
hypothesis?
Answers will vary. My hypothesis was correct.
3. Identify What was the purpose of the test tube with distilled water only?
It served as a control to allow us to compare the number of bubbles in test tubes with chemicals
added to the number of bubbles without chemicals added.
4. Classify What were the independent and dependent variables in this experiment?
Independent variable was the chemical added/ amount of carbon dioxide. Dependent variable
was the rate of photosynthesis, as determined by the number of oxygen bubbles produced
in 3 minutes.
5. Analyze Data Compare the results of the two trials for each chemical. If they were not
similar, what could have caused the difference?
Answers will vary. The first trial might have been done before photosynthesis was fully
underway.
6. Draw Conclusions What can you conclude from this experiment?
Students should conclude that the rate of photosynthesis increases with increasing availability
of carbon dioxide.
Further Investigation
Design another experiment in which you test the effect of temperature or color of light on the
rate of photosynthesis.
More bubbles will be produced with higher than lower temperatures. More bubble will be
produced with white light than with colored light.
http://faculty.unlv.edu/debelle/lab/196/photosynthesis/index.html

2.3 Cellular Respiration

Learning Points and Checkpoints

24

Learning Point
12. Summarize the two main steps of cellular respiration.
12. In the cytoplasm, the glucose molecule is partially broken down and rearranged. Smaller
molecules are formed, and a small amount of the energy in glucose is released. Part 2 occurs in
the mitochondria whereby the small molecules from Part 1 are broken down to form carbon
dioxide and water. Oxygen is required. A large amount of chemical energy is released a little at
a time.
Checkpoint What is cellular respiration?
Cellular respiration is a process in which cells use oxygen to break down glucose molecules and
release the chemical energy they contain.
Checkpoint Where does Part 1 of cellular respiration take place?
Part 1 of cellular respiration takes place in the cytoplasm of cells.
Checkpoint What materials are used in Part 2 of cellular respiration, and what is formed?
Oxygen and the small molecules that formed in Part 1 are used in Part 2. Carbon dioxide and
water are formed. A large amount of chemical energy is released.
Learning Point
13. Summarize cellular respiration in the form of an equation.
13. C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 +
glucose

oxygen

6H2O + chemical energy

carbon dioxide water

Checkpoint How are cellular respiration and breathing in animals related?

Cellular respiration requires oxygen, which animals inhale during breathing. Carbon
dioxide and water are produced as wastes, which animals exhale.
Learning Point
14. Describe the relationship between photosynthesis and cellular respiration.
14. The starting materials of one process are the end products of the other process. The
materials continuously cycle between the two processes.
Checkpoint How do organisms keep the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere relatively
constant?
Plants release oxygen into the atmosphere when they perform photosynthesis. Both animals
and plants take in oxygen for use when they perform cellular respiration.

Learning Point
15. Describe the two types of fermentation.

25

15. Fermentation is a process that breaks down glucose and releases a small amount of energy
without using oxygen. Alcoholic fermentation occurs in yeasts and some bacteria, and it
produces alcohol and carbon dioxide. Lactic acid fermentation occurs in animals and some
bacteria, and it produces lactic acid.
Checkpoint What is fermentation and where does it occur?
Fermentation is a process that breaks down glucose and releases a small amount of energy
without using oxygen. It occurs in the cytoplasm.
Checkpoint What are the end products of alcoholic fermentation?
Alcoholic fermentation produces alcohol, carbon dioxide, and a small amount of energy.
Checkpoint What causes pain in muscles after hard exercise?
The buildup of lactic acid causes pain after oxygen runs out and fermentation takes the place of
cellular respiration.
Learning Point
16. Describe how organisms near the deep-sea hydrothermal vents live without
oxygen gas and sunlight.
16. Autotrophic bacteria that live near deep-ocean vents use the energy in chemicals from the
vents to make food. They carry out anaerobic respiration that does not require oxygen gas.
Other organisms depend on these bacteria to get the energy they need and grow.
Checkpoint What is anaerobic respiration?
Anaerobic respiration is the process of releasing energy by using substances containing sulfur
or nitrogen instead of oxygen gas.
[end-of-section questions] Section Review
1. Locate Where do the two parts of cellular respiration take place?
Part 1 takes place in the cytoplasm. Part 2 takes place in the mitochondria.
2. Explain How is fermentation different from cellular respiration?
Fermentation does not require oxygen. Only a small amount of energy is released. Cellular
respiration requires oxygen and releases large amounts of energy.
3. Compare and Contrast How are cellular respiration and burning wood similar? How are
they different?
Both cellular respiration and burning wood break down molecules to release energy. Cellular
respiration releases chemical energy in small steps. Burning releases light energy and heat
all at once.

4. Solve a Problem Why must autotrophs perform cellular respiration if they make their own
food?

26

These organisms cannot use the energy stored in sugars. The sugar molecules must be
broken down into smaller molecules that the autotroph can use.
5. Apply Concepts Why is breathing needed for cellular respiration in animals, even though it
is not part of the process?
Oxygen is needed for cellular respiration and carbon dioxide is a waste product. Breathing
takes in oxygen and removes carbon dioxide from the body.
6. Apply Concepts Suppose a scientist is able to collect some of the bacteria that grow in
deep-sea vents. The scientist brings the bacteria to his lab to be examined. He finds that
they are all dead. What do you think happened?
These bacteria are adapted to live in an anaerobic environment. In fact, oxygen actually kills
them. They probably died when they were exposed to air.
7. Make Judgments You decide to bake some bread. You mix flour, water, and yeast and
bake the dough in the oven. The finished bread does not rise and has a heavy texture with
no bubbles in it. Give at least one possible explanation for what happened.
Yeast is a living organism. It needs sugar to produce carbon dioxide by alcoholic
fermentation. You should have added some sugar to the dough. It is also possible that the
yeast was dead.
8. Synthesize Choose an organism that you are familiar with. Explain how you know whether
the organism is aerobic or anaerobic.
Answers will vary, but students are likely to choose an aerobic organism because it lives on
Earth and performs cellular respiration to release energy from food.
9. Infer The cells in your body undergo cellular respiration to fuel your activities. Why does
your body not rely on lactic acid fermentation for most of your activities?
Lactic acid fermentation does not produce enough energy to keep the cells functioning properly.
Classroom Activity Exhaling Wastes from Cellular Respiration
Draw Conclusions
1. Observe What changes did you observe in the bromothymol blue solution?
The solution changed from blue-green to yellow-green.
2. Interpret Data What caused the change?
The presence of carbon dioxide in my breath caused the change.
3. Observe What did you observe when you exhaled onto the microscope slide?
The slide got cloudy and wet.
4. Relate Cause and Effect What caused the change on the slide?
27

Water vapor in my breath condensed on the slide.

5. Infer What was the source of these materials?
Carbon dioxide and water vapor were produced during cellular respiration in my cells. I
breathed them out when I exhaled.
Chapter 2 Exercises
Part I Reviewing Key Terms
A. Fill in each blank with the most appropriate key term.
1. Energy is required to transport substances across a cell membrane by active transport.
2. The pigment chlorophyll captures energy from the sun.
3. Oxygen is required for the process of cellular respiration/ aerobic respiration.
4. There are two kinds of fermentation, one that produces carbon dioxide and alcohol and one
that produces lactic acid.
5. A photoautotroph does not have to ingest food because it makes its own.
B. If the statement is true, write true next to it. If it is false, change the underlined word(s) to
different words that make the statement true.
1. Carbon dioxide enters a plant through its roots. False. stomata
2. A transport protein is needed for some forms of active transport. True
3. Diffusion and osmosis are examples of active transport. False. passive transport
4. Osmosis is the process in which any molecule spreads out from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower concentration. False. Diffusion
5. The process that describes the movement of water molecules across a selectively permeable
membrane is diffusion. False. osmosis
C. Circle the letter of the term that best completes each sentence.
1. An organism that must ingest food because it cannot make its own food is a(n) a
a. heterotroph.
b. photoautotroph.
c. anaerobic organism.
d. aerobic organism.
2. A process in which a large amount of energy is released without using oxygen is c
a. cellular respiration.
b. fermentation.
c. anaerobic respiration.
28

d. photosynthesis.
3. A substance that is dissolved in water is d
a. a molecule.
b. a mineral.
c. glucose.
d. a solute.
4. An end product of photosynthesis is c
a. carbon dioxide.
b. water.
c. glucose.
d. light energy.
5. Light is required in the process of b
a. cellular respiration.
b. photosynthesis.
c. fermentation.
d. active transport.
6. The feature of the cell membrane that makes osmosis possible is c
a. surface area-to-volume ratio.
b. providing a barrier for the cell.
c. selective permeability.
d. holding the cytoplasm inside the cell.
Part II Developing Skills
A. Circle the letter of the term or phrase that best answers each question.
1. What is the process in which part of the cell membrane engulfs a particle and brings it into the
cell called? d
a. transport through channels
b. passive transport
c. exocytosis
d. endocytosis

