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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO
SEMICONDUCTOR
EE 201
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
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Objectives
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:1.1 Understand the characteristics and electrical
properties of semiconductors.
1.1.1 Define a semiconductor and state that silicon and
Germanium are semiconductor materials.
1.1.2 Explain the characteristics of N-type and P- type
semiconductors.
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ATOMIC STRUCTURE
All matters on earth made of atoms (made up
of elements or combination of elements).
All atoms consist of electrons, protons, and
neutrons.
An atom is the smallest particle of an
element that retains the characteristics of
that element.
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CONDUCTOR
An atom of a material carries 1 to 3 valence
electrons.
Any material that will support a generous flow
of charge when a voltage source is applied
across its terminals.
the atom has more tendency to lose its
valence electrons which become free
electron (Copper,Aluminium)
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INSULATOR
An atom of a material carries 5 to 8 valence
electron
A material that offers a very low level of
conductivity under pressure from an applied
voltage source.
The atom has more tendency to gain free
electrons to complete its shell. ( Argon,
Neon)
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SEMICONDUCTOR
An atom of a material carries 4 valence
electrons,
A material that has a conductivity level
somewhere between a conductor and an
insulator.
It is not easy for the atom to lose or gain any
electrons. (Silicon, Germanium, Carbon)
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SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIAL
Shell valence
consist of 4
electron valence
32
14
Figure 1.2
Silicon (14 electrons)
Figure 1.3
Germanium (32
electrons)
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Shell valence
consist of 4
electron valence
Figure 1.3
Carbon (6 electrons)
COVALENT BOND
In a pure silicon or germanium crystal, the
four valence electrons of one atom form a
bonding arrangement with four adjoining
atoms.
This bonding of atoms, strengthened by the
sharing of electrons, is called covalent
bonding a method by which atoms
complete their valence shell by sharing
valence electrons with other atoms
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COVALENT BOND
CONDUCTOR IN SEMICONDUCTOR
When an intrinsic silicon crystal gains
sufficient heat (thermal energy), some
valence electrons could break their covalent
bonds to jump the gap into conduction band,
becoming free electrons.
Free electrons are also called conduction
electrons, (negative charge).
This vacancy in the valence band is called a
hole (positive charge).
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EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
There are two types of semiconductor material
that are subjected to doping process which are :
a) N-type Extrinsic
b) P-type Extrinsic
Two types of elements used for doping are:
a) Trivalent element that has three valence
electrons.
b) Pentavalent element that has five valence
electrons
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N type
N-type is created by adding pentavalent impurity
atoms Arsenic (As), phosphorus (P), bismuth
(Bi), into a pure Si or Ge base.
Pentavalent also known as donor atoms since
they donate electrons.
Each pentavalent atom forms covalent bond with
4 adjacent Si atom
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P-Type
P-type is created by adding Trivalent (with 3
valence electrons) impurity atoms
Aluminium (Al), boron (B), indium (In),gallium
(Ga) into apure Si or Ge base through the
doping process.
Trivalent also known as a acceptor atom
since they accept electrons.
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Review
1. What is a semiconductor
2. Explain a covalent bonding
3. Whats the difference between a
pentavalent atom and a trivalent atom?
4. What is the difference between intrinsic and
extrinsic semiconductors?
5. Explain the differences between p-type and
n-type semiconductor.
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Objectives
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:1.2 Understand the characteristics of P-N junction and its
reaction towards voltage biasing.
1.2.1 Illustrate the formation of a junction
a. Free electrons mobility.
b. Formation of depletion region and its properties.
c. Existence of threshold voltage and its values for
silicon and germanium.
1.2.2 Illustrate the meaning of forward biased voltage and
reverse biased voltage supplied across a P-N junction.
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P-N JUNCTION
The PN Junction is formed when ptype
region is joined with the ntype region. This is
a basic structure forms a semiconductor
diode.
The ntype region has many free electrons
(majority carriers) and only a few thermally
generated holes.
The ptype region has many holes (majority
carriers) and only a few thermally generated
free electrons (minority carriers)
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P-N JUNCTION
With the formation of the p and n materials,
holes from ptype will diffuse into the ntype,
and electrons from ntype will diffuse into the
ptype.
Combination of electrons and holes at the
junction takes place.
When equilibrium is reached, no further
diffusion of electrons and holes across the
junction.
