Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
143
COMMUNICATION
CHAPTER SCAN
In order to communicate effectively, it is necessary to understand the roles we enact as
communicators and receivers in the process. Communication is a skill that can be improved
through practicing reflective listening skills, which include affirming contact, paraphrasing,
clarifying, reflecting feelings, silence and eye contact. In addition, there are five keys to effective
supervisory communication that distinguish us as good or bad communicators. This chapter also
discusses defensive and nondefensive communication.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
1. Understand the roles of the communicator, the receiver, perceptual screens, and the
message in interpersonal communication.
2. Practice good reflective skills.
3. Describe the five communication skills of effective supervisors.
4. Explain five barriers to communication and how to overcome them.
5. Distinguish between defensive and nondefensive communication.
6. Describe contemporary information technologies used by managers.
144
Chapter 8: Communication
KEY TERMS
Chapter 8 introduces the following key terms:
communication
interpersonal communication
communicator
receiver
perceptual screen
message
feedback loop
language
data
information
richness
reflective listening
two-way communication
one-way communication
barriers to communication
defensive communication
nondefensive communication
nonverbal communication
new communication technology
II.
INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
The key elements in interpersonal communication are the communicator, the receiver, the
perceptual screens, and the message. Perceptual screens are windows through which we
interact with people that influence the quality, accuracy, and clarity of the communication.
The message contains the thoughts and feelings that the communicator intends to evoke in
the receiver. An important element in the model is the feedback loop, which occurs when
the receiver provides the communicator with a response to the message. Our frustration
with individuals who give us no visible sign of acceptance or rejection of our thoughts and
ideas illustrates the importance of feedback.
Data and information are related, in that information is data that is organized and has
meaning. Data are simply uninterpreted, unanalyzed facts. Some of the more interesting
Chapter 8: Communication
145
and thought-provoking research has been done with the valuing of information and the
richness of the information media. For example, face-to-face discussions rank the highest
in terms of information richness, and take up the least portion of data capacity. However,
along with the need for a variety of forms of information, there is a corresponding data
capacity that is often inverse to its richness. Walter Wriston, former CEO of Citicorp, said
it is not difficult to get reports and printouts. The difficulty is getting summarized
information that you can use.
B.
Reflective Listening
Reflective listening is a skill that helps the receiver and communicator clearly and fully
understand the message sent. It can be characterized as personal, feeling oriented, and
responsive. Reflective listening techniques cannot be used in electronic mail because
nonverbal cues are absent and written affirmation is delayed. The following techniques
can be used to increase reflective listening skills:
1.
Affirming Contact
When an individual paraphrases what s/he has heard, it helps clarify the
information for the receiver as well as clarifying for the presenter what was not
expressed well. One of the techniques of learning is to paraphrase information to
another person. Ask students if they have tried this when studying for exams.
3.
Clarifying the implicit involves verifying unexpressed thoughts and feelings that the
receiver notes within the interaction.
146
Chapter 8: Communication
4.
Silence
Eye Contact
Communication skills are critical for managers. Managers who score high on communication
have also been found to be higher performing managers. There are five keys to effective
supervisory communication.
A.
Expressive Speakers
Better supervisors tend to be more comfortable expressing their thoughts and feelings than
are other managers.
B.
Empathetic Listeners
Empathetic listeners are able to determine the feelings and emotional dimensions of others,
as well as their content regarding the ideas and issues. This communication skill depends
heavily on reflective listening.
C.
Persuasive Leaders (and Some Exceptions)
In most instances, it is effective and necessary to be a persuasive leader. Persuasive
leaders encourage others to achieve results rather than telling them what to do. There are
exceptions, for example, when immediate decisions must be made that may be life-
Chapter 8: Communication
147
threatening if delayed. Most issues, if managed well, require appropriate time to gather
ideas.
D.
Sensitive to Feelings
Informative Managers
This communication skill refers to the amount of pertinent information that supervisors
share with employees. Providing information is part of Mintzbergs disseminator role.
Total quality programs emphasize sharing information with employees; to be empowered,
individuals must know what is at stake in decision making.
IV.
BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION
Separately, any of these barriers could be used positively for communication. They become
barriers when they are misused. The barriers to communication include physical separation,
status differences, gender differences, cultural diversity, and language that can impair effective
communication in a workplace.
A.
Physical Separation
Physical separation in the workplace makes it difficult, and often awkward, for employees
to interact. This is one of the primary arguments against telecommuting. Some
organizations use meetings and after work gatherings to overcome the separation created
by some of our technological advances.
B.
