Wastewater Treatment Final Report

Study on Waste Water
Preliminary Treatment, Tertiary Treatment, Disinfection, Sludge

Handling & Disposal, Odor Control
Urban Water Supply Private Limited

August 2008
Team Members
Anujit Dutta
Vinod Shinde
Biswaranjan Senapati
Amol Aparadh
Sagar Alley
Umesh Katkar
Guided by
Shajahan Ali
Index
Sr. No
Topic
Page No
1.0
Preliminary Treatment : Screening
1.1
Scope and Objective
1.2
Screening
1.2.1 Introduction
1.2.2 Types of screens
1.2.3 Classification of screens
1.2.4 Coarse screens including Bar Racks
1.2.4.1 Manual Screen
1.2.4.2 Mechanical Screen
1.2.5 Fine screens
1.4
1.2.5.1 Mechanical bar
1.2.5.2 Rotary drum
1.2.5.3 Static
10
1.2.5.4 Band Screen
11
1.2.6 Screen Design Criteria
12
1.2.7 Screenings Handling Equipment
14
1.2.7.1 Belts & Dumpsters
14
1.2.7.2 Washers
14
1.2.7.3 Compactors
14
1.2.7.4 Design Considerations
15
1.2.8 Screenings Disposal
1.3
1- 25
15
1.2.8.1 Land Burial
15
1.2.8.2 Incineration
16
1.2.8.3 Composting
16
1.2.8.4 Disintegration
16
1.2.9 Safety Considerations
16
Recommended option for screen
16
1.3.1 Technical Comparison of Coarse Screens
16
1.3.2 Recommended Option for coarse screen

1.3.3 Capital & O & M cost for Recommended Option
(coarse screen)
1.3.4 Technical Comparison of Fine Screens
17
17
1.3.5 Recommended Option for Fine screen
17
1.3.6 Capital and O & M cost for recommended fine screen
18
Technical Specification of selected screens
18
1.4.1 Coarse screens
18
17
1.4.1.1 Mechanical coarse screen
18
1.4.1.2 Manual coarse screen
21
Sr. No
Topic
1.4.1.3 Belt conveyer
1.4.2 Mechanical Fine screen & conveyer
Page No
21
22
2.0
Preliminary Treatment : Grit Removal
26-38
2.1
Introduction
27
2.2
Types of Grit Chambers
27
2.2.1 Aerated
27
2.2.2 Vortex
30
2.2.3 Horizontal Flow
32
2.2.4 Hydrocyclone
32
2.3
Grit Removal Criteria
32
2.4
Grit Handling
34
2.4.1 Inclined screw conveyers
34
2.4.2 Chain & Bucket
35
2.4.3 In deep pit
35
2.4.4 Pumps
35
2.5
Grit Washing/Dewatering
35
2.6
Technical comparison of Grit chambers
36
2.7
Recommended Option for Grit chamber
36
2.8
Capital and O & M cost for recommended option
37
2.9
Technical Specification of recommended option
37
2.9.1 Grit chambers
37
2.9.2 Grit handling equipment
37
3.0
Tertiary Treatment for the SBR Effluent
3.1
Background
40
3.2
Objective
40
3.3
Water Reclamation and Reuse Standards
40
3.3.1 Definitions for Reclaimed Water use
42
Treatment Schemes
43
3.4.1 Coagulation, Flocculation and Sedimentation
43
3.4
3.4.1.1 Coagulation
39-103
44
3.4.1.1.1 Coagulant Dosing and Storage
44
3.4.1.1.2 Jar Testing
45
3.4.1.1.3 Rapid Mixing
47
3.4.1.2 Flocculation
3.4.1.2.1 Ballasted flocculation
3.4.1.3 Sedimentation
3.4.1.3.1 Conventional Clariflocculators
48
48
49
49
Sr. No
Topic
Page No
3.4.1.3.2 Tube Settlers
50
3.4.1.3.3 Inclined Plate Separators
52
3.4.1.3.4 Comparison of sedimentation options
54
3.4.1.3.5 Recommended option for sedimentation
54
3.4.2 Filtration3.4.2.1 Functions of Filtration
55
55
3.4.2.1.1 Separation of Solids from Water
55
3.4.2.1.2 BOD Removal
55
3.4.2.1.3 Nutrient/ Metals Removal
56
3.4.2.1 Types of Filtration
56
3.4.2.2.1 Media Filtration
56
3.4.2.2.2 Types of Media Filters
58
3.4.2.2.2.1 Gravity Filters
58
3.4.2.2.2.2 Pressure Filters

3.4.2.2.2.3 Continuous Backwashing Counter Current
Upflow Filters (Dynasand Filters)
3.4.2.2.2.4 Cloth Media Systems
62
66
3.4.2.2.2.5 Micro Fiber Technology
70
3.4.2.2.3 Other Types of Filtration
63
73
3.4.2.2.3.1 Suction Scanning Technology
73
3.4.2.2.3.2 Membrane Filtration
75
3.5
Technical Comparison between different filtration options
84
3.6
Advantages and Disadvantages of options
85
3.7
Recommended Options
85
3.8
Capital and O & M cost for recommended options
86
3.9
Final recommended option
88
3.10
Technical specifications of recommended options
89
3.11
General Arrangement of some recommended options
96
4.0
Disinfection
4.1
Objective of Disinfection
105
4.2
Disinfection Process
107
4.2.1 How Disinfection achieved
107
Methods of Disinfection
107
4.3.1 Ultraviolet radiation
108
4.3.2 Chlorination-
114
4.3
104-133
4.3.2.1 Dechlorination
117
4.3.2.2 Types of chlorination
117
4.4
Controlling of disinfection by-products
121
4.5
Comparison between options
122
Sr. No
Topic
Page No
4.6
Recommended Option
123
4.7
Operation and maintenance
123
4.8
Capital and O & M cost
124
4.9
Comparison of Electro chlorination by different venders
125
4.9.1 Technical Comparison among Offers from different venders
125
4.9.2 Capital and O & M cost for different offers
126
4.10
Recommended option
128
4.11
Technical specification of recommended option
128
5.0
Sludge Handling and Disposal
5.1
Introduction
135
5.1.1 What Is Sludge?
135
5.1.2 Sources of Sludge
135
5.1.3 Quantity of sludge
136
5.1.4 Sludge Characteristics
137
Sludge Treatment : An overview
138
5.2.1 Sludge Thickening
139
5.2
134-174
5.2.1.1 Gravity Thickener
139
5.2.1.2 Floatation thickener
140
5.2.1.3 Gravity Belt thickener
142
5.2.1.4 Centrifugal Thickener
143
5.2.1.5 Rotary Drum Thickener
144
5.2.1.5 Comparison of various options
146
5.2.2 Sludge Stabilization
148
5.2.2.1 Aerobic Digestion
148
5.2.2.2 Anaerobic Digestion
149
5.2.2.3 Composting
151
5.2.2.4 Lime Stabilization
152
5.2.2.5 Thermal Treatment
152
5.2.2.6 Chlorine Oxidation
152
152
5.2.3 Sludge Dewatering
153
5.2.3.1 Sand Drying Bed
153
5.2.3.2 Rotary Vacuum filter
155
5.2.3.3 Belt Filter
157
5.2.3.4 Centrifugation
159
161
163
5.2.4 Disposal of sludge
165
Sr. No
5.3
Topic
Page No
Comparison of various options
166
5.3.1 Cost comparison among options
170
5.4
Recommendation
172
5.5
Technical Specification of recommended option
173
6.0
Odor Control
6.1
Objective of odor control
176
6.2
Odor generation (Sources and Odorous compounds in STP)
176
6.3
Measurement of odor
177
6.3.1 Air sampling and gas chromatographic analysis
177
6.3.2 Gas Chromatic Analysis of Liquids and Solids
178
6.3.3 Electronic noses
179
6.3.4 Dynamic Dilution Olfactometry
180
Permissible Odor Limits
183
6.4.1 Odorant concentration gradient for individual
183
6.4.2 Ambient odor concentration
183
6.4.3 Ambient odor intensity
186
6.4.4 Limits of H2S in Sewage Treatment Plant
188
Containment and Extraction of Foul air
189
6.5.1 Containment of foul air
189
6.5.2 Extraction of foul air
191
Odor Control Technologies
197
6.6.1 Vapor phase technologies
198
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
175-227
6.6.1.1 Packed Bed Wet Scrubbing
198
6.6.1.2 Mist scrubbing
199
6.6.1.3 Liquid Redox Technology
200
6.6.1.4 Biofiltration
201
6.6.1.5 Solid scavengers
203
6.6.1.6 Carbon adsorption
203
6.6.2 Liquid phase technologies
205
6.6.2.1 Iron salts
206
6.6.2.2 Bioxide process
207
6.6.2.3 Oxidizers
208
6.6.2.4 Anthraquinone
211
6.6.2.5 Caustic slug dosing
211
6.6.2.6 Nitrate addition
212
6.6.3 Covering of tanks
214
6.6.4 Exhaustion of foul air
217
Technical comparison of different technologies
219
Sr. No
Topic
Page No
6.8
Recommendation of the options
221
6.9
Capital and O & M cost for recommended option
222
6.10
Recommendation of final option
226
6.11
Operation & Maintenance procedures
226
7.0
Recommendation & Conclusion
228-229
Annexure A List of Manufacturers and Suppliers
230-239
Study Report on Waste Water Treatment
Chapter-I
Preliminary Treatment: Screening
_____________________________________________________________________
1.0 Preliminary Treatment: Screening

1.0 Screens
1.1 Scope and Objectives
Preliminary treatment processes include screening, comminution, grinding, and grit removal.
These processes remove or change those materials that may foul or wear out pumps and plug
piping and process units.
Dry well
To Grit
removal
chamber
Fine screen
SBR
Coarse screen
Wet well
tank
Fig 1.1 Flow Diagram with Different Screens for Pre-treatment
1.2 Screening
Screens are placed in the influent flow at the head end of the plant to remove debris that may
harm other process units. Ecology requires that this material be removed, and a screening device
meets this requirement.
1.2.1 Introduction
Screen size openings vary from 2 to 3 inches in coarse screens to 0.008 inches in very fine
screens. The type of screen chosen for the plant depends on the downstream processes and how
the plants biosolids program is managed. The main advantage of screens over grinders is that
they remove incompatible objects from the wastewater stream. Generally, wider openings are
used to protect plant equipment and smaller screen openings are used to actually treat
wastewater, sometimes eliminating the need for primary treatment. Wider, coarse screens are
always used ahead of plant process units such as influent pumping and grit removal. Smaller,
finer screens can be used before or after influent pumping. Some screens cannot handle rocks,
_____________________________________________________________________

so rock removal must be considered separately in the design. Another important part of screen
design is handling the screened material and its disposal. Disposal availability and costs may
influence screen size.
1.2.2 Types of Screens
Screens can be classified into several different categories as presented below:
(i)
As per size of opening :

- fine screens,
- medium screens,
- coarse screens.
(ii)
As per shape :
- disc screen,
- drum screen,
- cage screen,
- wing screen,
- rack or bar screen.
(iii)
As per method of setting :

- fixed,
- moving,
- movable.
(iv)
As per method of cleaning :

- manual cleaned screens,
- mechanical cleaned screens.
_____________________________________________________________________

1.2.3 Classification of Screens
The classification of screens based on spacing between bars and size of openings is given
in the next Table
Table 1.1: Classification of screens

Item
Class
Size of
opening
Location
Purpose
[mm]
Racks
Coarse
> 50
At sewage pumps,
bars at 45-60 from
horizontal. Cleaning
manually
Medium
20 50
At sewage pumps
and near
sedimentation tanks
(made up of
parallel bars)
To protect pumps from

the bulky floating
material.
Bars are at 30-60

to horizontal
Screens
(Wire mesh)
Fine
10-20
Medium
10 25
Fine
- 10
To remove finer
materials
As a pretreatment
of industrial wastes
For partial treatment of

sewage before
discharging into
municipal sewer.
To remove materials
which tend to produce
excessive foam or
scum. Generally not
suitable for sewage due
to problems of screen
clogging.
_____________________________________________________________________

1.2.4 Coarse Screens Including Bar Racks
Coarse screens are at the head of process equipment to protect the equipment from being
damaged by debris found in sewage flows, or are used in bypass channels. Openings in the
screens generally range from one-half to 3 inches. In our case, we need to place the coarse
screen before the pumping station to protect the pumps.
Dimensions of Coarse Screen in our case
Depth of Screen channel
5.0 M
Width of Screen channel
1.0 M
Length of screen channel
10 M
Figure 1.2: Coarse screen

1.2.4.1 Manually Cleaned
Manually cleaned bar racks or screens have larger openings (one and one half to 3 inches) and
are used to protect equipment. The larger openings reduce head loss but are labor intensive.
These screens should be designed with a way of ensuring sewage overflow should the screen
become plugged when no operator is available. A high water alarm in front of the screen will alert
operators that the screen needs raking. The bars are typically set at 30 to 45 degrees from
vertical to facilitate cleaning. The top of the screen should have a perforated plate or continuous
bars to drain the debris after removal and before being placed in a dumpster. The bars should be
designed to be removable so they can be cleaned when rags build up behind them.
_____________________________________________________________________
Figure 1.3: Placement of Coarse screen before Wet well

1.2.4.2. Mechanically Cleaned
Mechanically cleaned coarse screens have smaller openings (one-half to one and one-half
inches) and are used to remove unwanted solids from sewage. These smaller openings create
head loss that must be accounted for in the channel design. There are many ways that
mechanical screen bars can be cleaned. Generally, the more moving parts that contact the
sewage the more maintenance the unit will take because of the abrasive grit in sewage. Some
screens are designed to also remove rocks as well as debris.
Figure 1.4: Medium Screen after Raw Sewage Pumping
_____________________________________________________________________
Dry Well & Wet

Well
Course Screens
Size 1.0 W x 5 m
D (3 W + 1 S.B)
Length = 10 M
Gates
Inlet Chamber
Sewage Inlet
Pipe
Figure 1.5: Layout of coarse screens
_____________________________________________________________________

1.2.5 Fine Screens
Fine screens are used to remove very fine materials such as plastics and cigarette filters from
sewage, or they can be used in place of primary clarification. These screens have a large head
loss, which must be accounted for in the design. The volume of material removed by these
screens, including fecal material, should be taken into consideration during design.
Dimensions of Fine Screen in our caseDepth of Screen channel
1.6 M SWD + 0.3 M Free board
Width of Screen channel
1.0 M
Length of screen channel
10 M
Sewage Inlet
Pumping
main
Gates
Fine Screens
Size 1.0 W x 1.9 m D
(3 W + 1 S.B)
Length = 10 M
Grit Chambers
Figure 1.6: Layout of Fine screens
1.2.5.1. Mechanical Bar

Some bar screens are made with an opening as small as one-quarter inch. The bars are set from
0 to 30 degrees from vertical. These smaller-opening screens are susceptible to damage by
heavy materials , so the design should place coarse screen for heavy material removal ahead of
the fine screens.
_____________________________________________________________________
Figure 1.7: Mechanical Fine Screen before Grit Chambers
1.2.5.2. Rotary Drum

