IV.

Complexity within Phrases

The basic features of kernel and non-kernel clauses are illustrated below contrastively:
kernel clause
a) finite (tensed)
b) declarative
c) in the active voice
d) in the order SP(C)(A)

non-kernel clause
a) non-finite, and/or
b) interrogative, imperative, and/or
c) in the passive voice, and/or
d) not in SP(C)(A) order

Non-kernel clauses are said to be derived from kernel clauses.

The subsequent sections describe the kind of complexity produced in a clause within the clause
constituents. A clause may be finite, declarative, active and in SPCA order, but it may also have
complex NPs, VPs, PrepPs, AdjPs or AdvPs.
4.1. Subordination within NPs and PrepPs
4.1.1. Phrases Embedded in NP and PrepP structure
The embedding of one NP or PrepP in another, making the embedded phrase subordinate to the
other, is described as a recursive process, because it can recur in a series, as in the NP headline:
DENIAL OF RUMOUR OF REJECTION OF REAGANS COMPROMISE PROPOSAL FOR AID TO
NICARAGUAN REBELS, which is a complex NP. Its headword, denial, is post-modified by five
PrepPs, four of which are themselves post-modified by the following PrepPs. The relationship of the
PrepPs to the headword is one of subordination. Each one is embedded in the other:
DENIAL <<OF RUMOUR OF REJECTION {OF REAGANS COMPROMISE PROPOSAL [FOR
AID (TO NICARAGUAN REBELS)]} >>
NPs may also have complex pre-modifiers, as in the clause headline below, where the headword group of the NP Subject Freedom of information group is pre-modified by the NP freedom of
information, and the headword defeat of the NP Direct Object historic and devastating defeat is
pre-modified by the compound AdjP historic and devastating:
[S] (NP)

P (VP)

[O] (NP)

[(FREEDOM OF INFORMATION) GROUP] HAILS [(HISTORIC AND DEVASTATING) DEFEAT].

pre-m
pre-m

4.1.2. Non-Finite Clauses Embedded in NP and PrepP structure

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Non-finite clauses can function as post-modifiers of NPs and PrepPs, just like other NPs and
PrepPs (see 4.1.1.) The three kinds of non-finite verb can be used are: the infinitive, the present
participle V-ing), and the past participle (V-ed2). Such clauses are embedded within the structure of
a phrase. Some examples follow from Animal Farm by George Orwell:
S
P
[O]
1. The animals saw [no reason (to disbelieve Squealer)].
d

(q1= NonfCl)

S
P
PrepO
{O}
2. Squealer would read out to them {lists [of figures (proving that)]}.
h

(q=NonfCl)

A
link
[S]
P
3. A few days later, {when [the terror (caused by the executions)] had died down},
d

(q=NonfCl)

In the last two examples, the NonfCls resemble Restrictive Relative Clauses2 in their function.
4.1.3. Non-Finite Clause Complements in PrepPs. Prepositional Clauses
Sometimes, NonfCls do not directly post-modify a NP as in the examples in section 4.1.2., but
are embedded in the structure of a PrepP which is itself a post-modifier in a NP. The structure
preposition + clause is called prepositional clause (PrepCl). In this example:
S
P
{Od}
a). Cohn made {some remark [about (it being a very good example of something or other)]}.
d

(complement of preposition=NCl)
q=PrepCl

the NonfCl it being a very good example of something or other functions as the complement of the
preposition about, just like a NP. Compare with the following example, where the cathedral is the
NP complement of the preposition about, together with which it makes up the PrepP about the
cathedral whose function is that of qualifier of the NP some remark:
S
P
{Od}
b). Cohn made {some remark [about (the cathedral)]}.
d

[p

+ (d + h =NP)]
[q=PrepP]

We call it being a very good example of something or other a Noun / Nominal Clause (NCl)
in this kind of structure. The PrepCl is a post-modifier/ qualifier of the NP some remark.
1
2

The letter q stands for qualifier, i.e. post-modifier.

See section 4.1.4. below.