2. Which of the following is the organelle in which most of Earths oxygen is produced? c
29

a. mitochondrion
b. nucleus
c. chloroplast
d. vacuole
3. Where does Part 1 of cellular respiration take place? a
a. cytoplasm
b. mitochondrion
c. chloroplast
d. cell membrane
4. How does a cactus plant store sugars made during photosynthesis? b
a. as glucose
b. as starch
c. in its mitochondria
d. as waste products
5. What is a function of stomata? b
a. to perform photosynthesis
b. to control gas exchange
c. to release glucose
d. to perform cellular respiration
B. Organize Information To organize information about photosynthesis and cellular
respiration, complete the following concept map.
1. photosynthesis 2. oxygen 3. starch 4. cellular respiration 5. water 6. carbon dioxide
C. Critical Thinking Answer each question.
1. Infer Cholesterol is a large lipid molecule that is made in the liver. All cells need cholesterol
to build cell membranes. Infer how cholesterol moves into a cell.
Because cholesterol is a large molecule, it cannot move through the cell membrane. Instead, it
is taken into a cell by endocytosis, in which part of the cell membrane engulfs the cholesterol
molecule and brings it into the cell, using energy during the process.
2. Predict Oxygen and carbon dioxide pass through the cell membrane of an animal cell by
simple diffusion. In which direction will each most likely move? Explain.
Oxygen is used during cellular respiration so the concentration of oxygen outside the cell is
most likely higher than inside the cell. Thus, oxygen moves into the cell. Carbon dioxide is
produced during the same process so its concentration inside the cell is probably higher. Thus,
carbon dioxide will move out of the cell.
30

3. Apply Concepts A bag containing cornstarch is submerged in a beaker containing a solution

of iodine and water. The selectively permeable bag allows iodine but not cornstarch to pass
through. Describe what changes will occur in the bag and in the solution.
Because the concentration of iodine is higher outside the bag than inside, the iodine will move
into the bag. The iodine will turn the starch blue-black. The starch cannot leave the bag so no
color change will occur in the iodine solution outside the bag.
4. Compare and Contrast Write word equations for photosynthesis and cellular respiration.
How are they similar? How are they different?

Photosynthesis: carbon dioxide + water

glucose + oxygen

Cellular respiration: glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + chemical energy

The starting materials of the first equation are the products of the second equation, and the
products of the first equation are the starting materials of the second equation. In
photosynthesis, energy is absorbed. In cellular respiration, energy is released.
5. Make Judgments An athlete does 100 pushups. Later, the muscles in his chest and
shoulders feel very sore. Do you think he has damaged his muscles? Should he see a
doctor?
It is likely that lactic acid built up in his muscles because they ran out of oxygen and switched
from cellular respiration to lactic acid fermentation. If he rests, the lactic acid that is causing the
soreness will diffuse out of his muscle cells and the pain will disappear. If not, he should consult
a doctor.
6. Predict In an anaerobic environment, organism A gets energy by performing fermentation.
Organism B gets energy by performing anaerobic respiration. Which organism will probably
grow faster?
Anaerobic respiration releases much more energy than fermentation does. Organism B will
grow faster because it has much more energy to perform life functions.
Part III Thinking Further
Gases such as carbon dioxide and oxygen dissolve in water. More gas molecules can dissolve
in cold water than in warm water. Suppose there is a long heat wave and the water in a pond
begins to get warmer. Write a story describing what might happen to the cells of fish that live in
the pond. What might happen to plants that live underwater in the pond?
Fish need oxygen for cellular respiration. If the concentration of oxygen in the water becomes
lower than the concentration in the cells of the fish, oxygen might move out of the fishs cells.
The rate of cellular respiration will decrease and the fish would not be able to produce enough
energy and would die. Pond plants might survive because they would get carbon dioxide from
the water, although their rate of photosynthesis would decrease with less carbon dioxide. They
could use the oxygen produced during photosynthesis for cellular respiration.
31

Chapter 3 Growth and Reproduction

3.1 Cell Division and Growth
Learning Points and Checkpoints
Learning Point
1. Identify the parts of the cell cycle.
1. The cell cycle consists of interphase and cell division. Cell division includes mitosis, which is
division of the nucleus, and cytokinesis, which is division of the cytoplasm.
Checkpoint What is the cell cycle?
The cell cycle is the normal sequence of growth and cell division that a cell
undergoes during its life.
Checkpoint How are mitosis and cytokinesis different from each other?
In mitosis, the nucleus divides. In cytokinesis, the cytoplasm divides and distributes
organelles to each new cell.
Learning Point
2. Describe what happens during interphase.
2. The cell nearly doubles in size while producing materials it needs to carry out its functions.
The cell copies its DNA and organelles in preparation for cell division.
Checkpoint What is the difference between chromatin and chromosomes?
Chromosomes exist as a mass of thin threads called chromatin during interphase. During
prophase, the chromosomes become visible as the chromatin condenses.
Learning Point
3. Describe what happens during the different phases of mitosis.
3. In prophase, chromatin coils up and becomes visible chromosomes. The nuclear membrane
disappears and spindle fibers form. In metaphase, the chromosomes move to the center of the
cell. In anaphase, chromatids of duplicated chromosomes are pulled apart to opposite sides of
the cell. In telophase, chromosomes uncoil to become chromatin again. Nuclear membranes
appear around each mass of chromatin.
Checkpoint What happens to the chromatin during prophase of mitosis?
During prophase, the chromatin condenses to form chromosomes.
Checkpoint Where are chromosomes located during metaphase?
The chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell.

32

Checkpoint What happens during anaphase of mitosis?

After the centromere splits, the two chromatids are pulled to opposite sides of the cell.
Checkpoint What form are chromosomes in during telophase?
During telophase, the chromosomes uncoil and become threads of chromatin.
Learning Point
4. Differentiate between cytokinesis in plant cells and animal cells.
4. In animal cells, the cell membrane pinches inward to divide the cytoplasm and form two new
cells. In plants, a cell plate forms across the center of the cell and enlarges to form two new cell
membranes and a new cell wall.
Checkpoint What prevents plant cells from pinching inward during cytokinesis?
The stiff cell wall prevents plants from pinching inward.
Learning Point
5. List the functions of mitosis in a multicellular organism.
5. Mitosis allows a multicellular organism to grow, repair damaged tissues, replace
worn-out cells, and produce new body parts.
Learning Point
6. Describe the structure of DNA.
6. DNA is a double helix that resembles a twisted ladder. The sides are made up of alternating
molecules of phosphates and deoxyribose sugars. The rungs are made up of pairs of nitrogen
bases.
Checkpoint What is a nucleotide made up of?
A nucleotide consists of a sugar and phosphate that form the side chains, and nitrogen bases
that pair up to form the crosspieces.
Learning Point
7. Describe the base-pairing rules in a DNA molecule.
7. Guanine always pairs with cytosine, and thymine always pairs with adenine.
Checkpoint What are the four nitrogen bases, and their abbreviations, that make up DNA?
Adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), and guanine (G) are the four bases in DNA.

Learning Point
8. Describe how DNA replication occurs.
33

8. The two strands of DNA unwind and separate. Each of these strands acts as templates to
make a new strand. Nucleotides floating in the nucleus pair with the bases that have been
exposed according to the rules of base pairing. The nucleotides form two new strands by linking
together.
Checkpoint During which stage of a cells life cycle does DNA replicate?
Interphase
Learning Point
9. Describe how growth patterns of plants and animals are different.
9. Plants can grow continuously throughout their lives. Animals have a typical adult size range.
Checkpoint What causes cancer?
Cancer is the result of abnormal control of the cell cycle that results when the wrong
growth substances are made.