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No bias
In the absence of an applied bias voltage, the
net flow of charge in any one direction for a p-n
junction is zero.
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No bias
Note that the arrow
is associated with
p-type component
and the bar with
the n-type region.
As indicated for
VD=0V, the
current in any
direction is 0 mA.
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Cont
However, in real P-N junction, there is a
small flow of current in the reversed-biased
mode. This is due to the thermally
generated electrons and holes which cross
the junction to the battery terminals.
As the temperature is high enough, there
will be a constant generation of electronhole pairs and the current exists is called
the reverse-saturation current, Is or
leakage current.
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Cont
Positive terminal of the battery will push
the holes in the p-region towards the
junction.
Hence, the recombination process occurs
and the number of negative ion in the pregion near the junction decreases.
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Cont
Negative terminal of the battery will push the
free electron in the n-region towards the
junction and recombine with the positive ion.
Hence, the number of positive ion
decreases. As a result, the number of
uncovered ions is reduced and the width of
the depletion region will also reduce.
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Cont
Since, the barrier potential is now reduced;
electrons in n-type will be easily moved to
the p-region.
This is also assisted by the negative terminal
which push the electrons and positive
terminal that pulls the electron. Hence, a
heavy majority carrier flows across the
junction
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Breakdown Voltage
When a reverse-bias is applied to a p-n junction (diode),
the electric field in the depletion region increases.
The electric field may become large enough that
covalent bonds are broken and electron hole pairs are
created.
Electrons are swept into the n-region and holes are
swept into the p-region by the electric field, generating a
large reverse current. This phenomenon is called
breakdown.
This current can be limited by the external circuit. If this
current is not limited, a large Power can be dissipated in
the junction that may damage the device and cause
burnout.
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Review
1. Draw and state the meaning of forward
biased voltage and reverse biased voltage
supplied across a P-N junction
2. Identify the effects when a P-N junction is
supplied with forward biased voltage and
reverse biased voltage on the following
items
a. Area of depletion region
b. Junction resistance
c. Current flow
3 Explain why breakdown occurs when P-N
junction is reverse biased.
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END
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LOGO
CHAPTER 2
DIODES
EE 201
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
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Introduction to Diodes
A P-N junction
Allows current flow in one direction only
P side ANODE (A)
N side CATHODE (K)
Nonlinear device
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Diode - symbol
An ideal diode 2
terminal device and act as
a switch, can conduct
current only in 1 direction
Conventional current
direction and polarity of
voltage drop is shown
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Diodes packages
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I-V characteristic
IF
Forward
VBR, VZ
VR
IR
VF
Reverse
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I-V characteristic
Ideal for Germanium and Silicon
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Forward Bias
Reverse Bias
Example 1
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Example 2
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Example 3
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Cont
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DC power supply
.
At
the end of the lesson, students should be
able to:-
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3 types
i.
ii.
iii.
of rectifier:half wave
Full wave
Bridge @ Full Wave bridge
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V
i/p
D1
RL
A.C
240v
50hZ
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+
+
v
e
v
e
o/p
Circuit operation
D1
+
+ve
+ve
+ve
RL
input
+ve
D1 ON
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-ve
Output
+ve
i.
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D1
+ve
+ve
0
RL
Input -ve
- ve
-ve
No output
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i.
Terminal A is -ve,
terminal B +ve
ii. Anod D1 gets ve voltage
iii. D1 in reverse biased
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D1 ON
D1
+ve
RL
Input
-ve
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D1 OFF
output
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12
0v
D1
RL
V A.C
240v
50Hz
12
+
+v
e
D2
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Circuit operation
A
+
+
0
0v
D1
RL
0v
D2 OFF
D2
A
Switched
D1 On
+
+v
e
D1 ON
0v
RL
v
e
Switched Off
D2
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RL
ii.
Circuit operation
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ii.