Rotary drums are very efficient in removing small debris from the wastewater; however, because
they are prone to grease plugging, the amount of grease in the wastewater should be taken into
consideration. The Drum Screen consists of a horizontal square mesh basket (0.2 1 mm mesh)
or a wedge wire basket (1 2.5 mm). The wastewater flows from inside to outside the basket
through the screen surface. Filtrate is discharged vertically from the bottom of the drum and the
screenings are transported horizontally by the rotation of the screen towards the discharge point
where they are dewatered further or conveyed to another location. A spray bar with alternately
operating spray nozzles cleans the screen surface while the drum rotates. The screened
wastewater
can
be
reused
as
wash
water
if
sufficiently
fine
mesh
is
used.
_____________________________________________________________________

This Fine screening offers the possibility of reliable mechanical removal of high solids
concentrations and thus the oxygen-consuming substances. Separation of hairs, fibres and
suspended material from municipal and industrial wastewaters ensures trouble-free and
maintenance-free operation of subsequent treatment stages.
Fig 1.8 Typical Rotary drums schematics

1.2.5.3. Static
Static screens have no moving parts and must have flow pumped to the top of the screen. The
material left on top of the screen as the flow passes through is removed from the screen by
gravity. These screens have the smallest openings and are sometimes used instead of primary
treatment. They have also been used to remove solids when cleaning digesters.
_____________________________________________________________________ 10
Fig 1.9 Typical view Static screens

1.2.5.4. Band Screens
Band screens are proposed for screening of wastewater. These screens generally handle
flows from 50 to 5000 liters per second. Application of these screens includes Wastewater &
Sewage Treatment Plants. Band screens can be used on sumps as deep as 15 m with channel
widths of 1.5m and above.
These screens are housed within a freestanding stainless steel framework. The screening band is
carried on main chains that are supported by above-deck sprockets. The shaft-mounted
_____________________________________________________________________ 11

combined motor and reduction gear unit drives the screen band. A power monitoring device
prevents torque overload. These screens are fitted with polyurethane mesh panels, that helps
actively to discourage hair pinning or blockage of the screen mesh by the fine fibers found in
wastewater. Band screen mesh has aperture size ranges from 2 mm to 6 mm. Band screen
eliminates the problem of carry over often encountered with the more traditional straight
through flow screens or Step screens.
Wastewater enters the centre of the fine screen and flows outward through a continuously
moving fine of polyurethane mesh panels to the outside of the screen chamber. Screenings are
retained on the inside of the screen panels and are discharged when the panels elevate to deck
level where they are cleaned by low pressure water jets. The water jets are mounted onto a jet
pipe inside the screen head section. These jets continuously clean the panels as they pass the
discharge point above the debris hopper. A removable end cap is fitted to the jet pipe for flushing
& if wastewater is unavailable a pressure switch & gauge prevents screen operation.
1.2.6 Screen Design Criteria
If the screens are placed in a building or a deep channel, the area must be designed for adequate
explosion-proof equipment and ventilation to control odors. The odor control technologies are
discussed under Chapter 6 of this report. A screenings building should be separate from other
plant processes. All screening devices must have a backup screen or bypass channel. Each
screen channel needs to be able to be isolated and have provisions for dewatering for
maintenance. Adequate clearance and water for cleaning the equipment must be addressed in
room design. Motors on mechanically cleaned screens need to be waterproof if they have a
chance of being submerged during a high flow condition or electrical loss. Maintenance can be
reduced on bar screens by activating the rake only when the screen becomes blinded. Generally,
screens have a timed sequence and a channel head differential to activate the rakes. All screen
devices must have a local control switch so they can be taken off automatic mode and operated
manually or locked out for maintenance. Manufacturers of screens will recommend flow velocities
for their equipment. Velocities generally are 1 to 3 fps at the average flow rate. Velocities are
calculated from a vertical projection of the screen openings on the cross sectional area between
the invert of the channel and the flow line.
Design details for screens chambers with bar screens are discussed here, as, these are mostly
used in practice.
The horizontal velocity through a screen chamber should not fall below 0.6 m/s for grit bearing
sewage or below 0.3 m/s for other sewage to avoid undesirable sedimentation in the screen
chamber.
_____________________________________________________________________ 12

The effective area of the screen, which is the vertical projected area of the screen openings from
the invert of the channel to the flow line, should be such as to produce a velocity through the
screen opening not exceeding 1.2 m/s at maximum discharge.
The top of the screen is provided at least 300mm above the highest flow level of sewage.
The screen bars are provided with flats of 10 mm maximum thickness and not less than 50 mm
deep. In case of large plants the screen channels are suitably divided to have maximum screen
width of 1.5 m.
The submerged area of the screens including bars and openings should be about 25% to 35% in
excess of the cross-sectional area of the approach channel.
The angle of inclination of manually cleaned screens are 45 to 60 with the horizontal and 65 to
90 for mechanical screens.
Head loss in the screen varies with the quantity and nature of the screenings allowed to
accumulate between cleanings. The head loss created by a clean screen may be calculated by
considering the flow and the effective areas of screen openings, the later being the sum of
vertical projection of the openings. The head loss through clean flat bars screen is calculated
from the following formula:
h = 0.0729 (V2 v2)
in which
h = head loss in [m],
V = velocity through the screen in [m/s],
v = approach velocity through the channel in [m/s].
Usually a head loss of 0.15 m is considered in design.

The length of the screen channel should be sufficient, so that the screen can be properly housed,
working space should be available, flow can be stabilized and eddies are avoided. The length of
the screen is given by the formula:
L = (dc + 0.3) cot + 1.73 (Wc + d)
where
L = length of the screen channel, [m]
dc = depth of flow in screen chamber, [m]
= angle of the screen with the horizontal plane
_____________________________________________________________________ 13

Wc = width of the screen chamber, [m]
d
= diameter of incoming screen sewer, [m]
The screen chambers are designed like open channel with smooth entries and exit arrangements.
The cross-section and head slope of this chamber is so arranged that the design velocity can be
maintained. A working platform is constructed on the top of the screen bridging the width of the
chamber. This provides space for fixing cleaning mechanism.
A bye-pass arrangement may be provided during the period of abnormally high flow. To make
up the head losses while passing through the screen a drop of 0.15 m, is found to be adequate.
The screened out material should be removed from time to time to prevent the blockage of
wastewater flow. This is done manually or mechanically.
The quantity of solid in bar screens thus accumulated ranges from 30 to 60 m3 per million m3
of wastewater flow.
1.2.7 Screenings Handling Equipment
The design of screenings handling equipment will be dictated somewhat by disposal practices.
Landfill practices are changing, and some landfills do not accept material containing free water or
fecal material. Screenings disposed of through a transfer station may require additional
considerations.
1.2.7.1. Belts and Dumpsters
Screenings may be moved to a dumpster by belts. The belts will need to be cleaned, so a nearby
wash station should be included in the design. Because screenings in the dumpster will generate
odors and attract insects, enclosing the dumpster should be considered.
1.2.7.2. Washers
Screenings from screens with half-inch or smaller openings will contain fecal material. There are
several washers on the market that will remove fecal material from the screenings. Most washers
are combined with compactors that remove excess water from the rags.
1.2.7.3. Compactors
Compactors, when used with screenings, will remove excess water so landfills will accept the
waste. If the compactor is placed outside, the discharge tube should be heat-taped and insulated.
Large amounts of rock in screenings will cause binding problems in the discharge tube. Flushing
or an alternative means of dewatering should be considered.
_____________________________________________________________________ 14
Figure 1.10: Compactor

1.2.7.4. Design Considerations
Most screenings storage will produce odors, insect problems, and drainage. Odor control and
proper ventilation is addressed in Chapter 6 of this report. Dumpsters that receive screenings
should have a way to be dewatered with a floor drain to the sewage stream, as close as possible
to the dumpster. Drainage from dumpsters may damage concrete floors because of acidity, so
the floor should have a protective coating. A cleanup station should be in the immediate area for
cleaning when the dumpster is picked up. Redundancy or another method of screenings handling
should be considered in case of equipment failure. Because screenings and storage rooms have
corrosive atmospheres, all equipment should be of noncorrosive design.
1.2.8 Disposal of Screenings
Screenings are highly offensive in nature.
Screenings from the coarse bar (rack) screens
contains lumps of faecal matter, garbage, leaves, hair, rags, and so on.
Screenings from the fine screens (mechanically cleaned) contain more putrescible organic
matter, so they must be handled and disposed-off carefully without nuisance.
Following are the usual methods adopted for the disposal of screenings:
- land burial,
- incineration,
- composting,
- disintegration,
- disposal with municipal solid wastes.
1.2.8.1 Land burial

In this method the screenings are buried in ground pits. The screenings should be buried
sufficiently deep to obtain complete decomposition and to avoid bad odors. A cover of porous
earth of about 300 mm - 500 mm depth should be provided on the top of screenings.
_____________________________________________________________________ 15

Sometimes the screenings are buried along with quicklime.
This method proves to be the most effective for large works. The screening are first dewatered by
pressing, and then are burnt in coal, gas or oil furnaces at high temperatures.
1.2.8.3 Composting
In this method the screenings are mixed with the municipal garbage and composted. With special
precautions they may be used as fertilizer.
1.2.8.4 Disintegration
In this method, screenings are crushed into very small pieces by comminuters or grinders, and
allowed to join the flow of the sewage, and then finally these are removed in the settling tank.
Disposal with municipal solid wastes this should be done only in conformance with
environmental regulations.
1.2.9 Safety Considerations

If any equipment used in the screening process has a tendency to spill water or product on the
floor, a decision must be made whether to design the floor with a smooth surface for ease of
cleaning or a rough surface so employees do not slip. A designer should consider a smooth
surface under machinery sloping to drains and nonskid surfaces in traffic areas. All areas need
adequate ventilation to keep odors and moisture at a minimum. The building design should
address the explosive atmosphere surrounding screens and related equipment inside buildings.
1.3 Recommended Option for Screen
1.3.1 Technical Comparison of Coarse Screen
Table 1.2 Technical Comparison of Coarse Screen
Type of Coarse Screen
Advantages
Disadvantages
Manual Screen
Little or no maintenance
High labour costs

Plugged flow
Require frequent racking to avoid
clogging
Mechanical Screen
Low labor costs
Dependent on equipments
Improved flow conditions
Needs regular cleaning
Better screenings capture
_____________________________________________________________________ 16

1.3.2 Recommended Option for Coarse Screen
The ideal location of coarse screen will be before the pumping station. So that pump will save
from damage caused by materials coming from sewer system. The ideal combination for the
functioning of coarse screen will be combination of mechanical and manual screens .The
mechanical screens will be the main working screens and manual will be as standby option. To
maintain the flexibility of the waste water stream flow, the optimum combination will be the 3
mechanical screens (working) plus 1 manual screen (standby) for the coarse screens. The screen
openings will be as per the raw sewage quality and the range of openings as described above.
1.3.3 Capital and O & M cost for recommended option (Coarse screen)
Table 1.3 Capital & O & M Cost for Coarse Screen
A. Capital Cost
Deep Water Screen (mechanical)
3 screens of Rs. 10,82,000 /- each
Manually cleaned bar screen
1 screen of Rs. 4,48,000 /- each
Differential type Ultrasonic Level sensor to operate
Rs. 1,50,000 /- each
the screen automatically

B. Operation & Maintenance Cost
Power, consumables, Operator/ labors, Maintenance
Rs. 1300/ - per day
C. Power Consumption
108 KWH / per day
1.3.4 Technical Comparison of Fine Screens

Table 1.4 Technical Comparison of Fine Screens
Type of Coarse Screen
Advantages
Disadvantages
Mechanical Bars
No labor cost
Susceptible to rock damage
Improved flow conditions

Screenings capture
Rotary Drum
Removes small debris
Prone to grease plugging

Needs power for rotation
Static
No moving parts, so no
power reqd for moving
Upstream pumping is must

Regular cleaning is reqd
1.3.5 Recommended Option for Fine Screen

The ideal location of fine screen will be after the pumping station but before the grit chamber in
sewage treatment plant so that all the fine material entering into the system will be removed
effectively also it will save equipment from damage. The best option in our case will be the
_____________________________________________________________________ 17

mechanical bar screens with 1/4th inch opening to remove the small debris before the biological
reactor. The ideal combination in this case will be the placement of 4 mechanical bar screens, 3
working and 1 standby of equal capacities, preferably with moving screens as it moves up along
the inclined surface and disposes the screened materials to the chute for disposal by conveyor
belt. The mechanical bars are vulnerable to rock but in our case, there is no possibility of any rock
as our sewerage system is separate system and raw sewage pumps can not pump rocks.
Land burial is recommended for the disposal of screened material. The total quantity of screened
material produced after screening will be approximate 26.4 Cum per day.
1.3.6 Capital and O & M cost for recommended option (fine screen)
Table 1.5 Capital & O & M Cost for Fine Screen
A. Capital Cost
Fine Screen (mechanical)
4 screens of Rs. 11,52,000 /- each
Differential type Ultrasonic Level sensor to operate
Rs. 1,50,000 /- each
the screen automatically

Rs. 1200/ - per day
120 KWH / per day
Screened Material disposal -The cost of screened material disposal by land burial is approx Rs.
12,000/-(@ Rs.450/- per cum).
1.4. Technical Specification of Screens

1.4.1 Mechanical & Manual Coarse Screens & Conveyor
The mechanical screen shall be inclined bar screen, rake type and of sturdy design to take care
of all sorts of materials envisaged in the gravity sewer. The effective opening for the sewage to
pass through shall not exceed 50 mm for coarse screen and 20 mm for medium screen in one
direction. The maximum velocity through the bars/ openings shall not exceed 1 m/s. The
freestanding height of dead-plate above the freeboard of the screen chamber shall not be less
than 0.5m for easy maintenance.
1.4.1.1 Mechanical bar screen
The mechanical screen shall include the following.
Frame work
Bar rake
_____________________________________________________________________ 18
Dead plate
Cleaning rake
Guide blocks
Lower channel guides
Upper channel guides
Discharge chute
Hoist drum and shaft assembly
Drive unit with motor
Machinery platform
Screen canopy
Local control panel
The frame work of the screen shall be of robust construction and shall consist of MS
angles/channels. The framework shall support the drive mechanism platform and the inspection
and maintenance platform.
The bar rack shall consist of stainless steel bars formed straight and true and accurately spaced
to provide required openings between adjacent bars. Bars shall extend from the bottom of the
channel to a height of at least 225 mm above the maximum water depth in the channel and be
fastened at that level to a dead plate. Bars shall be supported only at both ends.
The dead plate of stainless steel construction shall extend from the top of bar rack to the
screening discharge point in the head section. The wetted parts of cleaning rakes shall be
fabricated in Stainless Steel. The rake tines shall be replaceable and bolted to the rake carriage
and shall mesh with the bar screen openings. The rake assembly shall be supported by cast iron
sliding blocks and shall slide in stainless steel rolled section channel guides recessed in the side
walls / anchored to the side walls.
The discharge chute shall be attached to the top of the dead plate and consist of a pivoted
section and fixed section. The section of discharge chute, which will be pivoted, shall be designed
to prevent screenings from returning to the upstream side of channel when the rake discharges
screenings from the cleaning rake. The fixed section of the discharge chute shall direct the
screenings to the belt conveyor. The discharge chute shall be fabricated from stainless steel.
The drum shaft shall be solid cold rolled steel of sufficient size to transmit the power required.
The drum shaft shall be grease lubricated pillow block rolled bearings and shall support two sets
of two grooved rope / hoist drums with one drum of each set keyed to the shaft while the other is
free from limited rotation controlled by the fixed drum. The two inside drum shall be provided with
friction band brakes to assist in opening of rake carriage.
_____________________________________________________________________ 19