Section Review
1. Identify Which phase of mitosis is shown here?
This is anaphase. Chromatids separate and move to opposite sides of the cell.
2. Identify An organism has a specific adult size range and does not grow throughout its life. Is
this organism a plant or an animal? Explain.
The organism is an animal. Plants can grow throughout their lives, while animals do not.
3. Infer In which part of the cell cycle does a cell spend most of its time? Infer why.
A cell spends most of its time in interphase. The cells functions for life take place during
interphase. Also, DNA replication takes place during interphase. If the cell spends most of
its time in mitosis, it might not have enough time for normal cell functions.
4. Predict Suppose you cut your finger. What would be a possible outcome if your cells could
not perform mitosis?
If cells could not perform mitosis, then more cells could not be made to replace the damaged
cells. My cut finger might never heal.
5. Predict What would happen if a cell did not replicate its DNA before cell division?
Each new daughter cell would contain only half of the DNA of the parent cell. The daughter cells
could not survive because they would not have the instructions necessary for building all the
proteins they need.
6. Predict What would be the result of DNA replication if a wrong base paired with one of the
single strands?

34

The new DNA molecule with the wrong base pair would not be identical to the original DNA
molecule. The two new DNA molecules would not be identical to each other. This might
affect the protein built based on this sequence.
7. Apply Concepts During DNA replication, the DNA molecule unzips to form two single
strands. One has the following sequence of bases: A-G-G-C-T-A. What will be the sequence
of bases in the new DNA strand that forms from this one?
T-C-C-G-A-T
8. Relate Cause and Effect Describe a cell that has undergone mitosis but has failed to divide
during cytokinesis.
The cell will contain twice the amount of genetic material that the parent cell had. It will contain 2
nuclei.
Classroom Activity Pairing Nitrogen Bases
Draw Conclusions
1. Classify Which bases fit together best?
Adenine and thymine fit together. Cytosine and guanine fit together.
2. Relate Cause and Effect What prevented some bases from fitting together?
Their shapes could not fit together. One might be rounded and another pointed.
3. Observe What did you notice about the sizes of the bases?
They were different. Thymine and cytosine were small. Adenine and guanine were larger.
4. Predict How would a crosspiece be affected if adenine and guanine were to pair?
Both bases are large. The crosspiece would be too long to fit between the strands.
Lab Investigation Modeling DNA Replication
Analysis and Conclusion
1. Compare Compare the two new DNA molecules. How are they similar?
Both have an identical sequence of bases.
2. Observe Look carefully at the two strands of each new DNA molecule. What do you
observe about dots in the two strands?
Each molecule has one strand marked with dots and one strand without dots.

3. Interpret Data How can you interpret what you observed in question 2?

35

Each new molecule is made up of one original strand and one new strand.
4. Identify Limitations Were there any limitations to your model? Explain.
The side strands were not very flexible. If I had tried to twist the model into a spiral, it might
have come apart because the toothpicks were stiff.
5. Make Models How could you improve this lab to model DNA replication more
accurately?
Answers will vary. The relative sizes of nitrogen bases could be more accurate.
6. Draw Conclusions Did this lab help you to understand what happens in DNA
replication? Explain.
Answers will vary. Yes. It allowed me to handle materials, which makes it easier to
understand ideas. It made the parts of DNA seem more real.

Further Investigation
Use the Internet to research DNA replication. Choose one aspect of the process and write a
short paragraph explaining what you learned. Read your paragraph to your class to expand their
knowledge of replication.

3.2 Asexual and Sexual Reproduction

Learning Points and Checkpoints
Learning Point
10. Compare asexual reproduction with sexual reproduction.
10. Asexual reproduction involves one parent and produces offspring that are identical to each
other and to the parent. Sexual reproduction involves two parents and produces offspring that
are similar but not identical to each other or to either parent.
Checkpoint What is one advantage of asexual reproduction and one advantage of sexual
reproduction?
Asexual reproduction: large number of offspring can be produced, and no need for a mate.
Sexual reproduction: creates variation in a group of organisms.
11. Learning Point Describe four different kinds of asexual reproduction.
11. Binary fission occurs in unicellular organisms such as bacteria. DNA is replicated, and the
cell splits. In budding, an outgrowth, called a bud, develops on the parents body. The bud
breaks off from the parent and becomes a new independent organism. Vegetative reproduction
is the growing of a new plant from a plant part, such as a root, stem, leaf, or tuber. Regeneration
is producing a new body from a part of a single animal.
Checkpoint How is cell division in a unicellular organism different from cell division
in a multicellular organism?
36

Cell division in a unicellular organism produces two independent organisms. It is a kind of

asexual reproduction. Cell division in a cell of a multicellular organism produces two daughter
cells that are part of a tissue, not independent organisms.
Checkpoint What makes binary fission in bacteria different from mitosis?
Mitosis is division of a nucleus. Bacteria have no nucleus. DNA is replicated, and the parent
organism splits into two cells.
Checkpoint What plant parts can be involved in reproducing asexually by vegetative
reproduction? Give an example of each.
Plants can reproduce asexually with roots, stems, leaves, and tubers. Potatoes are tubers.
Pieces of potato can reproduce to form new potato plants. Strawberry plants reproduce
asexually with runners, horizontal stems that run along the ground. Dandelions reproduce
asexually from their roots, and African violets reproduce asexually from their leaves.
Checkpoint How is regeneration a form of asexual reproduction?
Regeneration is producing a new organism from a part of a single animal.
12. Describe the process of sexual reproduction, and compare the genetic makeup
among parents, the gametes they form, and the offspring that result.
12. During sexual reproduction, gametes, sperm and egg, are formed. Sexual
reproduction involves the fertilization of an egg (from the mother) by a sperm (from
the father) to form a zygote. The zygote grows and develops into a new offspring.
Each gamete contains half the genetic material of the parents body cell. Thus, an
offspring receives half its genetic material from its mother and half from its father.
Checkpoint What is a gamete? What are the two kinds of gametes formed during sexual
reproduction?
A gamete is a sex cell involved in sexual reproduction. Eggs are formed by females, and sperm
are formed by males.
Checkpoint What occurs during fertilization?
A male gamete and a female gamete come together and join to form a single cell called a
zygote.
Learning Point
13. Describe the difference between a diploid cell and a haploid cell. Give an
example of each.
13. A diploid cell has a pair of each kind of chromosome. Body cells, such as brain cells and
skin cells, are diploid. A haploid cell has only one chromosome of each kind. Gameteseggs
and spermare haploid.
Checkpoint How many chromosomes do human body cells have? How many chromosomes do
human gametes have?

37

Human body cells contain 46 chromosomes. Human gametes have half that number, or 23
chromosomes.
Learning Point
14. Describe in general the purpose of meiosis and the results of meiosis I and meiosis II.
14. Gametes must have half the number of chromosomes, which results from meiosis. During
meiosis I, the centromere does not split and results in the chromosome number being halved.
Two haploid cells with doubled chromosomes result. During meiosis II, centromeres split and
chromatids are distributed to four different cells. This results in the formation of 4 haploid cells
with single chromosomes.
Checkpoint How is the chromosome number halved in meiosis I?
The centromere does not split. The chromosomes of each pair separate and are distributed to
two different cells.
Learning Point
15. Summarize the events of meiosis I and meiosis II.
15. Meiosis I includes prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I telophase I, and cytokinesis.
Doubled chromosomes are arranged in pairs in prophase I and metaphase I, but the centromere
does not split. The pairs separate in anaphase I, and in telophase I and cytokinesis the
cytoplasm divides. Meiosis II includes prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II, telophase II and
cytokinesis. In prophase II and metaphase II the chromosomes are still doubled. They line up at
the center of the cell in metaphase II. The centromere splits, and the chromatids separate in
anaphase II. In telophase II and cytokinesis, the cytoplasm divides and four cells are produced.
Checkpoint What chromosomes does each daughter cell contain at the end of meiosis I?
At the end of meiosis I, each daughter cell contains one doubled chromosome from each pair.
Checkpoint How does meiosis provide for genetic variation?
The four haploid cells have different chromosomes. Depending on which sperm fertilizes which
egg, many different genetic combinations are possible.
Learning Point
16. Identify six differences between the processes of mitosis and meiosis.
16. Refer to the table on page 90.
Section Review
1. Explain How is a zygote formed?
A zygote is formed when two gametes come together and join during fertilization.
2. Classify Is the parent cell at the start of meiosis haploid or diploid? Will it form body cells or
sex cells? Will they be haploid or diploid?
The parent cell is diploid. It will form haploid sex cells.
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3. Predict The body cells of an elephant contain 56 chromosomes. How many chromosomes
will an elephants egg cells have? How many chromosomes will an elephants sperm cells
have? How many chromosomes will a zygote resulting from fertilization contain?
Both egg and sperm cells will have half of 56, or 28 chromosomes. The zygote will contain
56 chromosomes.
4. Solve a Problem If a sea star loses an arm and grows a new one, is this asexual
reproduction? Explain.
No, a new independent organism has not been formed. There is still only one organism.
5. Compare and Contrast How are asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction similar?
How are they different?
Both result in a new independent offspring. Offspring produced asexually are genetically
identical to the one parent. Offspring produced sexually are similar but not identical to the two
parents.
6. Apply Concepts An organism reproduces only asexually. Will this organism ever undergo
meiosis? Explain.
No. Meiosis produces gametes. The organisms would never produce gametes if it reproduced
only by asexual reproduction.
7. Compare and Contrast How does a chromosome after meiosis I compare with the same
chromosome after meiosis II?
After meiosis I, the chromosome is doubled and is made up of two chromatids held together by
a centromere. After meiosis II, the chromosome is no longer doubled. It is a single
chromosome.
8. Relate Cause and Effect Does the nuclear membrane have to disappear as meiosis
begins? What would happen if it remained intact?
The nuclear membrane must disappear. If it remained intact, the chromosomes cannot
separate into two groups at opposite sides of the cell.
9. Contrast Identify six differences between the process of mitosis and the process of meiosis.
See the table on page 90.
10. Compare What do budding, binary fission, vegetative reproduction, and regeneration have
in common?
All are forms of asexual reproduction and require only one parent to form new individuals.