Status Differences
Employees must feel that they can honestly relate thoughts and ideas upward in the
organization. If they are conscious of status differences and fearful that those differences
will be used against them, they will be reluctant to criticize or suggest to a supervisor.
Effective communication skills make supervisors more approachable and can diminish the
negative effects of status differences.
C.
Gender Differences
Research indicates that men and women employ different conversation styles when
communicating, and these different styles may result in serious communication problems.
D.
Cultural Diversity
148
Chapter 8: Communication
E.
Language
Subordinate Defensiveness
Some people with low self-esteem and those at lower levels of the organization
may be prone to subordinate defensiveness in communication, characterized by
passive, submissive, withdrawing behavior.
2.
Dominant Defensiveness
Others with low self-esteem and those at higher levels of the organization may
exhibit dominant defensiveness in communication, characterized by active,
aggressive, attacking behavior.
B.
Defensive Tactics
Table 8.2 on defensive tactics provides a categorical way to label and analyze defensive
tactics. Understanding these tactics (power plays, put-downs, labeling, raising doubts,
misleading information, scapegoating, hostile jokes, and deception) helps supervisors and
employees respond more effectively to defensive communication. Challenge 8.2 is
particularly useful for helping students understand their own defensive communication.
C.
Nondefensive Communication
NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION
Most meaning in a message (as much as 65-90 percent) is conveyed through nonverbal
communication. Nonverbal communication includes all elements of communication that do not
involve language. It is important to note that nonverbal behavior varies dramatically from one
culture to the next.
A.
Proxemics
Chapter 8: Communication
149
Proxemics, or the perception and use of space, varies among individuals, and especially
from culture to culture.
Students may understand the zones of territorial space better by asking them at what
distance they would be comfortable in various situations. For example, what is the
zone of distance for riding in an elevator with only one other person?
B.
Kinesics
Kinesics is the study of body movements, including posture. We read individuals through
their movements. For example, students presenting in class often use excessive hand
gestures, indicating their nervousness in being in front of others.
C.
A good way to help students understand facial and eye behavior is to ask them to watch
people on lunch hour. In eating establishments that business workers frequent, one can
often tell whether they are eating with peers, supervisors, or subordinates by watching
their facial and eye behavior.
D.
Paralanguage
Paralanguage includes variations in pitch, loudness, tempo, tone, duration, laughing, and
crying. Ask students if they believe we stereotype based on paralanguage more than other
characteristics.
Chapter 8: Communication
150
E.
People tend to believe they are better at decoding nonverbal cues than they actually are.
VII.
Written Communication
Many individuals avoid written communication because they do not believe they are
skilled in expressing their thoughts in writing. It is also considered less personal in many
situations. Written communication has the advantage of high to moderate data capacity,
but may also have the disadvantage of moderate to low information richness.
B.
Communication Technologies
New communication technologies include electronic mail, voice mail, fax machines, and
cell phones. While these technologies greatly enhance the speed of communication, they
cannot convey the nonverbal cues that make up a significant portion of the message.
C.
New communication technologies are typically more impersonal, and may result in less
patience with one-to-one communication as a much slower form of communication. New
technologies provide the opportunity for us to multitask, which may have drawbacks when
we need to focus closely on one problem at a time. We can be overloaded with
information and will need to be more conscious of filtering information.
VIII.
IX.
CHAPTER SUMMARY
The perceptual screens of communicators and listeners either help clarify or distort a message
that is sent and received. Age, gender, and culture influence the sent and received messages.
Reflective listening involves affirming contact, paraphrasing what is expressed, clarifying the
implicit, reflecting "core" feelings, and using appropriate nonverbal behavior to enhance
communication.
The best supervisors talk easily with diverse groups of people, listen empathetically, are
generally persuasive and not directive, are sensitive to a persons self-esteem, and are
communication minded.
Physical separation, status differences, gender differences, cultural diversity, and language are
potential communication barriers that can be overcome.
Active or passive defensive communication destroys interpersonal relationships, whereas
assertive, nondefensive communication leads to clarity.
Nonverbal communication includes the use of territorial space, seating arrangements, facial
gestures, eye contact, and paralanguage. Nonverbal communication varies by nation and
culture around the world.
Chapter 8: Communication
151
New communication technologies include electronic mail, voice mail, fax machines, and cell
phones. High-tech innovations require high touch responses.
152
Chapter 8: Communication
behaviors include looking away when talking, failing to acknowledge greetings, glares, rolling of
the eyes, sighing, crossing arms and leaning way, peering over glasses, and continuing to read
while someone is speaking.