Circuit operation
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Circuit operation
A
+ve
0
0v
D1 OFF
D1
RL
+
C
D2
-ve
A
0v
D2 ON
Switch Off
D1
0v
RL
RL
+
D2 On
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During ve cycle
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240VAC
50Hz
Input
voltage
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Output
voltage
A
+
+
0
+
Input
voltage
+
0
D2&D
Output 4 OFF
voltage
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D1&D
3 ON
A
+
+
D1&D3
ON
Input
voltage
D2&D4
OFF
Output
voltage
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Bridge rectifier
Circuit operation
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rectifier Tetimbang
Kendalian Litar
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A
D2&D4
ON
Input
voltage
D1&D3
OFF
Output
voltage
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A
D2&D4
ON
Input
voltage
D1&D3
OFF
Output
voltage
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Output voltage
Occurs in both cycles
At one cycle, voltage drop across 2
diodes
So, the total voltage drop is 1.4V
(assume silicon diode),
Output voltage is :Vo = VA-B - 1.4V
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CLIPPERS
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Diode Clippers
CLIPPERS clip off a portion of the input signal
Clipper has the ability to clip without distorting the
remaining part of the alternating waveform
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Diode Clippers
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Diode (Clipper)-Series
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Diode (Clipper)-parallel
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Diode Clamper
A diode clamper adds a DC
level to an AC voltage.
The capacitor charges to the
peak of the supply minus the
diode drop.
Once charged, the capacitor
acts like a battery in series with
the input voltage.
The AC voltage will ride along
with the DC voltage.
The polarity arrangement of the
diode determines whether the
DC voltage is negative or
positive.
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Clamper circuit
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Summary Clamper
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Summary
Limiters are used to set the output peak(s) to
a given value.
Clampers are used to add a DC voltage to an
AC voltage.
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Zener diode
The basic function of zener diode is to maintain a
specific voltage across its terminals within given
limits of line or load change.
Used to provide a stable reference voltage for use in
power supplies and other equipment
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Zener Diode
A zener diode is much
like a normal diode, the
exception being is that it
is placed in the circuit in
reverse bias and
operates in reverse
breakdown.
This typical characteristic
curve illustrates the
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just
like a normal diode
Zener Diode
The zener diodes
breakdown characteristics
are determined by the
doping process.
Low voltage zeners less
than 5V operate in the
zener breakdown range.
Those designed to operate
more than 5 V operate
mostly in avalanche
breakdown range.
Zeners are available with
voltage breakdowns of
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1.8V2.0V
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PHOTODIODE
It is type of photo detector capable of converting light
into either current or voltage.
Photodiodes are similar to regular semiconductor
diodes except that they may be either exposed (to
detect vacuum UV or X-rays) or packaged with a
window or optical fiber connection to allow light to
reach the sensitive part of the device
Many diodes designed for use specifically as
photodiode will use PIN junction to increase the
speed of response.
A photodiode is designed to operate in reverse bias.
Application compact disc player, remote control.
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LASER DIODE
The laser diode is a laser where the active
medium is a semiconductor similar to that
found in a light-emitting diode.
The most common type of laser diode is
formed from a p-n junction and powered by
injected electric current
Application - barcode readers, Visible lasers,
laser pointers, laser printers, bar-code
readers, image scanning, laser surgery,
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LED
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PHOTODIODE
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LASER DIODE
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END
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LOGO
EE201- SEMICONDUCTOR
DEVICE
CHAPTER 3: BIPOLAR
JUNCTION TRANSISTOR
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Transistors
Two main categories of transistors:
bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) and
field effect transistors (FETs).
Base (B): very thin and lightly doped central region (little
recombination).
Emitter (E) and collector (C) are two outer regions
sandwiching B.
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Operation Mode
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Operation Mode
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Operation Mode
Active:
Most importance mode, e.g. for amplifier operation.
The region where current curves are practically flat.
Saturation:
Barrier potential of the junctions cancel each other out
causing a virtual short.
Ideal transistor behaves like a closed switch.
Cutoff:
Current reduced to zero
Ideal transistor behaves like an open switch.
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Current Flow
There are three different currents in transistors :
collector current IC, base current IB and emitter current
IE.
Since the emitter is the source of the electrons, it has
the largest of the three currents.
The collector current is slightly lower than the emitter
current, while the base current is usually very small.
The relationship is expressed as follows:
IE = IB + IC
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DC Gain
The relationship between the collector current
and the base current is expressed in the
following formula
= IC / IB
Current gain(HFE)
The ratio between collector current and emitter
current is referred as (alpha) and is shown in
the following relationship :
= IC/IE
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RC
C
RB
VCC
VCE
VC
VBE
E
VB
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VE
I-V Characteristics
I - V characteristics are used to explain the operation of transistors.
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Load Line
A load line is a line
drawn over the
collector curves to
show each and
every possible
operating point of
a transistor.