Cables shall be provided for raising and lowering the screen rake. The drive unit for the screen
shall be of the motorized type securely mounted on the machinery platform. The drive unit shall
consist of an electric motor with in-built AC/ DC brakes and of crane (S-4) duty coupled to a gear
reducer. The gear reducer shall be further coupled to the hoist shaft by means of pinion and spur
gear. The service factor of gear box shall be minimum 2.0. A suitable motor shall drive the
mechanism.
A machinery platform to support the drum shaft assembly and drive unit shall be provided. The
machinery platform-supporting frame shall be fabricated from mild steel plate/rolled sections.
Screen canopy / cover shall be provided on top of the hoist assembly for weather protection.
The mechanism shall incorporate an overload protection device incorporated in the drive
assembly. The mechanism shall consist of an overload protection device with a shear pin and trip
lever and a limit switch. In the event of overload, the shear pin shall break thereby changing the
position of trip lever which shall then strike the limit switch to cutoff the supply to the motor.
o
Rotary Limit Switch for limiting Upper & Lower Travel
Slack Cable Limit Switch
Upper Over-travel Cut-off Limit Switch which shuts off the motor and sounds an alarm if
the rotary limit switch fails to operate.
Overload protection limit switch.
Power to open motor brakes to prevent the rake carriage from free falling into the screen
channel when power is cut-off to the motor.
Acceptable Makes:- Batliboi / Eimco-KCP/Triveni

Electrical details for coarse bar screen
Material of construction
1. Side guide rail, rollers
SS304
2. Drain box, side plates, screen bars
SS 304
3. Discharge chute, wiper, shafts etc.
SS304
4. All fasteners
SS304
5. Gear unit geared motor
cast iron/ cast aluminum
6. Chain wheel etc.
hardened & tempered steel
7. Replaceable rake
UHMWPE/Equivalent
Drive Details
1. Operation
Electric motor
2. Motor Make
LHP/BBL/KBL
3. Rating
1.5 kW
_____________________________________________________________________ 20

4. Mounting
Flange
5. Type
TEFC as per IEC41-1
6. Voltage
3 Ph. 415 V AC
7. Frequency
50 Hz
8. Insulation class
Class F as per IEC34-1
9. Protection
IP 55
10. Duty Class
S1
11. Cooling
as per IEC 41
Control Panel Details

1. Construction of panel box
Made of 2 mm thick CRCA sheet and painted with 2-IP
2. Protection
IP 55
3. Size of panel
As per Electric Diagram
4. Switch gears make
Siemens / Telemecanique / L & T
1.4.1.2 Manual Bar screen

The manual bar screen will be of opening not more than 50 mm for coarse screen and 20 mm for
medium screen and inclination about 450 with respect to horizontal. Specifications for Manually
raked screen shall be as under.
The trash screen shall be rectangular in shape. The screen shall be fabricated out of stainless
steel SS 304 of not less than 10mm thick and 75 mm wide in section. The screen shall be rigidly
fixed to the frame and provided with 2 sets of cleaning rakes.
1.4.1.3 Belt Conveyor
The conveyor shall be common to the mechanical and manual screens. The conveyor system
shall be a combination of a horizontal conveyor and upward inclined conveyor (if required) and
shall have a capacity to transfer the maximum screenings anticipated at the peak flow. The
discharge elevation of the dropping conveyor system shall be as said in sub-section II. The
conveyor provided for discharge of screenings shall be inter-locked with all the screenings
discharging on to the conveyor so that it operates when the screenings are discharged on to it
and stops automatically after a time lag when the screen stops discharging the screenings on top
the conveyor.
Number
One
Conveyor type
Horizontal
Capacity
To handle screenings of peak flow of 148 mld.
Speed
15 m / minute (maximum)
Type
Troughed
_____________________________________________________________________ 21

Belt
3 ply Z duck, 3 mm top, 1.5 mm

bottom, rubber cover CRM 24
1.4.2 Mechanical fine Screens and conveyor

The Bidders shall quote for either Step Type or Traveling Band Type. The Bidders at their
option may quote any design of fine screen of proven performance; currently in operation and for
a period of not less than three (3) years. Bidder shall furnish technical and installation particulars
on the alternative screen. Decision of the Employer is final on the choice of the screen and shall
be binding on the Contractor. The screen shall trap all plastic bags, rags, pouches etc., The
effective opening for the sewage to pass through shall be 6 mm in one direction. The screen shall
be factory assembled, tested, transported to site in fully assembled condition, and shall be
installed at the site for preventing of misalignments.
The maximum velocity through the bars / openings shall not exceed 1 m / second at peak flow.
Similarly, the topmost elevation of the circular screen shall also be likewise adopted. The design
shall ensure passage of sewage right up to the floor elevation through the screens without
interruptions or accumulation of grit
Bidder shall quote for only one type of screen based on his experience. The type of screen
offered by the bidder shall be successful in operation in a sewage treatment plant at least for a
period of five (5) years.
Acceptable Makes:- Jash
A. Fine band screen
The specification of fine band screen if adopted shall be as follows:
The Fine Band Screen shall consist of continuously moving perforated Stainless steel panels.
The machine shall be arranged to pivot out of the channel.
The aperture size shall not exceed 6 mm. The frame shall consist of two lateral stainless steel
316 plates connected by means of cross braces. The machine shall work on the endless chain
principle and incorporate chain wheels at the top and bottom. The top wheels shall be keyed on
to the main drive shaft. The bottom wheels shall be carried on stub shafts incorporating a fully
sealed, pre- and self-lubricated bearing of suitable synthetic material.
The chain shall be of stainless steel with the screen panel directly attached. The screen panels
shall be minimum 3 mm thick in SS 316 construction and shall incorporate 6 mm diameter
perforations. These panels shall be carried on the chains. The panel shall be specially formed to
give a very rigid construction and shall create steps to enable larger screenings to be removed.
The seals shall be Polypropylene sealing brushes and incorporated at each side and across the
bottom of the screen to prevent screenings from by-passing the screen panels.
_____________________________________________________________________ 22

Screening shall be discharged on the downstream side of the unit and shall be removed from the
screen panels by suitable means. The brush if used for removal of screenings shall be
polypropylene. Screenings are delivered down an enclosed chute/guide plate to enable discharge
of screenings to the belt conveyer. The entire assembly shall be enclosed in reinforced fibre glass
housing. A hinged front cover shall be provided to give necessary access to the assembly
components. The drive to the main shall be fitted with an anti-condensation heater. The motor
shall be flanged to a shaft mounted gear unit giving the final output speed. This shall produce a
linear speed for the screen panels of about 3 m / min. The drive shall be protected from
mechanical overload by an electrical current sensing device in the screen control panel. Suitable
sensing device shall be provided to annunciate screen jamming and trip the drive.
B. Step type fine bar screen
Mechanically operated step type bar Screen completely made of Stainless steel not exceeding 6
mm clear spacing between the bars shall be provided in the screen channel.
The screen shall include discharge chute as required to discharge the screenings on the belt
conveyor.
Material of construction:
The fixed as well as movable bars, mechanism, support frame, fixing discharge chute
shall be manufactured from stainless steel.
Screen construction
-
The fine bar screen shall be a complete unit comprising of main frame with an
integral mechanism containing movable bars located in between fixed bars
without engagement of external mechanism / rake mechanism for pulling out the
screened material .
The mechanism comprising of movable bars located between fixed bars shall
gradually move the screened material upward in the form of a mat and deliver
screenings to the guide /discharge chute.
The fixed as well as movable bars shall contain a series of steps to prevent the
screenings from falling back into the main flow.
The drive arrangement shall be through an electric motor or hydraulic system

and shall be suitable for automatic operation controlled by a level sensor.
The screen shall be capable of being tilted out of the sewage flow up to
horizontal position for the purpose of cleaning & maintenance.
Control Panel
The control panel shall have IP 55 protection, painted with Epoxy paint and shall be
comprising of :
_____________________________________________________________________ 23
Mushroom Head emergency stop
Overload relays for motor protection
MCBs, HRC Fuses and Glass Fuses
Circuitry to operate the screen with Ultrasonic type level sensors.
Selector Switch to operate the screen on JOG mode
Provision to run the screen with a Timer in case of failure of level sensor
Hydraulic Unit
The Hydraulic Unit shall be comprised of
-
Epoxy painted Oil Tank, Pump, Motor Direction Control Valve and Counter
Balance Valve of suitable capacity
The Hydraulic Pump shall be protected by Filter element and Low oil level
indicator.
A Pressure Relief Valve shall control the Hydraulic System.
Testing
The Fine bar screen shall be Factory assembled and subjected to following tests at the
manufactures premises
Dimensional Check: The overall dimensions of the screen shall be conforming to

the approved drawing.
Operational Test: The complete screen including its mechanism, Electro motor /
hydraulic operating mechanism level probing system and control panel shall be
integrated and mechanically operated to verify free movement and satisfactory working.
Material of construction
1. Side guide rail, rollers
SS304
2. Drain box, side plates, screen bars
SS 304
3. Discharge chute, wiper, shafts etc
SS304
4. All fasteners
SS304
5. Gear unit geared motor
cast iron/ cast aluminum
6. Chain wheel etc.
hardened & tempered steel
7. Replaceable rake
UHMWPE/Equivalent
Drive Details
1. Operation
Electric motor
2. Motor Make
LHP/BBL/KBL
3. Rating
1.5 kW
4. Mounting
Flange
5. Type
TEFC as per IEC41-1
6. Voltage
3 Ph. 415 V AC
_____________________________________________________________________ 24

7. Frequency
50 Hz
8. Insulation class
Class F as per IEC34-1
9. Protection
IP 55
10. Duty Class
S1
11. Cooling
as per IEC 41
Control Panel Details

1. Construction of panel box
Made of 2 mm thick CRCA sheet and painted with2-IP
2. Protection
IP 55
3. Size of panel
As per Electric Diagram
4. Switch gears make
Siemens / Telemecanique / L & T
References:
CPHEEO
Manual
on
Sewerage
and
Sewage
Treatment-
Ministry
of
Urban
Development,GOI
Criteria for Sewage Works Design Washington State Department of Ecology (revised
Oct 06)
Recommended Standards for Waste Water Facilities- Ten State Standards
Feasibility Report on Sewage Treatment by JACOBs
Feasibility Report on Sewage Treatment by TCE Engineering
M/S. JASH Engineering - website
_____________________________________________________________________ 25
Chapter-II
Preliminary Treatment: Grit Removal
_____________________________________________________________________ 26

2.0 Preliminary Treatment: Grit Removal
2.1 Introduction
Grit chambers are provided to remove coarse inorganic solids such as sand, cinders, rocks,
cigarette filter tips, and heavy, inert, organic solids such as coffee grounds and fruit seeds from
flow. Grit may be removed by settling in square, rectangular, or circular chambers or by
centrifugal force.
Grit removal protects equipment by:
Reducing clogging in pipes;
Protecting moving mechanical equipment and pumps from abrasion and accompanying
abnormal wear;
Preventing accumulations of material in aeration tanks and digesters or other solidshandling processes that result in loss of usable volume; and
Reducing accumulations at the bases of mechanical screens.
Grit chambers should be generally designed to remove grit of 0.1 mm size and larger. Grit
removal facilities should be provided for all sewage treatment works unless there is evidence to
indicate the grit in the wastewater will not cause an operation and maintenance problem or the
sewage will flow directly to a lagoon. Grit removal may be accomplished by primary settling tanks
when grit removal is not provided in preliminary treatment.
2.2. Types of Grit Chambers
2.2.1 Aerated
Aerated grit chambers provide a period of wastewater detention to trap grit through air-induced
rotation of the wastewater at approximately 1 fps. Aerated grit chambers should be sized to
provide a detention time of 3 to 5 minutes at the peak-design flow. Air requirements vary,
depending on the basin geometry and wastewater characteristics. Typically 1 to 5 scfm of air per
foot of length is required for proper aerated grit operation. Skimming equipment must be provided
in aerated grit chambers if the outlet is below the water surface. For typical operating
requirements and results, see Table 1.1
_____________________________________________________________________ 27
Table 2.1: Requirements for Aerated Grit Removal Chambers and Typical Results
Parameter
Typical Operating Ranges
Transverse velocity at surface
2 to 2.5 fps
Depth-to-width ratio
1.5:1 to 2:1
Air supply
3 to 5 cf per min/ft
0.04 to 0.06 cf/gal
Detention time
3 to 5 min peak
Quantity of grit
1 to 10 cf/mil gal
Quantity of scum (skimming)
1 to 6 cf/mil gal
Table 2.2: Typical Design of a Grit Chamber

Metcalf & Eddy standards
Item
Range
10 State standards
Typical
Range
Typical
Detention time at
peak flow rate(min)
2-5
--
--
Depth(ft)
7-16
--
--
--
Length(ft)
25-65
--
--
--
Width(ft)
8-23
--
--
--
Width-depth ratio
1:1-5:1
1.5:1
--
--
Length-width ratio
3:1-5:1
4:1
--
--
_____________________________________________________________________ 28
Sample Design of Grit Chamber for NMSEZ system
_____________________________________________________________________ 29

2.2.2 Vortex
Vortex grit chambers are gravity-type chambers that swirl the raw wastewater in the chamber.
The inorganic matter settles to the tank hopper section and the organic matter remains in
suspension where it is carried out by the tank effluent. Some vortex tank designs rely on natural
hydraulics to achieve the proper rotational rate. Other designs use natural hydraulics and a slow,
rotating paddle-type mixer to achieve the proper separation. The grit that settles in these tanks
can be removed by an airlift pump or a nonclogging, recessed propeller-type pump. The grit
removed from these tanks can be transferred to a grit dewatering channel, cyclone degritter, grit
classifier, or other grit-handling equipment.
Figure 2.1: Vortex Grit Chamber schematics
_____________________________________________________________________ 30
2.2 Vortex separator schematics
Figure 2.2: Vortex Separator schematics
_____________________________________________________________________ 31