9. Identify at least five new communication technologies.
Electronic mail, voice mail, fax, cell phones, teleconferencing, and video phones, among others,
are relatively new technologies.
DISCUSSION AND COMMUNICATION QUESTIONS: SUGGESTED ANSWERS
1. Who is the best communicator you know? Why do you consider that person to be so?
Many students will name a prominent figure because they can more readily express why they think
the person is a good communicator. Others will identify individuals they actually know. The
difficult aspect of this question is to get them to analyze why those individuals are good
communicators.
2. Who is the best listener you have ever known? Describe what that person does that makes him
or her so good at listening.
Most often this will be a family member, and the most typical response is someone who is skilled
at reflective listening, especially as an empathetic listener. Be sure to point out to students that
two-way communication is an important element of this question.
3. What methods have you found most helpful in overcoming barriers to communication that are
physical? That are status based? That are cultural? That are linguistic?
This question provides an excellent opportunity for international students to contribute to class
discussions.
4. Who makes you the most defensive when you talk with that person? What does the person do
that makes you so defensive or uncomfortable?
Ask students to characterize the individual, rather than naming the individual. Some students
might be bold enough to mention professors. Encourage students to focus on specific behaviors
rather than personalities.
5. With whom are you the most comfortable and nondefensive in conversation? What does the
person do that makes you so comfortable or nondefensive?
Typical answers are friends and partners. Mentors should have these characteristics as well. As in
the previous question, encourage students to focus on specific behaviors rather than personalities.
6. What nonverbal behaviors do you find most helpful in others when you are attempting to talk
with them? When you try to listen to them?
Chapter 8: Communication
153
You could have students tell you what nonverbal clues you send while lecturing. Are there
annoying habits that get in the way of your information (i.e., twisting a paper clip, the inflection in
your voice, etc.)?
7. Identify a person at work or at the university who is difficult to talk to and arrange an
interview in which you practice good reflective listening skills. Ask the person questions about a
topic in which you think he or she is interested. Pay particular attention to being patient, calm,
and nonreactive. After the interview, summarize what you learned.
Have the students share what they learned from this interview in class. Following are some
questions that will help stimulate class discussion. What were the difficulties they encountered
using reflective listening skills? How did this conversation compare with previous conversations
the student had with this person? What reflective listening skills were most difficult to use and
why?
8. Go to the library and read about communication problems and barriers. Write a memo
categorizing the problems and barriers you find in the current literature (last five years). What
changes do organizations or people need to make to solve these problems?
In addition to enhancing students skills at memo writing, this activity highlights for students the
most current communication problems. In identifying solutions to these problems, encourage
students to move beyond the suggestions in the textbook and to think creatively about their
solutions.
154
Chapter 8: Communication
The credibility of the source or your information must be considered. Regardless, the source
should be confronted and told that you are going to follow up on the information. Whether to tell
the individual may be easier to decide after you gather additional information.
2. If you believe that someone you are working with is lying about the work and deceiving your
boss, but you do not have clear proof of it, what should you do?
After confronting the individual, you may want to allow that person to step forward. In terms of
being a reflective listener, it is necessary to be sure that what you think you understand is truly the
issue and that you have all of the facts.
3. Assume you are a good, empathetic listener. Someone at work confides in you concerning
wrongdoing, yet does not ask your advice about what to do. Should you tell the person what to
do? Encourage the person to confess? Report the person?
You may want to analyze your approach to see what signals you have provided that allowed the
other individual to assume that you were not going to act on this information. This is similar to
someone misreading you and telling you a racist or sexist joke and expecting you to find it
humorous. That person has placed you in an unacceptable position by informing you of the
situation. Relate this back to the individual as quickly as possible.
4. Should you leave confidential messages on a voice mail system in someone's office because
you assume that only that person will listen to the voice mail? Can you be confident about the
security of an electronic mail system?
Most individuals pick up their own mail. An increasing advantage of voice mail is the
accompanying requirement of a password to pick up your messages. If you are unsure, and the
information is crucial, it is inappropriate to leave the message on voice mail. The same guidelines
would apply to electronic mail, although system security varies.
CHALLENGES
8.1
Class discussion might focus on which of the ten tips are most difficult to implement and why.
Also discuss specific, practical ways students can implement each of the tips.
8.2
As a follow up to this challenge, students might be encouraged to develop an action plan for
overcoming their tendencies toward defensiveness.
EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISES
8.1 COMMUNICATE, LISTEN, UNDERSTAND
Chapter 8: Communication
155
One of the biggest barriers to effective communication between people is the natural tendency to
judge or evaluate the communication before it is fully understood. This especially happens during
times of conflict, opposition, disagreement, boredom, or extreme agreement. More effective
communication will result if a clear message is sent and the other person really listens and
understands the message as it is intended to be understood. One way you can be sure that you
understand the other person as he or she intends for you to understand is to make a listening
check. A listening check is merely a summary in your own words of what you understand the
other person to have said. If you have misunderstood the message, it gives you the opportunity to
hear it again and really gain an understanding before moving on in the conversation. The ability to
skillfully make listening checks is crucial in all human interactions and especially crucial when you
are in a managerial role. To gain skills in utilizing listening checks, there will be three rounds of
conversations. During each round, two people will have a conversation while the other person
acts as an observer. One of the two people will initiate the conversation. However, it is two-way
conversation.
Introduce the activity by saying, since the management process is performed through
communicating with others, our focus in this session will be on communication skill building. We
are going to do a skill-building exercise in groups of threes, triads. Letter off A, B, and C and go
to an area of the room in which you can carry on a private conversation. Each round of
conversation will last 5-8 minutes. Call time at the end of each round, reminding students about
switching roles. Following round three, give students time to respond to the questions listed in
Step 5 of the textbook exercise. Have each group share its responses to the questions with the
class. More detailed descriptions of each round follow.
Round 1. In this round, A picks one of the controversial topics that are posted and initiates a
conversation with B. A and B carry on a two-way conversation while observing the following
rule. Before either A or B may speak, they must summarize to the other what the person has just
said to the satisfaction of the speaker. If they summarize back to the other one and it does not
satisfy the other, they must hear the statement or comment again and keep summarizing until it
meets the satisfaction of the one who spoke last. No new statement or any other response may be
given until the last person who spoke is satisfied that the other person has understood what was
said. Again, it is to be a two-way conversation, but you must summarize back to the last person
what they just said to their satisfaction before you can add any new information. Once you have
summarized it, you can make some statements about your position on the topic, then the other
person must summarize back to your satisfaction, before she or he can add any new information.
During this round, C is the observer. As the observer, you are to referee and enforce the
ground rules. If A or B interrupt each other and start talking before they have summarized, you
stop them and remind them that they must summarize what the last person said before they can
make their own statement.
Round 2. During this round, B and C will have a discussion. B will pick a topic off the list
posted and begin the conversation with C. It is a two-way conversation, but the only free
statement is the first statement. After that, the other person must make a listening check before
any new information can be added.
A will be the observer, so enforce the ground rules.
Round 3. During this round, C will start the conversation with A, and B will be the observer. It
is important that the observer enforce the ground rules of requiring a listening check before
adding information.
156
Chapter 8: Communication
Chapter 8: Communication
157
interviewee and have questions prepared based on this background investigation. Finally, the
applicant should dress in a suitable manner for the interview.
P-Provide Information: The interviewer in the organization will probably ask questions
first, so the applicant should be prepared to answer questions about his or her application and
resm. It is important to be nondefensive and forthright during this part of the interview.
O-Obtain Information: The applicant should be assertive in asking questions that have
emerged from the preparation for the interview. The applicant should make sure that his or her
key questions are answered.
E-Evaluate: The applicant should assess the degree of fit between the organization and his
or her skills, abilities, values and interests. The applicant should determine whether he or she
wants any additional information.
ALTERNATIVE EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE
DEGREES OF TRUTH IN FEEDBACK
Instructor's Notes:
The following incident is an avoidance situation between car pooling work colleagues. The
students are asked to decide how to respond to a direct question about Rachel's potential as a
manager. Jack runs through the possible answers mentally. Students are asked to provide the
answer they believe is most appropriate, as well as why the rejected answers would not be
adequate. The guidelines below allow specific criticism for the rejected options available to
Frank.
Giving Useful Feedback:
Give feedback with a constructive intent.
Don't punish in the name of feedback. If you want to be helpful, do so in a way that seems
likely to work, but do not assume responsibility for how the receiver uses the feedback, nor
for his or her feelings. Offer feedback as your gift that the receiver must accept, use, or
ignore, as he or she prefers.
Be descriptive rather than judgmental.
Feedback is a chance to see yourself or your behavior through anothers eyes. Say, for
example, "your illustration was very concrete" rather than "that was a great illustration."
Be specific rather than general.
"When you said you were upset, I was surprised" is more specific than "I never know where
you are coming from." When you are specific the other person knows how to "do it again" if
they so choose.
Give feedback in terms of your own perspective rather than an "absolute truth."