Trends in Science

Many chromosome disorders are caused by incorrect pairing of chromosomes during

prophase I. How do you think this research might be related?
39

Answers will vary. The rapid dancing might prevent chromosome pairs from staying
together or from pairing appropriately.

What else would you like to know about this research?

Answers will vary. Students might like to know if chromosome dancing occurs in other
organisms.

Why is it important for the two chromosomes of a pair to find each other during prophase
I?
The two chromosomes of a pair must find each other and pair up because they will have
to be separated into two daughter cells during anaphase I.

Classroom Activity Modeling Mitosis and Meiosis

Draw Conclusions
1. Make Models What does each sock from a pair represent?
Each sock represents a chromatid.
2. Observe How many socks were in the daughter cells after you finished modeling meiosis?
What color were they?
There were two socks, one of each color (one black, one white), in each daughter cell.
3. Infer What is the diploid number of the starting cells?
The diploid number of the starting cell was 4.
4. Infer What is the haploid number of the daughter cells after meiosis?
The haploid number of the daughter cells after meiosis was 2.
Lab Investigation Budding Yeasts
Data Record
1. Draw the sequence of events in budding that you observed. Label your drawings.

2. Describe the process of budding in yeast.

First a bulge formed on the outer edge of a yeast cell. The nucleus divided. Then one nucleus
moved into the bulge, which had become a bud. The other nucleus stayed in the parent cell.
When the bud grew larger, it broke off from the yeast cell to become a separate organism.
40

3. Label your drawing of a budding hydra. Label the parent and the bud.

Analysis and Conclusion

1. Classify Is the process of budding in yeast a method of cell division? Explain.
Yes, one cell has divided to form two cells.
2. Infer What process of cell division, if any, occurred during budding? Explain.
Cell division occurred by mitosis and cytokinesis. I dont think cell division occurred by meiosis
because no gametes were produced.
3. Classify Is budding in yeast also a method of reproduction?
Yes, a new independent organism formed from a parent cell.
4. Relate Cause and Effect Why did you have to wait until your yeast culture bubbled before
you could examine the yeast cells?
Answers will vary. Bubbling indicated that the yeast cells were actively fermenting the sugar. If
they were active in this way, they were probably reproducing as well.

5. Compare and Contrast How are a budding hydra and a budding yeast similar? How are they
different?
In both organisms, an outgrowth grows from the parents body. Then, this outgrowth breaks off
to form an independent organism. Because yeast is unicellular, a simple cell division forms the
bud and eventually a new organism. Hydra is multicellular, therefore the budding is more
complicated as the formation of the bud requires several divisions and specialization of the cells
to form the new hydra.

Further Investigation

41

Yeast cells can reproduce both asexually and sexually. Do library or Internet research to find out
how yeast cells reproduce sexually. What conditions must occur for sexual reproduction to take
place?
Section 3.3 Strategies for Reproduction
Learning Points and Checkpoints
Learning Point
17. Describe how flowering plants reproduce.
17. Pollen grains produced in the anther are transferred by wind/water/insects/animals to the
stigma of the flower. This is pollination. The pollen grain grows a tube that reaches the egg
produced in the ovary of the pistil. Sperm travel down the pistil. When the egg is fertilized, a
seed that is enclosed in a fruit forms. Seeds are dispersed by gravity/wind/water/ animals.
Checkpoint What is pollen?
Pollen is a powdery material produced by the anther. It is made up of tiny grains that contain
sperm.
Checkpoint Where does meiosis take place in a flowering plant?
Meiosis takes place in the ovary and the anther.
Checkpoint How are seeds dispersed? List four ways.
Gravity, wind, water, and animals can disperse seeds.
Learning Point
18. Explain how animals pollinate plants, and name five animal pollinators.
18. Animals transfer pollen from the stamen to the pistil when they visit plants to feed on nectar.
Bees, butterflies, moths, bats, and hummingbirds are pollinators.
Checkpoint How are hummingbirds able to pollinate certain flowers?
Hummingbirds have long, thin beaks that can reach into tube-shaped flowers.
Learning Point
19. Describe three ways in which animals disperse seeds.
19. They eat fruits and eliminate the seeds as waste, they bury seeds and forget
about them, and they carry hooked seeds in their fur or feathers.
Checkpoint How do squirrels disperse seeds?
They bury them in the soil during autumn and forget many of them. If the nuts survive until the
weather turns warm, they may sprout into a new plant.

Learning Point
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20. Explain how behaviors and physical structures aid animal reproduction, and give
examples of each.
20. Courtship behavior helps an animal identify a healthy mate. Physical structures help to
attract mates. Behaviors: light flashes in fireflies, bowers in bowerbirds, dances in cranes, zigzag dances in sticklebacks. Structures: colorful feathers, large horns, long eyestalks.
Checkpoint What are five kinds of signals that animals use during courtship behavior?
Dancing, bobbing the head, flashing lights, singing, or emitting a chemical are signals used
during courtship behavior.
Checkpoint How is having big horns an advantage to a male bighorn sheep?
Males with big horns tend to win fights with other males and mate with females.

Section Review
1. Define What is a pistil?
A pistil is the female reproductive part of a plant.
2. Identify Where does fertilization take place in a flowering plant?
Fertilization takes place in the ovary of the pistil.
3. Identify Where does an egg develop in a plant?
An egg develops in the swollen base of the pistil, the ovary.
4. Relate Cause and Effect Why must flowers of a plant that is wind-pollinated produce
much more pollen than flowers of a plant that is pollinated by bees?
Wind scatters pollen in all directions so more pollen is needed to ensure that some of it
lands on a pistil. Pollen carried by bees goes directly to a flower.
5. Infer Plants that are pollinated during the day tend to have brightly colored flowers. Plants
that are pollinated at night, tend to have sweet scents. How can you explain the difference?
Bright colors are visible during the day, but not at night when scents can still be detected.
6. Explain Why is it an advantage to a plant for its seeds to be dispersed far from the parent
plant?
Seeds that sprout far from the parent plant are able to get more water, light, and soil
nutrients.
7. Summarize How do animals spread pollen?
Animals pick up pollen on their bodies when they visit a flower to feed on nectar. The pollen
is spread to other flowers when the animal visits them.

8. Make Judgments A female stickleback fish will not mate with a male that builds a nest
incorrectly. How is this behavior a good strategy for reproduction?
43

Answers may vary. A male that builds an incorrect nest may be inferior in other ways.
9. Apply Concepts Why is it an advantage for different species of fireflies to have different
flash patterns?
Answers will vary. Females will not respond to males of another species that they cannot
mate with.
10. Infer A male peafowl has an unusually large and colorful tail. What message does this
send to female peafowl?
Answers will vary. A males large and colorful tail tells a female peafowl that he is very
healthy and would make a good mate.

Classroom Activity Identifying Flower Parts

Draw Conclusions
1. Observe What did you observe when you touched the top of the pistil?
It was sticky.
2. Interpret Data Why do you think the pistils top has this texture?
It helps pollen grains stick to the pistil.
3. Observe Was anything released from the stamen?
Yes, tiny pollen grains were released.
4. Predict What might happen if you placed pollen on the pistil of a living flower?
The pollen grain would grow a tube down the pistil to the ovary, where the sperm would fertilize
the egg.
Chapter 3 Exercises
Part I Reviewing Key Terms
A. Fill in each blank with the most appropriate key term.
1. DNA replication occurs during interphase.
2. A seed of a flowering plant is enclosed inside a fruit.
3. The process of cell division that halves the number of chromosomes is meiosis.
4. The part of the cell cycle that produces daughter nuclei identical to the parent nuclei is
mitosis.
5. A male gamete is called a sperm.