Advantages
Efficient grit removal over variable flow rates
Rugged precision bearing drive
Compact design reduces civil work expenses
Low energy consumption
Simple and inexpensive maintenance requirements
2.2.3 Horizontal Flow
Horizontal-type chambers should be designed to control the flow-through velocity to
approximately 1 fps over the entire flow range. A Sutro weir or other proportional weir is normally
used to control velocities for rectangular channels. Parshall flumes are used to provide uniform
velocity distribution with parabolic-shaped channels. Length of the channels depends on the size
of grit to be removed and the maximum depth for flow. On the basis of a grit specific gravity of
2.65, settling velocities would be 3.7 fpm for 65-mesh and 2.5 fpm for 100-mesh grit.
Grit can be removed mechanically or manually. Mechanically cleaned grit chambers are
recommended for plants with greater than 2.0 MGD average design flow. Two grit chambers
should be provided, each designed for peak design flow.
2.2.4 Hydrocyclone
Cyclone degritters use centrifugal force in a cone-shaped unit to separate grit from the
wastewater. A pump discharges a slurry of grit and organics into the degritter at a controlled rate.
The slurry enters the degritter tangentially near its upper perimeter. This feed velocity creates a
vortex that produces a grit slurry at the lower, narrower opening and a larger volume of slurry
containing mostly volatile material at the upper port. The grit stream falls into a rake screen
washer. The degritted flow leaves the cyclone through the opening near the top of the unit,
moving downstream for further treatment. In some systems, a mechanical mixer induces the
centrifugal effect. The cyclone degritting process includes a pump as an integral part of the
process because the cyclone has no moving parts and depends on a steady supply of liquid. The
volume of pumped slurry and the resultant pressure at the degritter are critical requirements
specified by the cyclone manufacturers. The temperature, solids concentration, and other
characteristics of the slurry may require changes in the sizes of the upper and lower orifices after
installation and some initial operating experience. In some designs, the orifices are manually
adjustable. The grit flow stream from the cyclones should be washed before final disposal.
_____________________________________________________________________ 32
2.3 Grit Removal Criteria

A. Location
Grit removal should be installed downstream of the screening devices to prevent clogging of grit
aeration diffusers and other problems associated with rags and other trash in the wastewater.
Whenever possible, grit removal facilities should be located in open areas with easy access.
B. Number of Units
For large treatment plants, at least two units should be provided for grit removal facilities.
However, for small facilities (less than 2 MGD average design flow), only one unit may be
installed, with provisions for bypassing.
C. Inlet
The inlet should be carefully designed to minimize turbulence so the flow is evenly distributed
among channels and does not promote dead spots.
D. Drains
Provisions are required for dewatering each unit. Drain lines should discharge to points within the
system such that the contents of the drained units received maximum treatment.
E. Flow and Internal Effects on Grit Removal Efficiency
Flow rates and short-circuiting are two factors that may affect the performance of grit removal
systems. When designing a grit removal system, it is important to consider these factors and
provide control devices to regulate the wastewater velocity at approximately 1 fps and baffling as
a way to control short-circuiting.
F. Grit Removal Control Systems
Either a computer system or the operators at the facility may provide control of the grit removal
system. Both require an operator to determine the proper grit removal for the facility to achieve
peak performance of the grit removal system.
_____________________________________________________________________ 33

2.4 Grit Handling
Impervious surfaces with drains should be provided for all grit-handling areas. If grit is to be
transported, conveying equipment should be designed to avoid accidental leakage or loss of
material. Grit storage facilities are often the source of odor and grease accumulation. Clean grit
can help minimize odor and extra-large drains can prevent grease from clogging floor drains.
Drain flows shall be routed back into the plant for treatment. When unwashed grit must be
transported, the utility may have to provide odor control during transportation. Grit disposal by
landfill or burial with capacity for disposing of 1 cu yd/day/MGD shall be provided. Grit should not
be introduced into the treatment or digester units.
2.4.1. Inclined Screw Conveyors
Inclined screw conveyors remove the grit from the sump and drop it into a classifier or washer
that removes most of the organic matter collected with the grit. In larger plants with wider
channels, screw conveyors move grit to a central sump.
Fig 2.3: Grit removal by Screw Conveyer
_____________________________________________________________________ 34

2.4.2. Chain and Buckets
Most rectangular grit tanks have a chain-and-flight mechanism to move the grit to a sump. A
bucket elevator removes the grit from the sump and drops it into a classifier or washer that
removes most of the organic matter collected with the grit.
2.4.3. In Deep Pits
Grit removal facilities located in deep pits should be provided with mechanical equipment for
pumping or hoisting grit to ground level. Such pits should have a stairway, elevator, or lift and
shall have adequate ventilation and lighting. Mechanical and electrical equipment in deep pits
should be submersible and explosion-proof.
2.4.4. Pumping
Air lift pumps are preferred to pump the grit to a classifier or washer that removes most of the
organic matter collected with the grit.
2.5 Grit Washing/Dewatering

Grit washing effectively removes organics from the grit. Screw and rake grit washers have proved
to be reliable and usually produce a material low in organics. To ensure a low volatile content,
however, ample dilution water may be required. Pumps normally provide sufficient dilution water,
but bucket elevators may not, especially during periods of peak grit capture. Consequently, they
may require supplementary liquid to function properly. Specification for grit separation & washing
are as follows-
_____________________________________________________________________ 35

2.6 Technical Comparison of Grit Removal chambers
Table 2.3: Technical Comparison of Grit Removal Chambers
Grit Chamber
Advantages
Disadvantages
Aerated
Consisted removal efficiency over a
Potentially volatile organics and odor

released
wide flow range

Performance of downstream units
More power requirement than other grit

removal systems
may be improved by using preaeration to reduce septic conditions
Additional labor required for maintenance
in incoming wastewater.
& control
Versatile function
Consisted removal efficiency over a
Vortex
wide flow range
Paddles tend to collect rags

Usually
No submerged part
proprietary
design,
so
any
modification is difficult
Smaller footprint
Require deep excavation
Minimum headloss
More construction cost

Grit sump tends to clog and require high
pressure
agitation
using
water
for
cleaning
Horizontal Flow
Flexible
Difficult to maintain 0.3 m/secs velocity
Easy construction
over a wide range of flow

Submerged chain, flight equipment and
bearings undergo excessive wear
Head loss is excessive, typically 30-40%
of flow depth
High velocity may be generated at the
bottom
Hydrocyclone
Removal of grit plus TSS
Coarse screen required upstream
Solid removal capacity similar to
Require high energy due to pumps
Primary clarifier
2.7 Recommended Option for Grit Removal Chamber
All the grit chamber options have different advantages and disadvantages. However, aerated grit
chamber is the best option as it gives consistent performance and the aeration removes the
possibility of any septic conditions for the sewage before reaching the SBR tank. The aeration
also helps in removing odor, oil & grease from grit chambers.
_____________________________________________________________________ 36

2.8 Capital and O & M cost for Grit Chamber
Table 2.4 Capital & O & M Cost for Grit Chamber

A. Capital Cost
Grit Separator Cost Electromechanical
Rs. 19,00,000 /
Size 5.48 x 5.48 x 0.81 m Steel / SS 304 construction

with W-24 Drive.
Rs. 525/ - per day
27 KWH / per day
2.9 Technical Specification

2.9.1. Grit Chamber
The grit separator shall be square in size and twin unit construction. A Central drive mechanism
of worm reduction type driven through helical gear and motor or by geared motor shall be
mounted on the RCC platform spanning the tank. All exposed steel parts shall be sand blasted
and painted with epoxy. The walkway shall have RCC posts and handrails of anodized aluminum.
All wetted parts shall be in mild steel with epoxy coating. The epoxy coating shall be suitable for
corrosion as well as abrasion of the grit. The drive shall be provided with electro-mechanical
device, torque indicating arrangement and mechanical trip contacts with electrical overload
relays. Flow regulating vanes shall be provided at the inlet side of the collection chamber and
shall be of FRP. The vanes shall be adjusted as per the flow requirement. The weirs at the outlet
of grit chamber shall be SS 304 with minimum 3-mm thickness or FRP with minimum thickness of
6 mm. The spacing of anchor bolts of SS 304 for the fixing of the weir shall not be more than 450
mm.
2.9.2 Grit Handling Equipment
The classifier mechanism shall comprise of a screw driven by a suitable motor. The material of
construction of the mechanism shall be SS 316 and the diameter shall be minimum 400 mm. The
length of screw shall be such that the grit can be elevated up to the discharge end as in clause
2.4 section 4, sub-section II. SS puddle pipe shall be provided in the concrete trough at the
discharge point of wet grit. An organic return pump with wetted parts in SS304 shall be provided.
Acceptable make for Detritor:- EIMCO-KCP/ Batliboi/ Hindustan Dorr Oliver/ Triveni
_____________________________________________________________________ 37
References:
CPHEEO Manual on Sewerage and Sewage Treatment- Ministry of Urban Development,
GOI
Oct 06)
_____________________________________________________________________ 38
Chapter-III
Tertiary Treatment
_____________________________________________________________________ 39

3. Tertiary Treatment
3.1 Back ground
Continued population growth, contamination of both surface water and ground water resources,
uneven distribution of water, and periodic droughts has forced water managers to look alternative
solutions. In light of these issues water reuse has been looked at more closely over the last
decade or so in India. To justify construction of a treatment and storage facility for reuse of water
and recycled water distribution network there must be a certain demand for recycled water use.
3.2 Objective
As agreed with MJP, the only possible source of fresh water can supply 90 MLD of water to
NMSEZ. It makes recycling option more viable to meet the water requirements associated with
the cooling water and chilled water circuits of the District cooling company.
The total quantity of treated wastewater available for recycling is around 64 MLD. Out of this
quantity, there is a fixed demand of 22 MLD of Cooling Water Makeup for the district cooling
company, NMSEZ in Dronagiri. Out of the remaining treated wastewater, which amounts to 42
MLD, approximately 5 MLD will be used for gardening/street washing, when the demand exists,
and the balance will be disposed in the marine body. When there is no demand for water for
gardening
and
street
42 MLD
washing,
the
entire
Disinfection
MLD
will
be
disposed
Disposal
Recycling for Gardening/

Road Washing
SBR
Tank
2
2
M
L
D
42
Coagulation
Flocculation
Settling
Filtration
District
Cooling
Disinfection
(Coagulation, flocculation, settling may or may not be required before filtration)

Figure 3.1: Treatment Train after Biological treatment
3.3 Water Reclamation and Reuse Standards
This section introduces the concept of reclaimed water and outlines the need for the tertiary
treatment of the treated effluent after the biological treatment through the Sequential Batch
_____________________________________________________________________ 40

Reactor (SBR) system in Dronagiri to fulfill its potential reuse as cooling and chilling water for the
District Cooling.
There are four classes of reclaimed water: A, B, C, and D, with Class A being the highest.
Class A water has the most reuse potential and the least restrictions on its use. The major
difference between Class A reclaimed water and the other classes is that Class A water is filtered
and water in the other classes is not. Please refer to the definitions.
To ensure the product is safe, international regulations require the water be continuously and
reliably treated. In order to comply with this requirement, redundant facilities are required in the
treatment process. This is one of the primary differences between a wastewater treatment facility
and a water reclamation facility. For every unit treatment process, a water reclamation facility
requires a fully operational and functional backup component. Even though Class A reclaimed
water will meet most drinking-water standards for raw water, human consumption is not
permitted. Bodily contact with Class A reclaimed water, however, is permitted.
The reuse standards describe allowable direct beneficial reuses of reclaimed wastewater, and the
required level of treatment appropriate for each use. The standards require treatment and
disinfection that is over and above what most conventional wastewater treatment facilities are
required to provide. The standards also require automated alarms, redundancy of treatment units,
emergency storage and stringent operator training and certification to meet the reliability criteria.
Table 3.1: Water quality parameter
Total
suspended
Solids (TSS)
Biochemical
Oxygen
Demand (BOD)
Requirement of District Cooling
2-5 mg/l
2-5 mg/l
Guaranteed Outlet from SBR plant
10 mg/l
10 mg/l
Expected Outlet from SBR plant
5 mg/l
5 mg/l
Proposed outlet from Tertiary Filtration
2 mg/l
2 mg/l
The guaranteed outlet parameters from the SBR plant is BOD: 10mg/l and TSS: 10 mg/l. Our
expected outlet parameters are BOD: 5 mg/l and TSS: 5 mg/l. However, the introduction of
tertiary filtration will reduce the BOD to 2 mg/l and TSS to 2 mg/l. The larger reduction in BOD
and TSS from the treatment plant will result in reduction of Biocide dosage by District cooling
company. The improved quality gives us the opportunity to charge higher amount from District
cooling company.
_____________________________________________________________________ 41

3.3.1 Definitions for Reclaimed Water use
A list of commonly used terms to describe reclaimed water, its uses, classifications, and related
processes, is provided here. The list is intended to help establish a level of understanding in this
relatively new and still developing field.
Approved use area is a site with well defined boundaries, designated in a user permit issued by
the agency to receive reclaimed water for an approved use, and in conformance with regulations
of all applicable regulatory agencies.
Class A reclaimed water means reclaimed water that, at a minimum, is at all times an oxidized,
coagulated, filtered, disinfected wastewater. The wastewater shall be considered adequately
disinfected if the median number of total coliform organisms in the wastewater after disinfection
does not exceed 2.2 per 100 milliliters, as determined from the bacteriological results of the last
seven days for which analyses have been completed, and the number of total coliform organisms
does not exceed 23 per 100 milliliters in any sample..
Class B reclaimed water means reclaimed water that, at a minimum, is at all times an oxidized,
disinfected wastewater. The wastewater shall be considered adequately disinfected if the
median number of total coliform organisms in the wastewater after disinfection does not exceed
2.2 per 100 milliliters, as determined from the bacteriological results of the last seven days for
which analyses have been completed, and the number of total coliform organisms does not
exceed 23 per 100 milliliters in any sample.
Class C reclaimed water means reclaimed water that, at a minimum, is at all times an oxidized,
23 per 100 milliliters, as determined from the bacteriological results of the last seven days for
which analyses have been completed, and the number of total coliform organisms does not
exceed 240 per 100 milliliters in any sample.
Class D reclaimed water means reclaimed water that, at a minimum, is at all times an oxidized,
240 per 100 milliliters, as determined from the bacteriological results of the last seven days for
which analyses have been completed.
Direct beneficial use means the use of reclaimed water that has been transported from the point
of production to the point of use without an intervening discharge to the waters of the state for a
beneficial purpose.
_____________________________________________________________________ 42