"I was pleased when you commented on my presentation", and "I" statement, is more accurate
than the generalization "we all like to get comments on our presentations."
Give feedback as close as possible to the time the behavior takes place.
If you believe it is necessary, let the receiver "cool off" a bit first. But remember that it is
difficult to recall and reconstruct events, feelings, motives, etc., that occurred long ago.
Give feedback when it is desired.
Don't waste feedback on people who are bent on resisting it. If you want to take care of
yourself, confront the person instead.
Give feedback on things that can be changed.
Don't waste time and emotional energy on things the person cannot change.
Chapter 8: Communication
158
Chapter 8: Communication
159
MBTI EXERCISE
Communications
Exercise Learning Objectives:
a. Students will experience the different ways that people view things.
b. Students should understand that the different methods of "seeing the world" exist everywhere
all the time.
c. Students should understand that being "different" in the way we see and react to our
environment is a strength.
Exercise Overview:
a. Students should have taken the full MBTI, or the short version in Chapter 3 of the text.
b. Students will be formed into like-temperament types.
c. Groups will be triads with two participants and one observer.
d. The instructor should know how members of each temperament group function and react to
the environment.
Exercise Description:
1. Ask the students to form a large group based on their temperament (NT, NF, SJ, SP).
2. Divide the large groups into triads if possible. (Dyads will also work, but the role of the
instructor as observer becomes more critical. The instructor will need to observe the entire group
as well as individually observe the dyads.)
3. Ask each group to select an observer. The observer's attention must be focused on the group
process, i.e., how these individuals relate to one another. The observer should be able to answer
questions such as: How did the individuals in the group interact with one another? What was the
communication pattern among team members? How did the group arrive at its conclusions?
4. Give each group a large piece of "flip chart" paper and at least four crayons or marking pens.
5. Ask each group to "draw a flower" without talking. Each participant takes turns drawing a
stroke--the first participant puts down the first line and then must wait for the second participant
to draw the second line. Remember NO TALKING. The OBSERVER watches the process and
takes notes looking for nonverbal clues.
6. This exercise should last about 5 minutes.
7. The instructor asks the observers to report their findings to the observed group. (Allow 5
minutes). The instructor has each group hang up their pictures on the wall so the entire class can
see them.
160
Chapter 8: Communication
8. The instructor should select a few observers to report to the entire group. The instructor
should close this part of the exercise by reprocessing and highlighting the lessons learned.
9. The second phase of this exercise puts the students in unlike temperament groups. Those who
observed now become participants. Each participant should be regrouped with someone of a
different temperament.
10. Assign observers to look at the communications process and to concentrate on the non-verbal
interactions.
11. Rerun the exercise having each group draw a flower without talking.
12. The observer should report to the group highlighting what was observed.
13. The instructor should have the participants hang up their pictures and should select two or
three observers to report to the entire class.
What the instructor should expect:
a. During the first phase of this exercise, we would expect to see some minor differences in
drawing the flower, but the participants should almost be "communicating" clearly without
talking. Pens or crayons should be easily shared and the flower should look as though one person
drew it.
b. In the second phase we would expect almost the opposite effect. The observers should see
evidence of stress (withholding crayons, flinging the crayons, using different parts of the paper,
etc.). We would expect to see that we truly have two different people drawing two different
flowers.
Instructor's Summary:
Those people whose preference is "sensing (S)" usually demonstrate a need for details. These
people focus on the present and trust known experiences. They learn sequentially (step-by-step).
Additionally, they tend to be realistic, good at precise work, and like the concrete.
Those people whose preference is "intuition (N)" usually demonstrate a need for patterns and
relationships. These people focus on future possibilities and anticipate what might be. They trust
theory more than experience and they learn by seeing the connections or patterns.
Chapter 8: Communication
161
Purpose: To help participants to identify their poor listening habits and to practice
effective listening skills.
Feedback: Interpersonal Relationships in Groups. p. 169-170. Time: 50 minutes.
Purpose: To learn effective methods of interpersonal feedback in order to develop a
cohesive group.
Fandt, Patricia M. Management Skills: Practice and Experience, West Publishing Company,
1994.
Practicing Effective Oral Communication. p. 165-181.
In Basket Exercise 1-5.
Chapter 8: Communication
162
The second and fourth bulleted items are probably the more crucial elements in dealing with
foreign players. While the language barrier remains until the players acquire at least basic
English skills, perhaps coaches can best facilitate communication by being empathetic and
sensitive and communicating that to their foreign players through the players interpreters.
Role Plays
Additional role plays relevant to the material in this chapter are located in Appendix A of this
instructor's manual.