44

B. If the statement is true, write true next to it. If it is false, change the underlined word(s) to
different words that make the statement true.
1. An egg is the female gamete. True
2. In asexual reproduction, two parents are involved. False. sexual reproduction
3. Sepals are usually the most colorful part of a flower so they can attract pollinators. False.
petals
4. Mitosis is the process in which the cytoplasm divides. False. Cytokinesis
5. A green, leaflike structure that protects an unopened flower is a sepal. True

C. Circle the letter of the term that best completes each sentence.
1. All of the following are part of the cell cycle except c
a. cytokinesis.
b. cell division.
c. fertilization.
d. interphase.
2. The flower part in which an egg forms is the b
a. stamen.
b. pistil.
c. petal.
d. sepal.
3. The male part of a flower is the d
a. pistil.
b. petal.
c. ovary.
d. stamen.
4. The process of budding results in the formation of a
a. an offspring.
b. a zygote.
c. a gamete.
d. meiosis.

5. Fertilization results in the formation of b

45

a. a gamete.
b. a zygote.
c. a pollinator.
d. asexual reproduction.
6. After DNA replication, a chromosome consists of two c
a. nucleotides.
b. spindle fibers.
c. chromatids.
d. base pairs.

D. Answer each question.

1. Vegetative reproduction is an example of what kind of reproduction?
asexual reproduction
2. What cells are produced after meiosis is completed?
gametes
3. What powdery substance is produced in the anthers of stamens?
pollen
4. What structure encloses the young offspring and its food supply in a flowering plant?
seed
5. What is an animal that transfers pollen from a stamen to a pistil called?
pollinator

Part II Developing Skills

A. Circle the letter of the term or phrase that best answers each question.
1. The phase of mitosis in which the nuclear membrane reforms is d
a. prophase.
b. metaphase.
c. anaphase.
d. telophase.

46

2. The phase of meiosis in which the two chromatids of a chromosome separate is b

a. anaphase I.
b. anaphase II.
c. metaphase I.
d. metaphase II.

3. If a fruit fly cell has 8 chromosomes, how many chromosomes will its gametes have? b
a. 2
b. 4
c. 8
d. 16

4. If a fruit fly cell has 8 chromosomes, how many chromosomes will a fruit fly zygote have? c
a. 2
b. 4
c. 8
d. 16

5. Which of the following is an example of a behavior that aids reproduction? d

a. red feathers of a cardinal
b. long eyestalks in a fly
c. a red throat pouch
d. a zig-zag dance

B. Organize Information To organize information about cell division, complete the following
concept map.
1. meiosis; 2. mitosis; 3. growth or replacement of dead cells

C. Critical Thinking Answer each question.

1. Make Judgments Fishermen once cut up sea stars and threw the pieces back into the ocean
in an attempt to get rid of them. Is this a good way to get rid of a sea star? Explain.
No. Each piece could regenerate to form a new sea star from the one original sea star.
47

2. Interpret Diagrams Which phase of cell division, either mitosis or meiosis, is shown here in a
cell with a diploid number of 4? Explain how you identified the phase and why it cannot be other
possible phases.
This phase is metaphase of mitosis. The 4 doubled chromosomes are lined up in the middle of
the cell but they are not arranged in pairs so it cannot be metaphase I of meiosis. It also cannot
be metaphase II because there are 4 chromosomes, not 2.
3. Predict Suppose an error occurs in a skin cell when DNA is being replicated, and the wrong
base is inserted. Will the error appear in any of the offspring that are produced by sexual
reproduction? Explain.
The error will not appear in the offspring because only the DNA in gametes, not in skin cells, is
passed on to offspring in sexual reproduction.
4. Make Judgments Suppose an error occurs during DNA replication in a leaf cell of a
Kalanchoe plant that reproduces asexually by forming plantlets on the leafs edge. Do you think
the error might appear in any of the offspring? Explain.
There is a chance that some of the offspring will have the error if a new plant forms from the leaf
cell with the error.
5. Apply Concepts Each species of bird has a unique song that is sung to attract a mate.
Explain how a bird song can help a bird choose a mate. Would singing be important in an
organism that reproduces asexually?
Bird songs are a form of courtship behavior. The better a singer, the more likely the bird is to be
fit and healthy. A bird is likely to choose a singer who has sung a song well. Singing would not
be important in an organism that reproduces asexually because only one parent is involved;
there is no need to attract a mate.
6. Infer A coconut is the seed of a coconut tree. A heavy coconut drops to the ground and is
later washed away to another island by the tide. What kind of seed dispersal is represented by a
coconut? Explain.
Coconuts are dispersed by water. The water carries the coconut to a new location, which is
dispersal.
Part III Thinking Further
Pesticides are chemicals that kill insects that harm plants. However, pesticides also kill some
insects that are harmless or helpful to plants. Write a story describing what might happen if a
fruit grower sprayed his lemon trees with a pesticide. The flowers of lemon trees are usually
pollinated by insect pollinators such as bees. Would flowers be produced on the lemon trees?
Student stories will vary. Without insect pollinators, flowers would still be produced. A few eggs
might be fertilized as pollen fell from stamens onto pistils in the same flower. However, most
fruit would not develop because most of the insect pollinators would have been killed by the
pesticide.

Chapter 4 Genetics and Heredity

48

4.1 Genes and Traits

Learning Points and Checkpoints
Learning Point
1. Define trait, and distinguish between an inherited trait and an acquired trait.
1. A trait is a characteristic of a living thing. Inherited traits are controlled by genes and are
passed from parent to offspring. Acquired traits are acquired during an organisms lifetime
through learning or by interacting with the environment. Acquired traits are not inherited.
Checkpoint What is a gene, and where is it located?
A gene is a segment of DNA that contains genetic information for an inherited trait. It is located
on the DNA molecule.
Checkpoint What is the relationship between number of genes and number of
traits?
Some traits are controlled by one gene. Most traits are controlled by two or more
genes. Some genes control more than one trait.
Learning Point
2. Describe, in two steps, how protein synthesis occurs.
2. The first part of protein synthesis, transcription, takes place in the nucleus. DNA is copied into
mRNA. mRNA moves out of the nucleus to the cytoplasm. The second part, translation, takes
place on ribosomes in the cytoplasm. A protein is synthesized with the help of tRNA.
Checkpoint What are the roles of mRNA and tRNA in protein synthesis?
mRNA carries genetic information from the gene in the nucleus to the cytoplasm. tRNA picks up
amino acids and delivers them to the ribosome.
Learning Point
3. Define allele, and differentiate between dominant and recessive alleles.
3. An allele is a form of a gene. Alleles of a certain gene are found in the same location on the
two chromosomes of a matching pair. A dominant allele is a gene form that is expressed even if
only one copy is present. A recessive allele is a gene form that cannot be expressed unless two
copies are present and no dominant allele is present.
Checkpoint What kinds of alleles for seed color are possible in a pea plant?
It could have two alleles for yellow seeds, two alleles for green seeds, or one allele for yellow
and one for green.

Checkpoint How can a recessive trait be expressed in an organism?

49

A recessive trait can be expressed only if two alleles for this trait are present and no dominant
allele is present to cover up the recessive allele.
Learning Point
4. Define variation, and identify the processes in organisms that provide for variation.
4. Variation is the natural differences in the way a trait appears. Meiosis and fertilization during
sexual reproduction, multiple genes controlling a trait, and changes in DNA provide for variation.
Checkpoint What processes in sexual reproduction are sources of variations in traits?
Meiosis and fertilization are sources of variation.
Checkpoint What does it mean that the allele a parent contributes is random?
During meiosis, the daughter cell could receive from the parent one allele or the other.
Checkpoint How does fertilization result in variation?
During fertilization, alleles from one parent combine with alleles from the other parent to form
new allele combinations.
Learning Point
5. Explain how sex of a human offspring is determined.
5. Eggs carry one X chromosome and no Y chromosome. Two kinds of sperm are
producedsperm that carry an X chromosome and sperm that carry a Y
chromosome. If a sperm carrying an X chromosome fertilizes an egg, an XX zygote
results, a female. If a sperm carrying a Y chromosome fertilizes an egg, an XY
zygote results, a male.
Checkpoint How are the sex chromosomes of males and females different?
A female has two identical X chromosomes. A male has one X chromosome and one Y
(smaller) chromosome.
Section Review
1. Explain What is the relationship among DNA, a gene, and a chromosome?
Genes are segments of DNA that code for a certain trait. DNA coils up into chromosomes.
2. Apply Concepts Name an acquired trait. Can this trait be passed to an offspring? Explain
why or why not.
Scars and colored hair are acquired traits. They cannot be passed to offspring because they are
not controlled by genes.
3. Review What things might be controlled by the information in a gene?
A gene may control a step in a life process, production of a chemical, or directions for building a
cell structure.