In our case, the major reuse of the recycled water i.e. cooling and chilling purposes for the
recycling water, falls under Class A reclaimed water- i.e. oxidized, coagulated, filtered, disinfected
wastewater. To achieve the Direct Beneficial use, we need tertiary treatment incorporating
coagulation, flocculation, filtration and disinfection..
What differentiates a water reclamation facility from a wastewater treatment facility is the
reclamation facility is required to have additional reliability and redundancy features. These
features ensure that the water is being adequately and reliably treated so that, as a result of that
treatment, it is suitable for a direct beneficial use.
3.4. Treatment Schemes considered
This section summarizes the treatment schemes and the unit processes for the tertiary treatment
of waste water. It consists of 2 parts, the treatment prior to filtration and the filtration unit.
1) Treatment prior to filtration
The unit processes involved are
Coagulation, Flocculation and Sedimentation
2) Filtration
The different types of filtration units available for the treatment of biologically treated waste water
up to our desired standards are described here and are as follows
Gravity Filters
Pressure Filtration
Continuous Backwashing Counter-Current Upflow Filters ( Dynasand Filters)
Cloth Media Systems
Micro Fiber Technology
Suction Scanning Technology- Amiad Technology
Membrane Filtration(UF)
3.4.1 Coagulation, Flocculation and Sedimentation

In order to achieve efficient virus removal or inactivation in tertiary treatment, two major criteria
must be met:
(1) The effluent must be low in suspended solids and turbidity prior to disinfection to prevent
shielding of viruses and chlorine demand.
(2) Sufficient disinfectant must be applied.
The WRR Standards require chemical coagulation followed by filtration and disinfection to
produce water suitable for Class A uses from an oxidized, secondary wastewater effluent.
Secondary effluent achieves a monthly average total suspended solids concentration of 30 mg/L
or lower. In our case, the ideally treated effluent from the SBR Plant will have 10mg/l of TSS.
_____________________________________________________________________ 43

Coagulation and media filtration must further reduce solids concentrations to meet the Class A
monthly average turbidity maximum of 2 NTU before disinfection. The sequencing of upstream
treatment units and processes, fluid viscosity, settling behavior, and effective particle size all
influence the effectiveness of particle removal. Since particles may interfere with disinfection
effectiveness, removal is particularly important for uses with high public contact. To achieve these
limits, standard design uses one of three types of treatment trains:
(1) Conventional filtration refers to sequential coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation units
before filtration.
(2) Direct filtration refers to coagulation/flocculation units directly upstream of filtration units
when flocculation occurs before the water reaches filtering media.
(3) In-line filtration, sometimes considered as a version of the direct filtration, is a treatment
process that includes coagulant addition, rapid mixing and filtration, with flocculation occurring
within the filter, requires a turbidity filter influent consistently below 5 NTU to achieve the 2 NTU
requirements..
This section provides criteria for the most common types of chemical coagulation, flocculation,
sedimentation and filtration processes. Disinfection is covered separately under this report.
3.4.1.1 Coagulation
Coagulation, the destabilization and agglomeration of colloidal particles brought about by the
addition of a chemical reagent or coagulant, must occur for effective particle removal. The type of
coagulation and mixing processes are determined to use early in the design, based on water
chemistry, pilot studies and experience.
3.4.1.1.1. Coagulant Dosing and Storage
Coagulation design must include the following:
Provisions for multiple coagulants with separate injection points for each coagulant.
Provisions for chemical pH control.
Identification of the injection point for caustic soda or lime upstream of the coagulant addition.
Contact times and the order of introduction of multiple chemicals
Pilot studies or jar tests.
Coagulation occurs either by:
A. Charge Neutralization
Most colloidal particles in water have negative surface charges (zeta potential). Highly charged
colloids will remain discrete, dispersed, and in suspension. Reducing or eliminating the charge
_____________________________________________________________________ 44

has the opposite effect the particles collide and form larger, easier to remove particles. Charge
neutralization typically:
Works at low chemical dosages producing small, destabilized pinpoint floc.
Is ideal for treating low turbidity, low alkalinity effluent.
Is followed by direct filtration or in-line filtration.
Charge neutralization reactions happen in fractions of a second.
Design must disperse the chemical quickly and use rapid, high intensity mixing to allow achieving
maximum contact between coagulant and particles in the water within the minimum time. Charge
neutralization depends on the water chemistry, type of coagulant, water temperature, and
particles size and concentration in the water. With alum, charge neutralization typically occurs in
a pH range of 3 to 5 standard units and chemical dosages less than 20 mg/L For very low
turbidity water, organic polymers are not effective as primary coagulants. Although coagulation by
organic polymers occurs by charge neutralization, chemical reactions are slower (between 2 and
10 seconds) than with inorganic salts and dependant on the water temperature and alkalinity.
Successful use of organic polymers as the primary coagulant may require a conventional filtration
process train or extended contact time for the flocculation.
B. Sweep Coagulation
For sweep coagulation, design sufficiently high coagulant concentrations to cause precipitation of
a metal hydroxide. Since reactions take between 1 and 10 seconds, instantaneous chemical
dispersion and high intensity mixing are not as critical for this type of coagulation.
Sweep coagulation is typically:
Suitable for treating low or high turbidity, high alkalinity waters.
Followed by conventional filtration process trains.
For alum, sweep coagulation occurs with chemical dosages > 20mg/L and a pH range of 6-9
standard units.
Table 3.2 Lists the most common coagulants and representative dosing rates.
Representative Coagulant
Dosing Rate
Alum
30 to 150 ppm
Polyaluminum chloride (PaCl)
15 to 75 ppm
Ferric Chloride
15 to 75 ppm
Polymers
0.05 to 2 ppm
Representative Coagulant Dosing Rate
3.4.1.1.2. Jar Testing

Operators use jar testing as a process control and operation optimization tool for determining the
optimal dosage of chemicals. Correct chemical dosing is particularly important in reaching the 2
NTU or less turbidity levels required for Class A reclaimed water. Underdosing will not remove
_____________________________________________________________________ 45

charge reversal and restabilization of the suspended colloids. Overdosing of anionic polymers
may also cause settling problems since they are less dense than water. The optimal dose and
order of chemical use depends upon factors such as:
Variation in water quality
Concentration of metals
Chelants and complexing agents in solution
Turbidity
Alkalinity
pH
Temperature
Viscosity (which is temperature dependent)
Residual oxidizers present
Other properties of the effluent
Jar testing should follow the manufacturers protocols and test a range of doses and pH values. A
series of several replicates usually provides enough data to determine which coagulant and at
what dose, contact time, and pH value produces optimal removal of colloids. Most jar testing
devices test 6 jars at once. This allows simultaneous comparison either visually or by
turbidimeter.
Although some facilities require infrequent adjustments, this manual recommends weekly jar
testing for most Class A reclaimed water facilities. Facilities with wide variations in influent quality,
operating near design limits or experiencing operational difficulties may benefit from daily or more
frequent testing. Factors to consider in determining jar-testing frequency or adding other process
control tests such as a particle counter include:
How well the jar test simulates the treatment process.
The range of water quality conditions occurring in the treatment system.
Coagulants available.
The usable range of coagulant concentration.
The pH range.
Whether the coagulants used alter the pH of the solution.
Duration of the rapid mix
Whether a facility uses an inline mixer or a mixing tank.
Evidence of flocs breaking up.
If there a minimum or maximum floc size required.
Settling time in relation to the existing plant design.
Evidence of hindered settling.
_____________________________________________________________________ 46

A more complete laboratory analysis may use particle counters to identify particles in specific size
bands and produce before and after data showing the size and percentage removal of the
particles. Particle counters extend the sensitivity of particle detection beyond that achievable with
turbidimeters. The sensitivity of the particle counter can detect the effects on effluent quality due
to operational procedures, chemical dosage and type, and parametric changes. As a result,
simple and affordable means of filtration enhancement can often be evaluated for their
effectiveness before considering more complicated and expensive ones.
3.4.1.1.3. Rapid Mixing
Proper chemical mixing (also called flash or rapid mixing) is fundamental to satisfactory
coagulation. The physical process of dispersing chemical additives into the effluent stream
typically takes place either in a mechanical mixing tank or with an in-line mixing device. Additional
design information on these units follows below.
Asano, (1998) lists hydraulic detention time at peak hour flow as the controlling design criteria for
rapid mixing units. Hydraulic detention time is typically 1.0 second with a range of 0.5-5 seconds.
A. Mechanical Mixing
Mechanical rapid mixing units are effective for the addition of coagulants prior to flocculation.
Design criteria include the following:
Average rapid mix detention periods not exceeding 30 seconds.
A spare motor when only a single mechanical mixer is used.
Cleaning and draining of the rapid mix basin.
According to Metcalf and Eddy, (Tchobanoglous et al., 2003) applied mixing energy should
generally achieve an average velocity gradient (G) value in the range of 1500 sec-1 to 6000 sec-1
for rapid mixing prior to flocculation. The design engineer should submit the design basis for the
G selected, considering the chemicals, water temperature, color and other related parameters.
In design calculations, G is the square root of the power input (P) divided by the product of
dynamic viscosity () and the effective volume (V).
(1) Effective volume (V) indicates the contact time provided in the process. This is not the
physical dimensions of the vessel. Effective volume depends on tank inlet and outlet locations
and conditions, internal baffling, and the type of mixing.
(a) Rectangular, unbaffled contact tanks often provide effective volumes of 10 percent to 15
percent of the physical volume.
(b) The effective volume, often identified as a baffling factor, is expressed as a proportion [i.e., 0.1
to 0.15] or hydraulic efficiency of the tank expressed as a percentage of the physical volume [i.e.,
10 percent to 15 percent].
(2) The dynamic viscosity () varies with temperature and calculations should address the
expected range.
_____________________________________________________________________ 47

B. In-line Mixers
Static in-line mixers use a circuitous path through fixed blades or chambers to achieve rapid
mixing. Dynamic in-line mixers use powered impellers. Mixing generally occurs within 1 second.
Use manufacturers recommendations and/or studies for static mixer design. Provide for cleaning
or removing in-line mixer components without excavation.
3.4.1.2 Flocculation
Flocculation is a process of gentle stirring and mixing to enhance contact of destabilized particles
and to build floc particles of optimum size, density, and strength for removal through settling or
filtration. Polymeric flocculant aids may improve floc size and settling rates. Floc particles remain
fragile and the shear force of mixing can break them easily .For this reason, flocculation requires
adequate detention time (t) at low velocity gradients (G), making Gt the basic design parameter.
Flocculation units vary widely and design may provide for flocculation:
Within plant piping followed by sedimentation or filtration units.
Directly within the filtration process units.
In separate flocculation basins.
Flocculation basin design must include baffling to minimize short-circuiting.
Typical design values for flocculation basins include:
Hydraulic detention time (t) of 20 minutes with a range from 10-30 minutes.
Velocity gradient (G) of 40 sec-1 with a range from 20 to 100 sec-1.
Typical mixing energy-detention time (Gt) of 50,000 with a range of 20,000 to 150,000.
3.4.1.2.1 Ballasted Flocculation
Ballasted flocculation comprises the addition of particles (microsand) in a clarifier or flocculation
basin ahead of a clarifier to enhance the settleability of the solids in a wastewater stream. The
technology has been applied in water treatment on a limited but very successful basis, and is
becoming increasingly popular. The main advantages of ballasted flocculation include
significantly reduced footprints compared to conventional settling processes and the potential for
reduced chemical dosages when chemicals are required for flocculation and coagulation.
A. Design Considerations for Ballasted Flocculation
Design considerations are similar to those for conventional settling and tertiary clarification,
including:
Loading rates. Ballasted flocculation can achieve very high loading rates on a unit process
basis. Rates of 10,000 to 40,000 gpd/sf have been reported.
Solids removal efficiency. Removals of up to 80 percent or more have been reported.
_____________________________________________________________________ 48

Chemical requirements. Ballasted flocculation requires the addition of a coagulant (alum, ferric
chloride, ferrous sulfate, etc.) and coagulant aid (polymer) in addition to the particle introduced to
enhance settling.
3.4.1.3 Sedimentation
Reclaimed water process design may include sedimentation units following coagulation or
flocculation unit processes. This is standard practice in conventional potable water treatment.
Critical sedimentation design parameters include depth, detention times, surface area, and
overflow rates. Units may operate in a variety of configurations including horizontal flow, upflow,
or upflow solids-contact. Upflow solids-contact units combine chemical mixing, flocculation, and
up-flow sedimentation in a single unit. Hydraulic loading rate during peak hour flow average 800
gal/ft2-d for conventional settling. High-rate clarification units followed by tube or plate settlers
may have much higher overflow rates. Reclaimed water facility design may consider using
chemical coagulation prior to secondary clarifiers designed similarly to CEP units. This may
reduce chemical costs and aid in sludge dewatering. However, Class A reclaimed water design
must still include design provisions for coagulant addition after secondary clarification. In general,
coagulants are necessary after secondary clarification when the filter influent turbidity exceeds 5
NTU for more than 15 minutes. Class A water reclamation facilities using this design, must install
continuous on-line turbidimeters prior to filtration units
Different Sedimentation Units
3.4.1.3.1 Conventional Clariflocculator
Clariflocculator unit is a combination of both flocculation and clarification in a single tank. This unit
is consisting of concentric circular compartments. The inner compartment is the flocculation
chamber and the outer compartment is the clarifier. The chemically dosed water is uniformly
distributed over the surface of the flocculation compartment for effective utilization of the available
volume for flocculation. The specially designed flocculating paddles enhance flocculation of the
feed solids. As a heavy particles settle to the bottom, the liquid flows radially outward and upward
and the clarified liquid is discharged over a peripheral weir into the peripheral launder. The
deposited sludge is raked to the bottom near the central pocket from which it can be easily
discharged.
_____________________________________________________________________ 49

Both central driven and peripheral driven mechanisms are available in the manufacturing range.
They can also be equipped with scum removal system. These units are widely used in potable
water treatment and tertiary wastewater treatment plants. The
hydraulic loading rate for the clariflocculator is 25-45
m3/m2/day.
Fig 3.2: Clariflocculator
3.4.1.3.2 Tube Settler
Tube settlers increase the settling capacity of circular clarifiers
and/or rectangular sedimentation basins by reducing the vertical distance a floc particle must
settle before agglomerating to form larger particles.
Fig 3.3: Principle of Tube Settlers

Tube settlers use multiple tubular channels sloped at an angle of 60 and adjacent to each other,
which combine to form an increased effective settling area. This provides for a particle settling
depth that is significantly less than the settling depth of a conventional clarifier, reducing settling
times.
Tube settlers capture the settleable fine floc that escapes the clarification zone beneath the tube
settlers and allows the larger floc to travel to the tank bottom in a more settleable form. The tube
settlers channel collects solids into a compact mass which promotes the solids to slide down the
tube
_____________________________________________________________________ 50
Fig 3.4: Tube Settlers vs conventional Settling

Tube Settler System design is based on these three criteria:
Flow -- gpm (m/hr) : Required hydraulic flow capacity through the basin
Area -- ft2 (m2) : Plan area of tank for tube settlers.
Design Application Rate: Flow/Area of 1.5 to 3.5 gpm/ft2 (3.66 to 8.56 m/hr)
Tube settlers handle maximum application rates from 2.5 to 4.5 gpm/ft2 (6.11 to 11.00 m/hr).
The recommended application rate for design purposes is 1.5 to 3.5 gpm/ft2 (3.66 to 8.56 m/hr).
This design application rate should be verified in accordance with local design standards for
allowable flows, application rates, etc. Consideration of the influent water chemistry, settleability,
and basin hydraulics should also play a role in selecting the proper tubes.
_____________________________________________________________________ 51