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Q-Point
The point at which
the base current
intersects the load
line is referred to as
the operating point
or the quiescent
point.
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Circuit Symbols
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Circuit Configuration
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RB
RC
IC
RB
IB
VCC
VCE
VBE
IC = IB
VCC = VCE + VRC
IE
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RC
IC
IB
VCC
VCE
VBE
R2
RE
IE
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Formula
VCC = IR1 + IR2
IB =
IE = IB + IC
VCE = VCC VRC - VRE
VCC
R1 + R2
VB =
R2
VC = VCE + VRE
VCC
R1 + R2
VRE = VB - VBE
IE = VRE/ RE
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ignored if the value is too small
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LOGO
IC(mA)
Q point is at IB = 60A, Ic =
6mA, Vc = 8V.
100A
10
80A
60A
6
40A
20A
0V
4
10
12
15
20
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Cont
If input signal is too big, It will affect the IB.
IB will become big, followed by Ic and Vc.
Ic and Vc will over the saturation point and will
cut the signal.
When this happen, there is a distortion to the
output signal.
If there is a distortion to the output signal, the
amplifier is not efficient.
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rL : R3 // R6
Will have a new AC loadline (new value of cut off
and saturation point).
Ic(sat)new = ICQ + (VCQ/RL)
Vc(sat)new = VCQ + ICQ . RL
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IC(mA)
Garis Beban a.u
3.5
3
2.5
Titik-Q
2
1.5
1
0.5
10
15
20
25
30
Rajah 6.36
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VC (V)
Voltage Gain, Av
Av = Vo/Vi = rL / re
Where re = 25mV/ IE
AC loadline exists when the load for AC voltage
output is different with the load for DC voltage
output.
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IC(mA)
3.5
3
2.5
Titik-Q
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
10
15
20
VCQ
12Vp
15Vp
25
30
VC (V)
27V
VC(alih)
Bahagian 1 :
VC(ALIH)(AU) - VCQ = 27V 15V
= 12Vp
24Vp-p
Bahagian 2 :
VCQ 0 = 15V 0 = 15Vp
30Vp-p
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LOGO
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Cont
Maximum voltage gain , Av(max) =
maximum ratio of output voltage, Vo over
input voltage, Vi.
Av in dB = 20 log Av(max)
Cut off frequency or corner frequency is
the frequency either above or below power
output of a circuit.
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Cont...
Frequency bandwidth
a band of a given width can carry the
same amount of information.
So to relate bandwidth to the
performance of amplifier,
wide bandwidth, the amplifier is more
efficient.
BW = fc2 fc1
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Important parameters
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fB = 1 / (2 RCB)
where :
R = Rs + Rin ; Rin = R1 R2 hie
CB = value of the Base coupling capacitor,
C1
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fE = 1 / (2 Rout CE )
CE = value of the Base coupling capacitor,C3
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Classification of Amplifier
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Class A amplifier
Class A Amplifier
The most common and simplest form of power
amplifier that uses the switching transistor in the
standard common emitter circuit configuration as
seen previously.
The transistor is always biased "ON" so that it
conducts during one complete cycle of the input
signal waveform producing minimum distortion
and maximum amplitude to the output.
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Class A amplifier
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Class B amplifier
Class-B amplifiers only amplify half of the input
wave cycle, thus creating a large amount of
distortion, but their efficiency is greatly improved
and is much better than class A.
Class B has a maximum theoretical efficiency of
/4. (i.e. 78.5%) This is because the amplifying
element is switched off altogether half of the
time, and so cannot dissipate power.
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Class B
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Class AB amplifier
In class-AB operation, each device operates the
same way as in class B over half the waveform,
but also conducts a small amount on the other
half.
As a result, the region where both devices
simultaneously are nearly off (the "dead zone")
is reduced. The result is that when the
waveforms from the two devices are combined,
the crossover is greatly minimised or eliminated
altogether.
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Class AB amplifier
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Class C amplifier
Collector current flows for less than one half
cycle of the input signal.
By reverse biasing the emitter-base junction,
which sets the dc operating point below cut off
and allows only the portion of the input signal
that overcomes the reverse bias to cause
collector current flow.
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Class C amplifier
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Cont
Class C - operated amplifier is used as a radiofrequency amplifier in transmitters.