50

4. Apply Concepts Why cant a recessive allele be expressed if an organism has only one
copy?
If an organism has only one copy of a recessive allele, it means that the other chromosome of
the pair is carrying a dominant allele for that gene. The dominant allele covers up the
expression of the recessive allele.
5. Summarize What event occurs during the process of transcription?
The genetic information in DNA is copied onto a molecule of messenger RNA.
6. Summarize What events occur during the process of translation? What is translated?
In the cytoplasm, molecules of transfer RNA pick up amino acids and carry them to the
ribosome. There, they are assembled into a protein. Genetic information is translated into
protein information.
7. Analyze The picture shows a body cell with alleles A and a. The cell is in prophase I. What
are the possible alleles in each of the gametes? Draw a picture to show your answer. If a
parent with this body cell mates with a parent with identical alleles, what are the possible
allele combinations in their offspring?

The possible allele combinations are AA, Aa, or aa.

8. Make Judgments A man and his wife have six children, all girls. The husband thinks they
cannot have boys. Is the man correct? Explain.
No, a male produces Y gametes also. The sperm that fertilizes the egg can have either kind of
chromosome, X or Y.

51

Classroom Activity Determining Sex

Draw Conclusions
1. Interpret Data What did the two bags represent?
The bag containing only red beans represented the reproductive organ of a female organism.
The bag containing both red and white beans represented the reproductive organ of a male
organism.
2. Interpret Data What did the bean pairs represent?
Zygotes
3. Observe How many male zygotes and female zygotes were formed during your ten
draws?
Answers will vary but should be approximately half males and half females.
4. Draw Conclusions What did you notice about the number of male and female zygotes you
produced?
They were about equal.
5. Predict If you were to make 50 draws instead of only 10, how might your results change?
Answers may vary. Students may recognize that the results will be closer to 50% male and 50%
female with more draws.
Lab Investigation Growing a Family Tree
Analysis and Conclusion
1. Observe Did you share more acquired traits or more inherited traits with your family
members?
Answers will vary but students should find that they shared several forms of inherited traits.
2. Infer Why might you share the same forms of inherited traits with your family members?
Answer may vary. Alleles of inherited traits are passed from generation to generation.
3. Infer Why might you share acquired traits with family members?
Answer may vary. Students may suggest that living in the same environment caused
acquired traits to be similar.
4. Draw Conclusions How are inherited traits different from the acquired traits you identified in
your family tree?
Inherited traits are passed from parent to offspring.

52

5. Relate Cause and Effect How is it possible for people in different generations of a family to
have different forms of an inherited trait?
People in different generations could have inherited different combinations of alleles.
6. Draw Conclusions Did this lab help you to understand how inherited traits are passed from
parent to offspring? Explain.
Answers will vary. Most students should come away with a better understanding of
inheritance of traits.

Further Investigation
Use the Internet to research additional inherited traits in humans. Choose one trait that you did
not investigate in your family and write a short paragraph explaining what you learned about the
forms the trait can take and how they are inherited. Read your paragraph to your class to
expand their knowledge of human inheritance.
4.2 Mendel and Genetics
Learning Points and Checkpoints
Learning Point
6. Explain why Mendel used pea plants for his experiments.
6. Because they normally self-pollinate, pea plants are purebredoffspring have the same form
of the trait as the parent. They have many traits that show only two forms: height, flower color,
pod color, shape and color of seeds, flower position on the stem. They produce large numbers
of offspring in a short time.
Checkpoint What is a purebred plant? Give an example of a purebred pea plant.
A purebred plant is one that always produces offspring with the same form of a trait as the
parent plant. A tall pea plant that always produces tall plants is purebred for tall height.
Learning Point
7. Describe the results of Mendels experiments.
7. When Mendel crossed purebred plants showing two different forms of a trait, one form
disappeared in the F1 generation. When the F1 generation plants self-pollinated, the missing
form reappeared in one-fourth of the F2 generation plants.
Checkpoint What was Mendels source for the F2 generation of pea plants?
He allowed the F1 generation to grow and self-pollinate. The offspring produced formed the F2
generation.

53

Checkpoint How did Mendel interpret the fact that one form of a trait disappeared in the F1
generation?
He concluded that plants in the F1 generation had two factors for the trait and that the factor for
one form masked the factor for the other form.
Learning Point
8. Using the concepts of sexual reproduction and alleles, explain how two different forms of a
trait could appear in Mendels F2 generation.
8. Each hybrid plant in the first generation had two different alleles for seed shape and produced
two different kinds of gametes. Two gametes with an allele for round seeds united to form a
zygote that became a plant that produced round seeds. A gamete with an allele for round seeds
that united with a gamete with an allele for wrinkled seeds became a plant that produced round
seeds because round seeds are dominant to wrinkled seeds. Two gametes with alleles for
wrinkled seeds united to become plants that produced wrinkled seeds.
Checkpoint What is a hybrid plant?
A hybrid plant is a plant that has two different alleles for a trait.
Learning Point
9. Describe three patterns of inheritance that do not involve simple dominant and recessive
alleles, and give an example of each one.
9. Incomplete dominance is a pattern of inheritance that results in the expression of an
intermediate trait in offspring. In snapdragons, a plant with one allele for red flowers and one
allele for white flowers has pink flowers, intermediate trait. Codominance is a complex pattern of
inheritance in which both alleles are expressed equally. In human blood groups, alleles A and B
are both expressed and the person has blood type AB. Many traits are controlled by more than
one gene. Traits show a wide range of expression. Height and eye color are examples.
Checkpoint Why does incomplete dominance result in an intermediate trait being shown?
Neither allele is dominant to the other.
Learning Point
10. Describe and give examples of how symbols are used to express the alleles of a
genotype and the phenotypes that may result from a given genotype.
10. Capital and small letters are used to express the alleles of a genotype. For
example, R represents the dominant allele for round seed, while r represents the
recessive allele, for wrinkled seed. A genotype of RR or Rr results in the round seed
phenotype. A genotype of rr results in the wrinkled seed phenotype.
Checkpoint How are the symbols for a dominant allele and a recessive allele for the same trait
similar? How are they different?
Both alleles are represented by the same letter. However, the dominant allele is shown as a
capital letter and the recessive as a lowercase letter.
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Checkpoint. What is the difference between phenotype and genotype?

Phenotype is the way a trait appears in an organism. Genotype is the combination of alleles for
that trait in the organisms cells.
Learning Point
11. Compare homozygous and heterozygous genotypes, and explain how they affect
the phenotypes of parents and offspring.
11. A homozygous organism has two identical alleles for a trait. A heterozygous organism has
two different alleles for the same trait. An organism that is homozygous may have the dominant
phenotype or the recessive phenotype. An organism that is heterozygous has the dominant
phenotype. Two homozygous parents would have homozygous offspring if their genotypes are
identical. They would have heterozygous offspring if their genotypes were different. A
heterozygous parent and a homozygous parent could have homozygous or heterozygous
offspring.
Checkpoint How can you determine whether a mouse with a dominant phenotype is
homozygous or heterozygous?
You could mate the mouse with one that has a recessive phenotype. If no offspring show the
recessive phenotype, then the original mouse was homozygous. If any offspring show the
recessive phenotype, the original mouse was heterozygous.
Learning Point
12. Define probability, and identify two ways it can be expressed. Give an example of
each expression using the possible outcome of a coin toss.
12. Probability is the chance that a particular outcome will occur compared to all possible
outcomes. Probability can be expressed as a fraction, , or as a percentage, 50 percent. The
probability of the coin landing heads up is and the probability of the coin landing tails up is
also .
Checkpoint What is the probability that a coin will land heads up on a third toss after landing
tails up twice in a row?
The probability is 1 in 2, or 50 percent. Each time you toss the coin, the outcome is independent
of all other coin tosses.
Learning Point
13. Describe how to make a Punnett square, and use Punnett squares to solve problems in
genetics.
13. A Punnett square is a diagram with four smaller boxes. One parents alleles are written
across the top, and the other parents alleles are written down the side. One allele from the
top and one allele from the side are written in the appropriate box. The combination that
results shows the possible genotype of an offspring.