Table 3.3 : Selection of tubes for tube settler
TYPICAL
VERTICAL
TUBE
DESIGN
HEIGHT
LENGTH**
APPLICATION
RATE
20.00"
23.09"
1.50 gpm/ft2
(508mm)
(586mm)
(3.66 m/hr)
24.00"
27.71"
2.00 gpm/ft2***
(610mm)
(704mm)
(4.89 m/hr)
30.00"
34.64"
2.50 gpm/ft2
(762mm)
(880mm)
(6.11 m/hr)
36.00"
41.57"
3.00 gpm/ft2
(914mm)
(1056mm)
(7.33 m/hr)
40.00"
46.19"
3.50 gpm/ft2
(1016mm)
(1173mm)
(8.56 m/hr)
41.00"
47.34"
3.50 gpm/ft2
(1041mm)
(1202mm)
(8.56 m/hr)
EQUIVALENT
SETTLING
AREA
10.3 ft2/ft
12.3 ft2/ft
15.4 ft2/ft
18.5 ft2/ft
20.5 ft2/ft
21.0 ft2/ft
3.4.1.3.3 Inclined Plate Settler

The Inclined Plate Settler (IPS) consists of two main components, the upper tank containing the
lamella plates inclined at 55 and the lower conical or cylindrical sludge tank. The feed for the IPS
enters through vertical chambers on either side of the lamella packs and passes into each plate
gap through slotted feed ports. Clarification takes place above the suspension inlet so there is no
mixing of the clarified fluid with the incoming feed. Above each pack is a full-length overflow
launder fitted with throttling holes to create a slight hydraulic back pressure on the incoming feed
stream. This method of feed control guarantees equal distribution to all lamella chambers with
minimum turbulence at the entry points. The solids settle onto and slide down each lamella plate
to the sludge tank where the solids are further thickened and compressed with the assistance of
the raking system.
_____________________________________________________________________ 52
1. Feed inlet
2. Flocculation chamber
3. Lamella plate packs
4. Overflow launders
5. Overflow outlet
6. Sludge hopper
7. Underflow outlet
8. Rake with drive unit
9. Flocculation agitator
Fig 3.5 Components of the Inclined Plate Settler
Fig 3.6 Structure from outside
Fig 3.7 Plate Sections
_____________________________________________________________________ 53

3.4.1.3.4 Technical Comparison of Options for Sedimentation
Table 3.5: Technical comparison of Settling Options

Sedimentation
Advantages
Disadvantages
Remarks
Conventional
Conventional method
Large footprint
Impractical option as
Clariflocculators
Ease for getting
Time consuming
the footprint required
Option
contractors
concrete
is unaffordable
construction
Area = 700 sqM
Tube Settlers
Clarifiers/basins
If ABS is used, it is
The best option due
equipped with tube
inflammable
to its flexibility, less
settlers can operate at 2
material
settling depth and
to 4 times the
Cleaning of tubes
conventional
light weight.
needed at regular
Light weight PVC/ABS
intervals.
tubes can be easily

supported
Can be installed at any
concrete structure also
Footprint = 400 Sqm
Inclined Plate
Separation
Clarifiers/basins
Heavier than tube
More cost for civil
equipped with plate
settlers, so sturdy
structure as the
settlers can operate at 2
structure is
plates need heavier
to 4 times the
required
structure to be
conventional.
supported
Modular structure
Can be installed at any
concrete structure also
Footprint = 400 Sqm
3.4.1.3.5 Recommended option for Sedimentation

Tube settlers are the best option for the sedimentation as they can be placed in other structures
and the tubes can be designed as per the tank sizes. The inflow do not necessary involve
pumping. The PVC material is easy to get. Moreover, tube settler is the ongoing practice in water
and waste water sector at present in India.
_____________________________________________________________________ 54

However, in our case , as the TSS and BOD load is very less , we may not need coagulation,
flocculation and sedimentation units. Instead, we can directly go for filtration. In the later stage,
when clarification is needed, we can easily place the tube settlers ( due to their light weight and
flexibility in sizes) in the existing concrete structures like post-equalization tank after the SBR
tank.
3.4.2 Filtration
The unit treatment processes in this section include media and membrane filtration. State
standards require filtration for Class A or higher reclaimed water uses. Filtration minimizes
virus and pathogen carryover to the disinfection process. Turbidity indicates filtration
effectiveness. When filtration is required for reclamation or reuse of wastewater, state standards
also require the addition of coagulants before filtration. The 2004 Ten State Standards
recommend filters to reliably obtain effluent concentrations less than 20 mg/L or phosphorus
concentrations below 1 mg/L.
This section describes the general considerations for using filtration technologies for liquid stream
wastewater treatment. Although the most common application of filtration for advanced
wastewater treatment is suspended solids removal (algae and biological floc), filter uses include
removal of BOD, nutrients, metals, inorganic ions, and complex synthetic organic compounds.
.
3.4.2.1 Functions of Filtration
3.4.2.1.1 Separation of Solids from Water
The fundamental purpose of filtration media (granular and fine screens) is to separate solids from
the liquid stream flow and also to be cleaned (backwashed) efficiently. Selecting the proper
filtration media with reliable backwash abilities is the most important step in the design of a filter.
Often several possible filter types may be suitable for a given filtration application.
3.4.2.2.2. BOD Removal
Filtration may also increase BOD removal. The applications for BOD removal are similar to those
for solids removal. However, it is important to emphasize that filtration does not reliably remove
soluble BOD. Only nonsoluble, and in some cases colloidal, BOD can be removed.
Typical applications for BOD removal by filtration include:
Primary effluent filtration.
Tertiary BOD removal following secondary treatment for enhanced removal of colloidal and
nonsoluble BOD.
In our case, we are looking forward for the Tertiary BOD removal.
_____________________________________________________________________ 55

3.4.2.2.3 Nutrient/ Metals Removal
Filtration processes remove chemically precipitated phosphorus and, in some cases, chemically
precipitated metals. Metals such as copper, nickel, chromium, and lead may also be precipitated
ahead of filters and removed in the filters. This is an unusual practice for municipal wastewater
treatment plants; however, it may be appropriate where industrial wastewater is treated
separately from municipal wastewater.
3.4.2.3 Types of Filtration
3.4.2.3.1 Media Filtration
Upstream treatment processes (coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation) influence the ability of
media filtration to produce an effluent meeting an average turbidity below 2 NTU and a maximum
turbidity of 5 NTU prior to disinfection. Class A reclaimed water must meet this requirement at all
times.
Media Considerations
The following discussions outline the main design issues to be considered for selection and
design of the media. Filter design should follow guidelines in CPHEEO manual for Water Supply
& Treatment, other IS/ BS/ ASCE standards and manufacturers recommendations. Critical
parameters generally include porosity and filter depth.
A. Characterizing Solids and Feed Water
The solids contained in water and wastewater effluents typically have widely varying physical
characteristics and concentrations. The filter media must be capable of functioning efficiently and
reliably at all anticipated loading rates and for all different types of solids that need to be
removed. Solids typically include biological floc, algae, chemical floc, and untreated wastewater
solids. Usually upstream processes (primary and/or secondary treatment) provide feed water to
the filter. Seasonal changes in water conductivity, etc. can have a significant affect on filter
performance. Solids characteristics such as floc size and strength may also change seasonally
and should be defined during design. It is recommended that the water and solids characteristics
(rate, concentration, composition, etc.) of the flow stream be defined on a monthly basis (or as
otherwise necessary) and that possible peak loading conditions be identified.
Other feed water characteristics that may be detrimental to specific filter media should also be
identified. Chemicals, inorganic precipitates, or particles (for example ozone, calcium carbonate,
or clay, respectively) may damage or clog certain media and should be identified and considered
in media selection.
_____________________________________________________________________ 56

B. Filtration Mechanisms
After defining the full range of filter feed water characteristics as outlined above, the filtration
mechanism(s) that would be suitable for a specific filter application can be identified. Filter media
(granular and microscreens) may remove solids from the liquid stream by one or more of the
following:
Straining. Based on the mechanical force and chance contact of the media with the solids and
that the solid (particle or floc) size is larger than openings in the media. Particles smaller than the
pore size may also be strained if multiple particles bridge the pore opening. This is the principal
mechanism for microscreen (surface) filtration.
Nonstraining. Based on other forces that act upon the solid particles; includes interception,
adhesion, attachment, adsorption, electrostatic, sedimentation, and flocculation. These
mechanisms are predominantly in granular media filters.
C. Solids Capture
Utilizing one or more of the solids removal mechanisms described above, filtration media will
accumulate the solid particles either on a surface layer (microscreens or slow sand filters) or
within the depth of the bed (conventional or rapid sand filters). Some filters (such as a pulsed
bed) may actually use both methods of solids capture. Most filters have a limitation for the rate at
which solids can be applied. That rate may be expressed in terms of TSS (mg/l), turbidity (NTU),
BOD-particulate (mg/l), or other constituent concentration. The filter media will also have a
maximum capacity for holding a given volume (or mass) of solids. Proper assessment of this
factor is important in order to have reasonable backwash operations. Misapplication of this factor
would likely result in excessive backwash frequency, excessive backwash water use, reduced
plant capacity, and high operating costs. Usually historical data, pilot tests, or manufacturers
recommendations can confirm which type of filter media would be appropriate.
D. Filter Media
A wide variety of media is used for filters, as follows:
Granular media. Sand, anthracite, granular activated carbon, garnet, ilmenite, gravel. These
media are usually chosen for their particular grain size and specific density and are contained in a
vessel or tank that creates a bed depth ranging from 11 to 72 inches. Monomedia is the use of
one kind, density, and size of granular media. Dual or multimedia is the use of two or more kinds,
densities, and sizes of granular media.
Microscreens. Metal screens, wire cloth, metal fiber, natural fiber or fabric, synthetic fiber or
fabric, paper, plastic, fiberglass. These media are chosen for their specific opening size and are
two-dimensional (flat surfaces).
Other. Diatomaceous earth, synthetic (fuzzy balls), resin beads (charged and uncharged).
_____________________________________________________________________ 57

Selecting the appropriate media (and filter type) depends on the treatment objectives and
consideration of the other factors presented in this section
3.4.2.3.2 Types of Media Filters
3.4.2.3.2.1. Gravity Filters
Granular medium, Gravity filters are open to atmospheric pressure and rely only on hydrostatic
pressure (due to feed water depth) to produce the driving force to move the water through the
media. The optimum design should seek to achieve an economic combination of filter size, head
loss, and run length.
The direction of flow through the media may be up, down, or radial.
Backwash methods can be batch or continuous.
Gravity granular media filters are normally used for large installations.
The granular media may be mono-, dual- or multimedia.
Terminal head loss is usually limited to 8 or 9 feet and may be much less for automatic
backwash filters.
A typical Granular Medium Gravity Filter consists of an open watertight concrete chamber filled
with a layer of sand (single medium) or anthracite and sand (dual media), over a support layer of
gravel. An underdrain system, provided to collect and distribute filtered water is provided at the
base of the chamber. The underdrain system also serves to distribute backwash water uniformly
over the bed. This system is made up of perforated laterals pipes uniformly spaced parallel to the
width of the chamber draining half of the filter bed towards a central manifold.
The equipment involved in a gravity filtration system includes: Filter chambers, Granular media
such as sand and anthracite and gravel support, Underdrain collection system, Sluice gates,
Feed water distribution trough, Loss of Head sensor, Valves and Piping.
The feed water is distributed uniformly over the filter bed via a trough. The filtration cycle is down
flow meaning feed water percolates downwards with the aid of gravity through the porous filter
medium. Suspended solids in turn are removed from the feed water by several mechanisms such
as straining, sedimentation, interception and adhesion all of which occur within the media.
The most common filter medium used the world over is sand since it is porous, chemically stable
consisting of a mixture of silica and garnet. Sand is cheap, inert, durable, and widely available. It
has been extensively tested and has been found to give excellent results. Besides sand other
media usually used in combination with it is anthracite. Use of dual media such as sand and
anthracite allows operation of the system at higher filtration rates with superior quality of filtered
water as compared to using sand alone. Moreover, since anthracite is carbon based it is also
_____________________________________________________________________ 58

capable of adsorbing dissolved contaminants if present in the feed water. Design information
primarily used for the sizing sand filters is presented below.
Table 1.4 Sizing sand filters used
Media
Sand
Specific Gravity
2.55 to 2.65
Porosity
0.40 to 0.46
Sphericity
0.75 to 0.85
Depth of bed
180 to 360 mm
Effective size
0.4 to 0.8 mm
Uniformity Coefficient
1.2 to 1.6
Filtration Rate
4.8 to 6 m3/m2/hr
Broadly speaking granular medium filters are designed to handle an influent turbidity load ranging
from 3 to 15 NTU (around 10 to 50 mg/l suspended solids). Typical feed waters to filters usually
have a turbidity ranging between 5 to 7 NTU. It has been established from large scale data
collection studies from medium sized to large capacity plants that filters treating 5 to 7 NTU
turbidity water typically produce filtered water with 2 NTU turbidity. Higher turbidity feed waters
also produce-filtered water up to 2 NTU but with addition of chemical flocculent.
Fig 3.8 : Rapid Gravity Filters
_____________________________________________________________________ 59

Filter Backwashing
Backwashing is used to clean filter media and restore its initial capacity to remove particulate
matter from water. As particles collect on the surface or within the filter media, pressure increases
to maintain filtration capacity. These higher pressures push more accumulated particles through
the filter resulting in degraded filtrate quality. Some filters backwash continuously. Other filters
backwash at pre-determined set-points.
A filter can function efficiently only if the backwashing system cleans the media thoroughly and
takes full advantage of the solids storage capacity. A properly designed and operated filter should
reach the backwash stage when the captured solids just begin to emerge in the effluent and
simultaneously an upper limit of head loss across the media is reached. There are many
methodologies and kinds of equipment for controlling and backwashing filter media, and they are
typically designed to be compatible with the particular media type and solids storage location.
Backwash methods are generally divided into two categories: batch and continuous. Batch
backwashing of a granular media filter requires a filter cell (either a discrete portion or a unit of
several in service) be removed from duty, stopping the feed water flow, initiating a washwater
stream (with or without air agitation) to expand the granular media bed, dislodging the solids from
the media, carrying them away, and then restoring the filter cell back to service. Some surface
media (microscreens) may also have similar batch backwash methods. Batch backwashed filters
generally depend on control and instrumentation systems that monitor solids breakthrough and
terminal head loss. Continuous backwashing systems for granular media filters utilize
mechanisms that constantly remove a small portion of the dirty media, process it through a
cleaning device, carry away the solids, and return the clean media to the filter bed. Because the
feed water flow is not interrupted and backwashing is occurring constantly, there is no need to
oversize the total filter design capacity. Continuous backwashed filters typically do not have
solids breakthrough or terminal head loss. Most surface media (microscreens) use a continuous
backwash method. The factors to be considered when selecting a filter system:
Appurtenant support equipment.
Support system components needed for bed expansion, surface washing, and/or air scour
systems typically include water pumps, air compressors, and tanks. Space for such equipment
with related piping and controls may occupy a significant amount of site area and usually requires
a building for protection from weather. Equipment capacity and standby units must be selected for
proper backwashing performance.
_____________________________________________________________________ 60