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A preposition and a NCl make up a PrepCl (p + NCl = PrepCl; e.g. a) above) in a similar
way as a preposition and a NP make up a PrepP (p + NP = PrepP; e.g. b) above).
Here are two other examples containing PrepCls functioning as qualifiers / post-modifiers
taken from George Orwells Animal Farm. Mind that both of them are complex sentences not simple
sentences / clauses:
A
S= P
{=S}
c). Clearly there was {good reason [for (killing the traitors)]}
m

[p + (NCl)]
[q=PrepCl]

S1 P1 link S2 P2
Cs
d). They saw that they were {in danger [of (being surrounded)]}.
p

[p + NCl]
[q=PrepCl]

In sentence d) above, they were in danger of being surrounded functions as a Direct Object
Clause (the main verb saw is transitive, therefore it requires a Od, which is a clause in this situation).
4.1.4. Restrictive Relative Clauses
Clauses embedded as post-modifiers in NPs are called Relative Clauses (RelCl). They begin
with:
a). a relative pronoun, such as: who, which or that, which functions as Subject;
b). a relative pronoun, such as: who, whom, which or that, which functions as Direct Object;
c). a PrepP with the relative pronoun whom or which as complement of preposition, such as
by whom, with which, after which;
d). a relative adverb, such as: where or when, which functions as Adverbial.
a). Relative Pronoun as Subject
In the sentence:
Clearly there was good reason for killing the traitors (who had leagued themselves with
Snowball).
the relative pronoun who is the Subject in the RelCl that qualifies the NP the traitors:
S
P
O
[the traitors (who had leagued themselves)]
In the sentence:

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This is the finest cart (that was ever built), without any exception.
the finite clause that was ever built describes, or defines, the head-noun cart in the NP the finest
cart. Information about carts is restricted here to the one being talked about. It is called specifically a
restrictive relative clause because it restricts its reference to that one particular cart. In writing, we do
not separate off the restrictive RelCl by commas, and in speech we do not speak it with a separate toneunit. We can diagram the sentence as:
S1

P1

[Cs]
S2

P2- A

-P2

This is [the finest cart (that was ever built)],

d

link/
rel. pron.

(q=RelCl)

The referent / antecedent of the relative pronoun that is the noun cart in the main clause.
b). Relative Pronoun as Object
There are two possible versions of a RelCl in which a relative pronoun is the Object:
i). Squealer would talk of [the deep love (that / which Napoleon bore to all animals
everywhere)].
ii). Squealer would talk of [the deep love ( Napoleon bore to all animals everywhere)].
Orwells original text is ii), where the relative pronoun that or which has been deleted. The NP
the deep love is next to the RelCl, so here the pronoun seems superfluous. This is always a possible
choice when the pronoun is the Object of the verb of the RelCl. Another similar example:
S1

P1 A

[PrepO]
O

S2

P2

Toad talked big [about all (that / he was going to do in the days to come)].
p

h (q=RelCl)

c). Relative Pronoun as Complement of Preposition in a PrepP

This usage can be illustrated in the following sentences:

S
A

P
S P

Cs

Ca/A

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[The day (on which I go on holiday)] is my birthday.

d

p + compl.
of prep.
(q=RelCl)

[O]

PrepO S P
Od
You know [the woman (to whom I wrote that letter)].
d

p + compl.
of prep.
(q=RelCl)

d). Relative Adverb as Adverbial

The wh- adverbs: why, when, where, how, also function as markers of Relative Clauses in
which they function as Adverbials:
[S]

P
Ca
A- S
P
O
-A
[The nearest town (where we can get help from)] is five miles away.
d

(q=RelCl)

In the following sentence, the noun times is post-modified by the RelCl when.hours,
marked by the wh- adverb when:
S=

=S
A

S=

PrepO

(=S)

There were {times [when it seemed to the animals (that they worked longer hours)]}.
h

[q=RelCl]

(NCl)

4.1.5. Non-Restrictive Relative Clauses

A clause with the same structure as a Relative Restrictive Clause may also function in a looser
kind of dependent relationship, in which it is not a constituent of a NP, but of the sentence in which it
occurs, adding further information. This type of Non-Restrictive Relative Clause is sometimes called
adding clause. This clause is marked / introduced by relative pronouns: who, which, or relative
adverbs like where. It functions like an appositive clause by providing additional information about a
NP without restricting or defining it:

[Main Clause / MCl]

{RelCl}

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[Then we went up past the old fort and out to the local Syndicat dInitiative office], {where the
bus was supposed to start from}.
This type of clause is usually separated from the MCl by commas in writing, and is spoken as a
separate tone-unit. But as with other linguistic categories, the difference between the two types of
RelCl may not always be clear.
The next sentence contains a restrictive RelCl embedded in a non-restrictive RelCl:
[non-restrictive RelCl]
(restrictive RelCl)
Snowball, [who had studied an old book of Julius Caesars campaigns (which he found in the
farmhouse)], was in charge of the defensive operations.
In this sentence:
The Mole was busy trying to quiet the horse, which he succeeded in doing after a time.
the referent / antecedent of which is not a specific noun, but the general action of quieting the
horse. This is a common feature of non-restrictive RelCls.

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