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Checkpoint In the cross shown in the Punnett square, what are the genotypes that will result in
the round seed phenotype? What is the probability of each possible phenotype in the offspring?
The genotypes RR and Rr will result in the round seed phenotype. The probability of the round
seed phenotype is 75 percent or 3 in 4. The probability of the wrinkled seed phenotype is 25
percent or 1 in 4.
Checkpoint What is the genotype and phenotype of the homozygous offspring in this cross?
The genotype is hh. The phenotype is cattle with horns.
Section Review
1. Identify What does each box in a Punnett square represent?
Each box represents one possible combination of alleles, or the genotype, that an offspring of
a particular cross could inherit.
2. List What genetic terms can be used to identify the F1 hybrid plants in Mendels
experiment? Use any of the following terms in your answer: genotype, phenotype,
homozygous, heterozygous.
These plants are heterozygous for seed shape, have the round seed phenotype, and Rr
genotype.
3. Compare and Contrast A short-hair cat has the heterozygous genotype. Other than
phenotype, what is the difference between this cat and a long-hair cat? Use the word
genotype in your answer.
The heterozygous cat has the Ss genotype. The long-hair cat has the homozygous genotype,
ss. A homozygous individual has two identical alleles for that trait. A heterozygous individual
has two different alleles for the trait.
4. Analyze What cross did Mendel perform that produced only hybrid offspring?
Mendel crossed two purebred plants, one with one form of the trait and the other with a second
form of the same trait.
5. Predict What is the probability of two cats with long hair having a kitten with short hair?
Explain your answer.
The probability is 0 percent. Having long hair is a recessive trait. Neither parent has any alleles
for short hair to contribute to an offspring with short hair.
6. Apply Concepts The purple flower allele in peas is dominant to the white flower allele.
Make a Punnett square for a cross between two pea plants that have purple flowers if one
parent is homozygous and the other is heterozygous. Use P to represent the purple allele
and p to represent the white allele. What is the probability that an offspring from this cross
will have purple flowers? Give your answer as a percentage.

PP

PP

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Pp

Pp

The probability that an offspring from this cross will have purple flowers is 100 percent. Half will
be homozygous and half will be heterozygous.
7. Solve a Problem Can two parents with AB blood have a child with type O blood? Explain.
No, because neither parent has the i allele, necessary for type O. Both parents have one A and
one B allele.
Classroom Activity Working with Punnett Squares
Draw Conclusions
1. Infer What is the most likely genotype of your unknown mouse? Explain.
The unknown mouse may have a BB genotype because no brown mice were observed in the
offspring. We cannot be sure because we had only 10 mice, and the actual becomes closer to
the expected with larger sample sizes.
2. Analyze Data Can we be sure that the mouse is not heterozygous? Explain.
No, because doing a Punnett square gives the expected outcome, not the actual outcome. The
actual becomes closer to the expected when the number of offspring increases.
3. Calculate What is the probability of producing brown mice from a cross with a brown mouse
if your unknown mouse is homozygous?
There is 0 percent probability of producing a brown mouse. All mice will be heterozygous black.
4. Calculate What is the probability of producing brown mice from a cross with a brown mouse
if your unknown mouse is heterozygous?
The probability is 2 in 4, or 50 percent.
Lab Investigation Tossing Coins
Analysis and Conclusion
1. Predict What is the probability of tossing a head in one toss? Explain.
The probability of tossing a head in one toss is 1 in 2, or 50 percent. There are two possible
outcomes (heads and tails) and both are equally likely.
2. Predict What is the probability of tossing a tail in one toss? Explain.
The probability of tossing a tail in one toss also is 1 in 2, or 50 percent. There are two possible
outcomes (heads and tails) and both are equally likely.

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3. Observe What did you notice about the percentages of heads and tails as you increased
the number of tosses from one set to another?
As I increased the number of tosses, the percentages of heads and tails came closer to the
expected 50 percent.
4. Draw Conclusions What can you conclude from this experiment that may help you design
a valid scientific experiment?
Answers will vary. Students should suggest that multiple trials in an experiment will yield more
reliable results.

Further Investigation
Create a spreadsheet on a computer. Input your data from this experiment in the spreadsheet.
Then, use the spreadsheet to make three labeled circle graphs. Do the computer-generated
circle graphs agree with the circle graphs you drew? If not, try to figure out why they are
different.
4.3 DNA and Modern Genetics
Learning Points and Checkpoints
Learning Point
14. Describe how and when mutations occur.
14. A gene mutation occurs when a wrong base is inserted, an extra base is inserted, or a base
is deleted. A chromosome mutation occurs when chromosomes dont separate correctly during
meiosis or when a piece of chromosome is lost. The result is an extra chromosome, a missing
chromosome, or a missing part of a chromosome. Mutations occur during DNA replication
before mitosis or meiosis, or during protein synthesis.
Checkpoint What are three causes of mutations in genes?
A wrong base may be inserted, an extra base may be inserted, or a base may be deleted.
Checkpoint What effect might a missing chromosome have on offspring?
They are less likely to be produced because the gamete has trouble surviving.
Learning Point
15. Explain and give examples of how mutations affect an organisms phenotype and ability to
survive.
15. As the result of a mutation, the structure of a protein may change and lead to a change in
the way an organism functions. In other cases, a gamete may not even survive, as when a
chromosome is missing. Mutations are a source of variation in organisms. Helpful mutations
may increase an organisms ability to survive, such as increased resistance to a disease.
Harmful mutations may prevent the production of a needed chemical, such as melanin in albino
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organisms. Still other mutations may have no effect, such as the mutation that causes four-leaf
clovers.
Checkpoint How does a mutation that results in stunted wing size affect a butterfly?
It will affect its ability to fly and survive. This is a harmful mutation.
Learning Point
16. Describe causes of genetic disorders.
16. Some genetic disorders are not inherited, such as cancer. Cancer is the result of mutations
in genes that control the cell cycle, leading to abnormal cell division. Some genetic disorders are
inherited, such as hemophilia and cystic fibrosis. Both are the result of a gene mutation. Other
genetic disorders result from changes in the chromosome number.
Checkpoint What are two examples of a disorder caused by a gene mutation?
Cystic fibrosis and hemophilia are both caused by a mutation in a gene.
Learning Point
17. Describe three techniques humans have used to produce organisms with desirable trait, and
give an example of each.
17. In selective breeding, certain parent organisms are bred to increase the chances that
desirable traits would be inherited by the next generation. For example, seeds from wheat that
produced more nutritious grain were saved and planted. Cloning organisms is a genetic
technique that makes copies of organisms by replacing the nucleus in an egg of one kind of
organism with the nucleus from a body cell of another kind of organism. Dolly the sheep is an
example. In genetic engineering, a gene is removed from one species of organism and put into
another species. Genetically engineering bacteria to produce human insulin is an example.
Checkpoint What is the goal of selective breeding?
The goal of selective breeding is to increase the chances that a desirable trait will be inherited
by the next generation.
Checkpoint Was Dolly identical to the sheep that provided the egg or to the sheep that
provided the nucleus? Explain.
Dolly was identical to the sheep that provided the nucleus because the genetic information is
contained within the nucleus.
Checkpoint What is an advantage of having bacteria make human insulin?
Bacteria can make large amounts of insulin because they grow and reproduce
quickly.
Learning Point
18. List three concerns some people have about genetically modified organisms.
18. Some people worry that genetically modified organisms may escape a laboratory and cause
harm. Genes for resistance to herbicides may spread into wild plants and cause them to
become superweeds. Pesticides and herbicides made by genetically modified crop plants may
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harm people who eat the plants or insects that pollinate the plants. People with allergies worry
about transfer of genes from the allergy-causing plants into other food types.
Section Review
1. Define What is gene therapy? What is one method for accomplishing it?
Gene therapy is the introduction of genes into existing cells to prevent or cure a wide range
of diseases. A normal gene is inserted in a harmless virus and introduced into a person with
the defective gene.
2. Identify What are three types of chromosome mutation?
A chromosome mutation is an extra chromosome, a lost chromosome, or a chromosome
with a missing piece.
3. Apply Concepts Why is mutation a source of variation?
Mutation is a source of variation because it changes DNA and causes new combinations of
alleles.
4. Relate Cause and Effect What are two examples of a genetic disorder? What is the cause
and effect of each?
Sample answer: Cystic fibrosis is caused by a defective transport protein in the cell
membrane that cannot transport salt in and out of the cell. It causes thick mucus to
accumulate. Hemophilia is caused by a defective blood-clotting protein. The blood clots
slowly or not at all. In Down syndrome, the individual has an extra chromosome 21, which
causes mental disabilities.
5. Predict A person develops a mutation in a gene that produces melanin in a skin cell. Will
this person have offspring that have skin with no color? Explain your answer.
The person will not pass the mutation to any offspring because mutations in body cells
cannot be inherited.
6. Infer Can a person who has cystic fibrosis but has received gene therapy still pass the
disorder to offspring?
Yes. The persons reproductive organs would still make gametes that have the defective
allele.
7. Make Judgments Do you think cloning a mammal is a form of asexual reproduction?
Explain.
Answers will vary. Cloning mammals can be considered a form of asexual reproduction
because the offspring is an exact copy of the parent. However, two organismsone
providing the nucleus and the second providing the cellare involved so cloning is not
exactly the same as asexual reproduction.