Class AB - operated amplifier is commonly used
as a push-pull amplifier to overcome a side
effect of class B operation called crossover
distortion
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Base biased
(emitter feedback technique)
Vin
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Base biased
(emitter feedback technique)
Fig 1
Circuit in Fig 1 is
unstable
Fig 2
Circuit in Fig 2 is stable
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Base biased
(emitter feedback technique)
Adding resistance (RE) to the emitter of transistor.
RE improves performance by adding negative feedback.
IC begins to increase as temperature rises.
The increase in IC increases IE and as a result VE rises.
VBE (or VB - VE) is fixed, but the rise in VE reduces VBE.
The overall effect of reducing VBE is to reduce IC which in
turn makes the circuit stable. Negative feedback.
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Base biased
(emitter feedback technique)
RE greatly reduces error (variation in gain and
consequent distortion).
Emitter resistor RE also solves other problems
such as temperature instability and distortion.
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R1 + R2
VTH = R2 x VCC
R1 + R2
IE = (+1)IB
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IC = IB
IE = (+1)IB
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Application
Transistors are commonly used for :
1. Amplifier circuit
2. Switching circuit
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Introduction
Amplifiers containing one active device have
limited gain, input impedance, output impedance
and power handling capabilities.
Multistage amplifier is used to increase the gain
or modify the characteristics of the amplifier to
satisfy a particular specification.
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Working principles
a) Cascode connection
- Places one transistor on top of another
b) Cascade connection
- Provides stages in series
c) Coupling
- Circuitry used to connect the output of one
stage of a multistage amplifier to the input of
next stage.
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Block diagram
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The Gain
The overall gain of a multistage amplifier is the
product of the gain of the individual stage
Gain (A) = A1A2A3A4.AN
If the gain of each amplifier stage is expressed
in decibels (dB) the total gain is the sum of the
gain of individual stage
Gain in dB (A) = A1+A2+A3+A4+AN
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Type of multistage
Depending on the manner which the
different amplifier stages are connected,
one of the following amplifiers may result :
a) RC coupling @ capacitor coupling
b) Direct coupling (CE-CC, Darlington pair)
c) Transformer coupling
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RC COUPLING
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Cont
One way to connect various stage is via
capacitor
Coupling capacitor is used to block the flow of dc
current between the output of one amplifier
stage and the input of the next stage
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Advantages
Make dc bias at the output of one stage is
different from dc bias voltage at the input to
next stage
Prevent the flow of dc signal current between
stage
Provides enough high frequency to keep
capacitive reactance small
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Disadvantage
Affects the lower frequency response of
amplifier
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DIRECT COUPLING
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Cont
In this type of amplifier, the output of one stage
of amplifier is connected to the input of the next
stage directly without using any reactive
component like capacitor, inductor.
As a result, the frequency response of this
amplifier is quite flat all the way down to dc
(0Hz)
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Advantages
Simple circuit
Can be used to amplify zero and low
frequency signal
Used in differential and op-amp
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Disadvantages
At high frequency, gain decrease
Transistor parameter change with
temperature, hence output is affected by
temperature variation
Any noise appearing at the input also present
at the output in amplified form due to high
gain
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DARLINGTON PAIR
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Cont
Collector of two BJT are tied together and
emitter of one is direct coupled to the base of the
other
The combination is used in amplifier circuit as if
were a single transistor having three terminal
B,C,E
Is important and useful configuration because
has high B
BD = B1B2
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TRANSFORMER COUPLING
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Cont
Transformer coupling is where the primary
winding is in the output of one stage and
secondary winding is in the input circuit of the
following stage
The ac signal is passed from one stage to
the next stage without the possibility of dc
current flowing between the two windings
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Advantages
Low power dissipation
Capability of designing a turn ratio that result
in maximum power transfer between stage
Often used in narrow band application (RF
amplifier)
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Disadvantages
Poor frequency response due to inductance
and inter-winding capacitance tend to reduce
the usable bandwidth of these amplifier
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Cont
The greater the number of identical stages,
the lower cut-off frequency is increasing and
the upper cut-off frequency is decreasing
Therefore, this will reduce the bandwidth of
the multistage amplifier
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CHAPTER 5
EE201-SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
FIELD EFFECT
TRANSISTORS (FET)
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Introduction
JFET
JFET is a three-terminal device with one
terminal capable of controlling the
current between the other two.
For the JFET transistor the n-channel device
will appear as the prominent device than pchannel.