Automated equipment and controls.
Motor-operated
valves,
solenoids,
traveling
bridge
motors,
and
drives
and
other
electromechanical devices must be reliable and located for easy inspection and service.
In-bed piping and nozzles.
All piping and nozzles associated with surface washing or subsurface agitation devices should
be made of corrosion-resistant materials and securely mounted. It is difficult to inspect and repair
such items once they are placed into service.
Water quality monitoring.
Turbidimeters should be located for reliable operation, easy inspection, and cleaning. This is
especially important if they are part of an automatic control function used to pace chemical feed
rates, or automatically trigger backwash cycles, alarms, or system shutdowns.
Flow meters.
Flow meters should be included on the backwash system to measure backwash water and air
scour flow rates. Flow meters should be selected for reliable operation and located for easy
inspection and service.
Coordination with Plant Hydraulic Profile
A gravity filter to be carefully integrated with the hydraulic profile of the total plant to avoid
interference with other upstream and downstream process units.
Filtrate bypass channels or piping (with valves as necessary) to be provided in order to waste or
recirculate inferior filtrate during initial startup, upsets, or other unusual operating periods.
Feed water for the gravity filters is usually pumped from the preceding process unit. Variable
speed pumps can provide the necessary flexibility to coordinate with variations in other plant flow
rates.
Production Rate and Head Loss Considerations
Rate of flow through gravity filters can be variable or continuous.
Gravity granular media filters typically require from 12 to 48 inches of hydraulic head to produce
the driving force necessary for economic operation. Some filters may operate with more head,
perhaps up to 10 feet, depending on the control scheme, type of solids, and specific media
characteristics.
Flow equalization should be considered to minimize the adverse impacts of peak flows on filter
hydraulics.
Production (loading) rate is generally defined as the flow rate over the bed surface area: gpm/sf.
Normally this ranges from 2 to 5 gpm/sf, however higher loading rates are possible (up to 10 or
12 gpm/sf) given sufficient study to verify proper performance.
_____________________________________________________________________ 61

Filters are often assessed in terms of their production efficiency or effective filtration rate. In
simplified terms, this is the ratio of the volume of filtered water divided by the volume of backwash
water for a given run period or through a unit area of filter. If the time to breakthrough and the
time to terminal head loss are maximized, and occur simultaneously, the filter would achieve
maximum production efficiency.
Control Considerations
There are two basic types of filter control schemes that vary primarily in the manner in which the
flow and driving force (influent head) is applied across the media:
(1) Constant rate filtration uses a flow meter and modulating valve or flow control valve to
maintain a constant flow rate to any given filter. This results in a variable water level above the
filter media which rises as the filter begins to retain solids. When a filter reaches a maximum
influent head, the backwash cycle is initiated.
Disadvantages of constant rate filtration are (1) higher capital costs due to needed structural
configurations between the influent and effluent, and (2) higher maintenance costs due to
complexity of the flow rate control devices.
(2) Variable declining rate filtration uses a common influent header or channel, operating at
nearly constant head to all filters so that the cleaner filters receive more flow than the dirtier
filters. The advantages of this system are that the head needed for operation is less and the
adverse effects of removing a unit for backwashing are minimal. Each filter has a flow restricting
device (usually an orifice plate) on the effluent conduit to limit maximum flow. This type of
operation could conceivably result in an event in which all filters need to backwash
simultaneously. Controls should be provided to preclude this. In addition, manufacturers of filter
equipment have developed some similar variations on the above control systems that provide
improved performance, flexibility, and reliability.
3.4.2.3.2.2. Pressure Filtration
A. General
Pressure filters utilize enclosed vessels that contain the filter media and force feed water through
the media with pumps. The direction of flow through the media bed may be up, down, or radial.
Backwash methods can be batch or continuous. Pressure filters are normally used for small
installations, have higher energy requirements, and are mechanically somewhat complex.
_____________________________________________________________________ 62

B. Coordination with Plant Hydraulic Profile
Because pressure filters utilize enclosed vessels and pumps, the systems offer great flexibility
within a plant hydraulic profile and can be placed at virtually any convenient location or elevation.
The designer may be able to take advantage of the filtrate residual pressure to convey it to
remote clearwells or reservoirs.
C. Production Rate and Head Loss Considerations
Production (loading) rate is generally defined as the flow rate over the bed surface area: gpm/sf.
Normally this ranges from 5 to 12 gpm/sf; however, higher loading rates are possible after
sufficient study to verify proper performance.
Head loss is generally not a controlling factor in operation of pressure filters. Instead, backwash
is usually initiated based upon solids breakthrough, which means the full depth of the bed has
been filled with accumulated solids. The filter feed pumps must be selected with ample head and
capacity to fully utilize the solids storage capacity of the media.
D. Backwashing of Pressure Filters
Backwashing of pressure filters is usually initiated based upon solids breakthrough, which
means the full depth of the bed has been filled with accumulated solids. However, it is
recommended that each online filter unit undergo at least one backwash cycle per day in order to
prevent mudball formation and to purge grease and biological growths.
During the backwashing cycle, that filter unit is offline and the other online units must handle all
of the plant flow.
E. Control Considerations
Pressure filters are almost always a packaged system that has a pre-engineered control
system. Such systems may have some optional operating modes, but generally lack potential for
optimization and flexibility.
Pressure filters typically utilize many motor-operated valves, instruments, and control devices to
accomplish automatic operation of production and backwash cycles.
3.4.2.3.2.3. Continuous Backwashing Counter-Current Upflow Filters (Dynasand Filters)
This filter operates with continuous backwash using an airlift tube located in the center of the
filter. Unfiltered water enters near the bottom of the filter and flows to the top of the filter. The
airlift tube also continuously pumps a small portion of the dirty filter media from the bottom of the
filter to the top of the filter. During passage up the airlift tube, air and water scrub the dirty media
separating the lighter debris from the heavier media. The cleaned media returns to the top of the
filter and the backwash waste stream carries off the debris. The backwash waste stream is 3 to 5
percent of the total filter throughput. The backwashing process usually operates at a rate of 0.1 to
0.5 gpm of water per square foot of filter media surface area and 0.4 to 0.1 scfm air flow per
square foot of media surface area. Dynasand Filters are typical example of this type of filters. The
_____________________________________________________________________ 63

absence of backwash pumps results in low energy consumption. The Dynasand filters deep
media bed allows it to handle high level of suspended solids.
Principles of Operation:
Influent feed is introduced at the top of filter and flows downward through an annular section
between the influent feed pipe and airlift housing. The feed is introduced into the bottom of the
sand bed through a series of feed radials those are open at the bottom. As the influent flows
upward through the downward moving sand bed, organic and inorganic impurities are captured
by the sand. The clean, polished filtrate continues to move upward and exists at the top of the
filter over the filtrate weir and out through the effluent pipe. The sand bed containing captured
impurities is drawn downward into the center of the filter where the airlift pipe is located. A small
volume of compressed air is introduced at the bottom of the airlift, drawing the sand into the airlift
pipe. The sand is scoured within the airlift pipe at an intensity of 100-150 SCFM/sq.ft. The
scouring dislodges any solid particles attached to the sand grains. The dirty slurry is pushed to
the top of the airlift and into the reject compartment. From the reject compartment, the sand falls
into the sand washer and the lighter reject solids are carried over the reject weir and out the reject
pipe. It encounters a small amount of polished filtrate moving upward, driven by the difference in
water level between the filtrate pool and the reject weir. The heavier, coarser sand grains fall
through this small countercurrent flow while the remaining contaminants are carried back up to
the reject compartment. The clean, recycled sand is deposited on the top of the sand bed where it
once again begins the influent cleaning process and its eventual migration to the bottom of the
filter.
Filter Configuration
The filter is available in stand alone 304 SST or FRP and in modular concrete design. Filters are
available in 40 standard bed or 80 deep bed depending on nature of application. For our
application, concrete installation is needed. The low, evenly distributed and equal pressure drop
results in even distribution of feed to each filter without the need for splitter boxes or flow controls.
A typical multiple unit installation can use a common header pipe with feed connections and
isolation valves for each filter.
Advantages
No shutdown for backwash cycles

Elimination of ancillary backwash equipment
No flow control valves, splitter boxes or backwash controls
No short circuiting
Optimum sand-washing efficiency
_____________________________________________________________________ 64
Minimizes overall pressure-drop

Reduces potential for pluggage
Low power requirement
Fig 3.9: Dynasand Filtration
_____________________________________________________________________ 65

Table 3.5: The Loading rate, Inlet and outlet parameters for wastewater applications
Application
Loading Rate
Influent Solids
Filtrate Solids
(gpm/sq.ft)
Tertiary Filtration
3-5
5-10 ppm SS
2-5 ppm SS
Phosphorus removal
3-5
<1 ppm total P
<0.1 ppm total P
Algae removal
2-4
100 ppm SS
10-20 ppm SS
Denitrification
3-4
10-15 ppm TN
<3 ppm TN
Oil removal
2-6
<50 ppm O & G
5-10 ppm O & G
3.4.2.3.2.5. Cloth Media Systems

Cloth media filters are designed for a variety of tertiary treatment applications. This proven
technology produces reuse quality effluent and is an accepted filtration technology in California
Title 22 applications.
Fig 3.10: Filtration Spectrum
_____________________________________________________________________ 66
Figure 3.11 Cloth Media Filtraters

Each cloth media filtration system utilizes the PA-13 pile cloth as its primary filter media with other
media available. The PA-13 media is a nylon fiber material that provides consistent removal of
very fine particulate matter.
Figure 3.12 Filtration through Cloth media

Cloth media filters are low-head systems that can be gravity fed. Each system is designed to
backwash automatically upon water differential while maintaining continuous filtration during
backwash. Typical backwash is less than 2-3% with a quick recovery time of less than 3 minutes,
as compared to other typical filters which can take up to 20 minutes.
_____________________________________________________________________ 67
Figure 3.13 Backwash through Cloth media

Features and Benefits
Higher quality effluent

Lower backwash rates
Reuse quality effluents without chemical addition
Capable of high solids loading and higher hydraulic loading rates
Continuous filtration during backwash
Available in package and concrete units
Small footprint and expandability
Eliminates sand media and underdrains
Figure 3.14 Aquadisk configuration
_____________________________________________________________________ 68
Figure 3.15 Previous Installations (Inside & outside)
_____________________________________________________________________ 69

3.4.2.3.2.7 Micro Fiber Technology (Amiad)
The Filtration Media
Textile fibers are widely used for fine filtration in the disposable cartridge filter market. The Amiad
MTG filter uses Micro Fiber Technology to create a self-cleaning filter system. The basic
filtration element in a "thread" filter is the "thread cassette." Fine threads, which are 10 micron in
diameter, are wound over a rigid grooved base plate. Water flows through the thread layers into
the grooves and channel the water to specially designed outlets. The rigid base plate supports
the thread layers and also plays a major role in the cleaning process of the media. The filter
cassettes are mounted on hollow collector pipes.
Figure 3.16 Micro Fiber media

The Filtration Process
The unfiltered water flows into the cassette package chamber via the filter's inlets. The water
flows through the cassette threads. The filtered water, after passing through the cassettes, is
collected in the four collector pipes upon which the cassettes are mounted. The small particles
are stopped and trapped between the threads.
_____________________________________________________________________ 70
Figure 3.17 Micro Fiber equipment

The Cleaning Mechanics
High-pressure water jets spray through the thread layer, hit the grooved base plate and reject
back through the layers again. The contaminant is carried off the cassettes by the reject stream.
Therefore, no dirt passes through the filter during back-flush. The filtration mechanics are a
combination of surface and depth filtration. The design velocity through the media is 1-40 m/h.
The Cleaning Process
The filtered water flows from the four collector pipes move to the filter's outlets. As dirt builds up
on and in the cassettes, the pressure differential across the cassettes increases. When the
differential pressure reaches a pre-set adjustable level, it triggers the filtration system's flush
sequence. Flush sequences also can be triggered at pre-set timed intervals. The flush sequence
is governed by an electronic control unit or by manual input.
_____________________________________________________________________ 71

Cassette Thread Filter Material
Figure 3.18 Filter Threads

The quantity and the size of holes between threads influences the degree and a quality of
filtration. The stretching of the thread leads to reduction of the holes-Dirt inputs and
improvement of the filtration quality. First the dirty liquid enters into these holes between threads
and then continues to flow between fibers. Filter cassettes as supplied by Amiad are as follows -
_____________________________________________________________________ 72

Figure 3.19 Filter Cassettes
Filtration
Quality:
MFC-2 -2m
MFC-3 -3m
MFC-7 -7m
MFC-10 -10m
MFC-20 -20m
Figure 3.20 Percentage removal as claimed by Amiads
Fig 3.21 Amiad Filtration equipment as used for our Pilot Project
3.4.2.3.3 Other Types of Filtration

3.4.2.3.3.2 Suction-Scanning Technology- Amiad Technology
Focused Back-Flushing - Complete Cleaning of the Screen Surface
Suction-scanning, also known as focused back-flush creates suction force by reversing flow
through a small section of the screen element into a nozzle at the tip of the suction scanner.
_____________________________________________________________________ 73
Focused Back Flush
Conventional Back Flush

Figure 3.22: Back flushing
The suction-scanner releases flush water into the atmosphere through an exhaust valve. The
reversed flow of high velocity water is created by the differential pressure between the positive
working pressure of the vessel and the atmospheric pressure at the exhaust valve. This high
velocity water stream pulls the debris layer, called a filter cake, off the screen and out the exhaust
valve without the need for the nozzles to touch the screen. The suction-scanner is a hollow
stainless steel pipe with tubular nozzles evenly spaced along its length. A combination of a
threaded drive shaft and motor creates a spiraling motion of the suction scanner nozzles, which
sweep across 100% of the screen in a single 15 to 30 second stroke
Fig 3.23 Illustration of Suction Scanner & Nozzle
_____________________________________________________________________ 74

Multi-Layer Screen - Optimal Filtration to 10 Microns
Amiad suction-scanning filters incorporate a unique multi-layer stainless steel screen available
in degrees of filtration as small as 10. Amiad's engineering team has developed the optimal
combination of material strength, filtration efficiency and clean-ability by combining select ratios of
screen weave type and patterns, resulting in a high efficiency of filtration. This sophisticated
screen assembly allows the accumulating filter cake to be rapidly and totally removed.
. Fig FF Fig 3.24 Cross sectional view of multi-layer screen