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8. Compare What is one way that selective breeding and genetic engineering are different?
Selective breeding makes an existing allele more common in a group of organisms
but does not change an individual organisms DNA. Genetic engineering changes an
organisms DNA because a gene from another species is inserted into the organism.
9. Summarize What are some benefits to humans of genetically engineering crop plants?
Answers may vary. Some benefits to humans are growing more nutritious crops, farmers
being able to use less pesticide, and having plants that do not freeze in cold weather.
10. Make Judgments Suppose that you are on a team to debate the risks of genetic
engineering. Respond to the following statement: Give two reasons why genetic engineering
should not be allowed as a way to protect human health.
Sample answer: Bacteria that escape from labs can cause new human diseases. People who
are allergic to peanuts may have an allergic reaction to corn in which peanut genes have been
inserted.
Classroom Activity How Information Can Change
Draw Conclusions
1. Observe Was the sentence reported by the last person in your line identical to the sentence
written on the piece of paper?
Answers will vary but the sentence will most likely have changed.
2. Observe Were the sentences reported by the last students in the two lines identical to each
other?
Answers will vary but the final sentences in the two lines will most likely be different.
3. Interpret Data What do you think this activity modeled?
It modeled the occurrence of mutations during replication.
4. Analyze Data In what ways did the sentence change? What does this model?
Individual words may have changed. This modeled a mutation in a particular gene. A word was
missing. This modeled a chromosome mutation.
5. Make Models How could this activity be changed to be a better model?
Answers will vary. More groups could be involved. Longer or shorter sentences could be used.
Trends in Science

Why might a vaccine made with weak pathogens be unsafe?

Answers will vary. The pathogen might not be weak enough and might cause disease.

Why is a genetically engineered vaccine safer?

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No disease-causing pathogens are involved in the production of the vaccine.

What else would you like to know about this research?

Answers will vary. Students might like to know if vaccines against other diseases are
being made.
Chapter 4 Exercises

Part I Reviewing Key Terms

A. Fill in each blank with the most appropriate key term.
1. A purebred organism is one that always produces offspring with the same form of a trait as
the parent.
2. A mutation is any change in DNA or a chromosome.
3. A Punnett square is a diagram that predicts the possible genotypes of offspring from a
cross.
4. In codominance, both alleles for a trait are expressed equally.
5. A gene is a section of DNA that codes for a trait.
6. A genetic disorder usually results from the production of a defective protein.
7. The study of how traits are inherited is genetics.
8. In incomplete dominance, the presence of both alleles results in an intermediate trait.
B. If the statement is true, write true next to it. If it is false, change the underlined word(s) to
different words that make the statement true.
1. A dominant allele is expressed only when two copies are present. False. recessive
2. Transcription and translation are two parts of protein synthesis. True
3. An organism with RR alleles has a heterozygous genotype. False. homozygous
4. The way in which a trait appears in an organism is its genotype. False. phenotype
5. Probability can be expressed as a percentage. True

C. Circle the letter of the term that best completes each sentence.
1. Small natural differences in the way a trait appears are a
a. variations.
b. mutations.
c. chromosomes.
d. genotypes.

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2. The letters Rr make up an organisms b

a. phenotype.
b. genotype.
c. genes.
d. chromosomes.
3. An individual with alleles Y and y for a trait is d
a. dominant.
b. recessive.
c. homozygous.
d. heterozygous.
4. A technology that results in a change in an individuals DNA is c
a. selective breeding.
b. cloning.
c. genetic engineering.
d. translation.
5. The passing of traits from parents to offspring is known as b
a. genetics.
b. heredity.
c. sexual reproduction.
d. asexual reproduction.
6. A characteristic that can be either inherited or acquired is (an) a
a. trait
b. allele
c. protein
d. gene

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D. Answer each question.

1. What did Mendel call an F1 plant that inherited a different factor from each parent?
hybrid
2. What kind of allele can mask or cover up another kind of allele?
a dominant allele
3. Which nucleic acid is single stranded and plays a role in protein synthesis?
RNA
4. What experimental technology introduces a normal allele into a person who has a defective
allele?
gene therapy
5. What method have farmers used to increase the frequency of desirable traits in their farm
animals?
selective breeding
6. What are the forms of a gene called?
alleles

Part II Developing Skills

A. Circle the letter of the term or phrase that best answers each question.
1. In protein synthesis, messenger RNA c
a. delivers amino acids to the growing protein chain.
b. delivers transfer RNA to the ribosome.
c. carries genetic information from the nucleus to the ribosome.
d. copies genetic information from the ribosome to the nucleus.

2. A cross between two pea plants with wrinkled seeds a

a. cannot have offspring with round seeds.
b. can have only offspring with round seeds.
c. can have offspring with both round and wrinkled seeds.
d. cannot have any offspring.

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3. Mendels hybrid plants d

a. had two identical alleles for the trait.
b. showed a recessive phenotype.
c. were homozygous for the trait.
d. were heterozygous for the trait.

4. In which of the following is a gene from another species introduced into an individual? b
a. selective breeding
b. genetic engineering
c. cloning
d. mutation

5. Which of the following is not a source of variation in a population? d

a. mutation
b. sexual reproduction
c. meiosis
d. mitosis

B. Compare and Contrast To compare information about dominant and recessive alleles,
write the phrases in the box in the correct column of the table.
cannot be covered up
represented by capital letter
homozygous and heterozygous individuals have same phenotype
homozygous and heterozygous individuals have different phenotype

Dominant allele

Recessive allele

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Dominant allele: cannot be covered up, represented by capital letter, homozygous and
heterozygous individuals have same phenotype
Recessive allele: homozygous and heterozygous individuals have different phenotype

C. Critical Thinking Answer each question.

1. Interpret Diagrams What were the genotypes and phenotypes of the parents in the cross
represented by the following Punnett square? What are the phenotypes of the four
offspring? P represents the allele for purple flowers; p represents the allele for white flowers.
PP

PP

Pp

Pp

One parent had a Pp genotype. The other parent had a PP genotype. Both had a phenotype of
purple flowers. All the offspring have a phenotype of purple flowers.
2. Classify What kind of inheritance pattern can produce each of the following offspring?
a. heterozygous offspring with an intermediate phenotype
b. offspring in which both alleles are expressed equally
c. offspring in which many variations of a trait are expressed
a. incomplete dominance; b. codominance; c. multiple genes
3. Predict Hemophilia is a sex-linked recessive trait. This means that the gene for hemophilia
is located on the X chromosome and is represented as Xh. The normal allele is represented
as XH. A recessive allele cannot be masked in a male because he has only one X
chromosome. Make Punnett squares to show how a female offspring can inherit hemophilia
and have a genotype of XhXh. Then, answer the following:
a) Explain the possible genotypes of the parents.
b) Give the genotype and phenotype, including the sex, for possible offspring.
c) Calculate the probability for each kind of possible offspring .
Punnett squares should show that the mother can be either XHXh or XhXh but the father must be
XhY.
a) Both parents must give an Xh allele to a female offspring if she is to inherit hemophilia.
b) Other possible offspring are XHXh normal female, XHY normal male, and XhY male with
hemophilia.
c) For the XHXh mother, the probabilities are: normal female, female with hemophilia,
normal male, male with hemophilia. For the XhXh mother, the probabilities are:
females with hemophilia, males with hemophilia.

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Part III Thinking Further

Infer: Find pictures of different kinds of cows that have been bred for specific traits. Research
the advantages of each breed of cows you investigate and infer why those traits might be
favorable.
Answers will vary with the breeds studied. For example, Black angus cows are bred for both
meat and milk production; Brown Swiss, Jersey, Holstein, and Guernsey for milk production.
Mongolian cattle are bred for pulling and other difficult work.

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