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The major part of the structure is the ntype material that forms the channel
between the embedded layers of p-type
material.
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Physical structure
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Schematic Symbol
N-Channel
P-Channel
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I-V characteristics
IDSS = Max ID
VP = Pinch Voltage
Operating
region
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MOSFET
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P-MOS
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D-MOSFET Operation
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E-MOSFET
E-MOSFET Operation
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Cutoff Mode
Occurs when VGS VTH(N)
ID= 0
Triode/Linear Mode
Occurs when VGS > VTH(N) and
VDS < VGS-VTH(N)
Saturation Mode
Occurs when VGS > VTH(N) and
VDS VGS -VTH(N)
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PMOS IV Characteristics
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Cutoff Mode
Occurs when VGS VTH(P)
ID= 0
Triode/Linear Mode
Occurs when VGS < VTH(P) and
VDS > VGS -VTH(P)
Saturation Mode
Occurs when VGS < VTH(P) and
VDS VGS- VTH(P)
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JFET Amplifier
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FET devices are also widely used in highfrequency applications and in buffering
(interfacing) applications.
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Typically used as
a current buffer or voltage amplifier. In this
circuit the source terminal of the transistor
serves as the input, the drain is the output and
the gate is common to both.
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MOSFET as Switches
MOSFET CHARACTERISTIC
CURVE
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1. Cut-off Region
Here the operating conditions of the
transistor are zero input gate voltage ( VIN ),
zero drain current IDand output
voltage VDS = VDD Therefore the MOSFET is
switched "Fully-OFF".
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Saturation Region
Here the transistor will be biased so that the
maximum amount of gate voltage is applied to
the device which results in the channel
resistance RDS(on) being as small as possible
with maximum drain current flowing through
the MOSFET switch. Therefore the MOSFET is
switched "Fully-ON".
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N-MOS as switch
Then we can define the "cut-off region" or "OFF mode" of a MOSFET switch
as being, gate voltage,VGS < VTH and ID = 0. For a P-channel MOSFET, the gate
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APPLICATION MOSFET AS
SWITCH
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LOGO
CHAPTER 6
INTRODUCTION TO
OTHER ELECTRONIC
DEVICES
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CONTD
Once current falls below the holding current
for an appropriate period of time, the device
will switch "off".
If the gate is pulsed and the current
through the device is below the holding
current, the device will remain in the "off"
state.
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SCR APPLICATION
Mainly used in devices where the control of
high power, possibly coupled with high
voltage, is demanded.
Suitable for use in medium to high-voltage
AC power control applications, such as
lamp dimming, regulators and motor
control.
SCRs and similar
devices are used for
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rectification of high power AC in high-
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DIAC
The DIAC, or 'diode for alternating current',
is a diode that conducts current only after
its break-over voltage has been reached
momentarily.
A1
A2
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CONTD
DIACs are also called symmetrical trigger
diodes due to the symmetry of their
characteristic curve.
Because DIACs are bidirectional devices,
their terminals are not labeled as anode
and cathode but as A1 and A2 or MT1
("Main Terminal") and MT2.
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DIAC APPLICATION
The diacs, because of their symmetrical
bidirectional switching characteristics, are widely
used as triggering devices in triac phase control
circuits employed for lamp dimmer, heat control,
universal motor speed control etc.
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TRIAC
TRIAC, from Triode for Alternating
Current, is a genericized tradename for
an electronic component which can
conduct current in either direction when it is
triggered (turned on).
The triac is fundamentally a diac with a gate
terminal for controlling the turn-on
conditions of the bilateral device in either
direction.
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CONTD
It can be triggered by either a positive or a
negative voltage being applied to its gate electrode.
Once triggered, the device continues to conduct until
the current through it drops below a certain threshold
value, the holding current, such as at the end of a halfcycle of alternating current(AC) mains power.
This makes the TRIAC a very convenient switch for AC
circuits, allowing the control of very large power flows
with milliampere-scale control currents.
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TRIAC APPLICATION
Low power TRIACs are used in many
applications such as light dimmers, speed
controls for electric fans and other electric
motors.
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UJT APPLICATION
The most important applications of UJTs or
PUTs is to trigger thyristors (SCR, TRIAC,
etc.).
DC voltage can be used to control a UJT
circuit such that the "on-period" increases
with an increase in the DC control voltage.
This application is important for large AC
current control.
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