Uninterrupted Flow with Minimal Waste
Amiad's suction-scanning technology uses less than 1% of the total process water for cleaning.
This is the lowest ratio of process to exhaust water of all competing automated self-cleaning
methods; however this ratio can vary depending on specific application conditions.
The self-cleaning cycle is triggered by the accumulation of suspended solids (filter cake) on the
screen surface, as measured by the pressure differential. Therefore, cleaning is performed "as
needed" - resulting in minimal water and energy waste. Suction-scanning technology eliminates
the need for isolating the filter during the self-cleaning cycle. This focused cleaning and the
minimal exhaust requirement allow for uninterrupted process flow
The Cleaning Mechanics
High-pressure water jets spray through the thread layers, hit the grooved base plate and reject
back through the layers again. The contaminant is carried off the cassettes by the reject stream.
3.4.2.2.3.2 Membrane Filtration
Membranes for treatment of wastewater are available in a variety of pore sizes and material
types. Membranes typically are available in the micron range (microfiltration), less than micron
range (ultrafiltration), nano range (nanofiltration), and molecular range (reverse osmosis, or RO).
_____________________________________________________________________ 75

Many times a combination of sizes may be necessary to achieve the effluent quality with the most
economical process sizing.
A. Design Considerations When Evaluating the Use of Membranes
Flux rate (hydraulic loading/area of media).
Reject rate or recovery rate (i.e., how much water is rejected for each unit of water produced).
Transmembrane operating pressure (i.e., the amount of pressure required to operate the
membrane and the amount of pressure the membrane can handle).
Fouling rate of the membranes.
Backwashing capability or chemical clean-in-place (CIP) capability and the success of either.
Overall operating costs including membrane replacement, power, chemicals for cleaning, and
labor for membrane maintenance and replacement.
In addition to providing high quality effluent, membranes can offer potential for small footprints
and reduced or even eliminated downstream disinfection.
Ultra Filtration(UF) Hollow fibre immersed Membranes
Ultrafiltration or UF is a pressure driven membrane separation process that separates particulate
matter from soluble components in a carrier fluid (such as water). UF membranes typically have
pore sizes in the range of 0.01 - 0.10 microns (m) and have a high removal capability for
bacteria and most viruses, colloids and silt. The smaller the nominal pore size, the higher the
removal capability.
Typical treated water quality achievable from UF membrane filtration processes includes the
following:
Turbidity < 0.1 NTU
Bacteria > 4 log removal
Giardia Cysts > 4 log removal
Cryptosporidium Oocysts > 4 log removal
Virus Rejection - > 2.5 log
UF membrane filtration significantly reduces chlorine dosage requirements making this factor
alone a significant advantage over conventional water treatment technologies.
Most materials that are used in UF are polymeric and are naturally hydrophobic. Common
polymeric materials used in UF include:
Polysulfone (PS),
Polyethersulfone (PES),
Polypropylene (PP), or
_____________________________________________________________________ 76
Polyvinylidenefluoride (PVDF).
Immersed Membranes are specifically designed for large scale plants where this technology
optimizes performance with minimum costs. The building block of the Immersed Membrane
Filtration system is a membrane module or element. An individual membrane module is the
smallest replaceable unit within the filtration system and consists of thousands of membrane
fibres arranged horizontally between two plastic headers. This design of the membrane module
allows for easy replacement and modular construction of the plant.
Fig 3.25 Membrane Modules

The membranes operate under a vacuum created within the hollow membrane fibres by a
permeate pump. Treated water is drawn through membrane pores and enters the inside of the
hollow fibres. Water then flows through the permeate pump to the treated water storage tank (or
distribution system).
The quality of treated water leaving the Immersed UF membrane system shall be as follows:
Turbidity < 0.1NTU
TSS < 1 mg/l
SDI < 3
Outside-in vs. Inside-out HF Membranes
An outside-in flow significantly increases to the membrane filter surface area, thus improving the
permeability. This also reduces membrane fouling, as the flow path ensures there is no trapping
of debris on the inside of the membrane.
On an inside-out flow path membrane, larger debris particles can be caught inside the hollow
bore, which can cause a stress concentration on the membrane wall as the membrane strands
wave under normal operation. This stress concentration can eventually lead to a membrane
breakage resulting in a breach of membrane integrity. Inside-out membranes usually only use a
linear turbulent scouring action along the inner bore for cleaning to prevent the membrane wall
from fouling. The outside-in membrane uses dual-action flushing. The first flushing is a
_____________________________________________________________________ 77

backwashing flush, which uses previously filtered water to flush in the reverse direction of flow
from the inside out through the membrane wall. This pushes out any particles that have been
lodged in the pores during the filtering process. The second flushing action has water running at a
high flow rate along the outside of the membrane to both scour the outside of the membrane and
also carry away any particles that were pushed out during the backwash, resulting in a very
effective cleaning regime.
Fig 3.26 Filtration though membranes
_____________________________________________________________________ 78
Fig 3.27 Backwash
Fig 3.28 Chemically Enhanced Backwash
_____________________________________________________________________ 79

10
Filtration
CEB
BW
BW
Filtration
Filtration
Filtration
0
5
fl
o
10
15
20
25
time
Fig 3.29 Principles of Operation
Features of UF
The UF system employs pollutant resistant hydrophilic polyethersulfone (PES) UF membranes,
which have a pore size less than 0.025 m. These membrane modules are being used in largescale water treatment systems. The hollow fiber membranes are durable and are highly resistant
to pollution. The adaptability to variations in quality of the raw water is high. The membranes are
able to resist high concentrations of residual chlorine and hydrogen peroxide solution and
cleaning agents in a wide pH range (pH 1-13). The bacteria and virus removal rates are up to 4
log and 6 log and turbidity of output water is less than 0.1 NTU.
_____________________________________________________________________ 80
250
TMP (kPa)
200
150
CEB
CIP
100
50
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
time (-)
Fig 3.30 CEB vs CIP
UF working mode
The UF system applies dead-end internal-pressure filtration with the backwash interval being 30
minutes along with the backwash water coming from the water produced in UF. In the process of
hydraulic cleaning, forward flush, air flush and backwash is combined. Even in times of adverse
water quality, the UF performance can be restored by normal backwashes. The chemical
cleaning process uses the unique Chemical Enhanced Backwash (CEB) technique for this
purpose.
The transmembrane pressure (TMP) is kept low. This has several advantages: because of very
low cake compaction restoration of membrane performance is easy with regular backwashes and
CEBs. Moreover, low TMP indicates low energy consumption. There is no need for extensive
cleaning procedures that would need heated cleaning solutions of specialty membrane cleaners.
The comparison between Chemically Enhanced Backwash (CEB) and Cleaning In Place (CIP) is
shown in above figure..
Removing the turbidity of raw water by UF system indicates that the turbidity of output water by
UF is very stable with an average value being 0.055 NTU. Even when the quality of incoming
water is changing, the quality of output water is still stable, ensuring good water quality by use of
the UF system in RO pretreatment.
_____________________________________________________________________ 81

SDI of UF output water
SDI is one of the most important indices of incoming water for RO. Since the UF plant has been
put into operation the SDI of UF output water has been maintained at around 1.2 The general
trend shows that the SDI of UF output water will fluctuate between 1.1 and 1.5. To get the SDI
values, samples were taken before and after backwash and SDI values showed no deviation,
indicating that the UF output water was stable and its quality was not impacted by clogging in the
membrane within set time.
TMP development over timer
Figure 3.29 shows that UF can operate stably under a high flux condition and the TMP does not
increase with time, but is kept below 0.4 bar with an average TMP of 0.28 bar, indicating that the
UF backwash and CEB cleaning is good in restoring flux, confirming good hydrophilic ability of
PES material and also indicating the suitability of the UF membrane to municipal water treatment.
UF permeability (MTC) versus time Permeability (MTC) correlates Flux with TMP and forms a
comprehensive parameter on membrane performance.
Permeability = Flux/TMP
One can see in the Figure 3.30 that after long time operation of UF the MTC is still stable and that
the CEB can restore the X-Flow UF membrane permeability.
Typical characteristics:
Compact system construction
Horizontal
Dead-end operation
Elements are fitted in standard membrane housings
CAPFIL ultrafiltration membranes: 0.8 and 1.5 mm
Optimized interior with bypass tubes to minimize hydrodynamic resistance
_____________________________________________________________________ 82

The unique flow distributor inside the element ensures:
Very effective and even distribution of water over the entire length of the element and
over the entire length of the membrane housing
Excellent discharge of the permeate
Extremely efficient backwash and chemical cleaning
Operation in dead-end at low trans membrane pressure and low energy consumption
resulting in low operating costs
The typical characteristics of UF Membrane are as follows -
Operating range (m)
Pressure (kPa)
Flux Rate L/m2.d
0.005-0.2
70-700
405-815
Table 3.6: Commercially available UF membranes

Membrane
Configuration
Chemistry
manufacturer
Chlorine
Flow
Tolerant
Pattern
Alignment
Aquasource
Encased
Cel
Yes
In-Out
Vertical
Hydranautics
Encased &
PES
Yes
In-Out
Vertical
submerged
Inge
Encased
PES(multiicore)
Yes
In-Out
Horz../ Vert.
Koch
Encased
PES
Yes
In-Out
Vertical
Memcor/ USF
Encased &
PVDF
No
Out-in
Vertical
submerged
Norit/ X-flow
Encased
PES
Yes
In-Out
Horz../ Vert.
Polymem
Encased
PS
Yes
Out-in
Vertical
Zenon 1000
Submerged
PVDF
Yes
Out-in
Horz../ Vert.
Zenon 500
Submerged
PVDF( coated)
Yes
Out-in
Vertical
_____________________________________________________________________ 83

3.5 Comparison of Different Filters
Table 3.7 : Comparison among filters
Filter
Type
Outlet
Quality
Area
Reqd
Gravity
Filters
2 NTU
6 mg/l
TSS
200
SqM
Pressu
re
Filters
2 NTU
5mg/l
TSS
100
SqM
Dynasa
nd
filters
2-5 mg/l
TSS
120
SqM
Cloth
Media
2 NTU
5 mg/l
TSS
120
SqM
Micro
Fiber
Techno
logy
2 NTU
5 mg/l
TSS
10
micron
180
sqM
Suction
scanni
ng
technol
ogy
2 NTU
5 mg/l
TSS
10
micron
90
SqM
UF
Membr
ane
0.1 NTU
1 mg/l
TSS
Bacteria
removal
4 log
60
SqM
Stand By
requireme
nt
No
standby,
but
different
units can
be used
Standby
units are
kept
No standby
required,
but
different
units can
be used
No standby
required,
but
different
units can
be used
No standby
required,
but
different
units can
be used
Standby
required as
basic
filtration
process is
screening
No standby
required,
but
different
modules
can be
used
Power
required
No power for
filtration, but
power for
B/W pumps
Back wash
Required/
Cleaning
10-15 minutes,
3-5 % of the
plant water
Airwash for 2-5
minutes
MOC
Media/
Mechanism
RCC
structure,
Sand &
gravel media/
anthracite
Media
Replacemen
t
Not an costly
affair, do not
need
frequent
replacement
Power
required for
Upward
movement of
water
Power
required for
B/W air
supply
At least 1 B/W
cycle per day
SS/ FRP/
Cast
Steel
Sand &
gravel media/
anthracite
10-15 minutes,
3-5 % of the
plant water
SS/ FRP/
RCC
Coarse Sand
Power
required for
B/W, helps in
suction
cleaning
2-3% of plant
water, recovery
time 3 minutes
SS/ RCC
Nylon Fiber
material
Depends on
the inlet
quality
Power
required for
high rate flow
1% of plant
water
Epoxy
coated
carbon
steel / SS
316
Threaded
filter by
plastic &
polyester
Guaranteed
up to at least
5 years
Power reqd
for pumping
the inflow to
have
pressure of
2.5 bar.
Power reqd.
for pumping
of flow
2% of plant
water
Epoxy
coated
carbon
steel / SS
316
SS 316
Screens,
valves and
cleaning CI,
rubber
Continuous
cleaning of
screens
Chemically
enhanced
backwash
SS
Polyethersulf
one (PES)/
PVDF
Module
replacement
needed after
3-5 years
Units: NTU = Turbidity, TSS = Total Suspended Solids

Abbreviations: SS = stainless steel, RCC = reinforced Cement Concrete, FRP = Fiber
Reinforced Polyethylene, CI = Cast Iron
_____________________________________________________________________ 84
Not an costly
affair, do not
need
frequent
replacement
Not an costly
affair, do not
need
frequent
replacement

3.6. Advantages & Disadvantages of Options for Filtration
Filtration Option
Table 3.8: Advantages & Disadvantages of Filters

Advantages
Disadvantages
Remarks
Gravity Filters
The most common and

tested method
Availability of experienced
contractors
Pressure Filters
Very small footprint required
Dynasand filters
Continues backwash, so
easy operation
No short circuiting
Minimizes
overall
pressure-drop
Low power requirement
Cloth Media
Micro Fiber
Technology
Suction scanning
technology
UF Membrane
Option with largest

footprint
Costly & time
consuming civil
construction
Impractical option as the

footprint required is
unaffordable
Normally used for

small installations
Higher energy
requirements
The continuous air
supply involves the
power requirement
Normally used for small

plants, no previous use
for big or medium
capacity plants
Normally installed for
smaller applications. Pilot
project is necessary
before application for
main treatment plant.
Reuse quality effluents

without chemical addition
Continuous filtration during
backwash
Available in package and
concrete units
Small footprint
Expandability
In use for small & medium
capacity plants
Cloth media needs

replacement after a
certain time
As already been installed

elsewhere after the SBR
system with the capacity
of 25 MLD to 130 MLD,
the most applicable
option for our purpose.
Continuous filtration
during backwash is
added advantage.
Very low water

consumption for cleaning
Not tested for large

or medium
applications
Power required for
high rate flow
2.5 bar pressure
reqd for inflow, so
pumping needed
High capital & O & M
cost
Very low water

consumption for cleaning
Automatic backwash
Option with the best
effluent quality
Less disinfection dosage
Applicable in our case,

but carrying out pilot
project is necessary.
Applicable in our case,

but carrying out pilot
project is necessary
Economically nonfeasible as a Tertiary
Treatment option
3.7. Recommendation of Options

The selected options for the filtration are as follows 1.
Cloth Media Filters
2.
Membrane Filtration
3.
Continuous Backwashing Counter-Current Upflow Filters ( Dynasand Filters)
4.
Suction-Scanning Technology- Amiad Technology
_____________________________________________________________________ 85

5.
Micro Fiber technology from Amiad
The Cloth Media Filters are selected as option 1 as this technology is proven technology and
already been used by the vender in Treatment plants of capacity varying from 25 MLD to 130
MLD worldwide and used after the biological treatment by SBR. So the use of SBR and Cloth
media can be used as integrated system. This system does not need coagulation, flocculation
and sedimentation prior to the filters.
The Membrane filtration is doubtlessly the best option considering the quality of the treated
effluent, the space requirement, cost of civil construction and low dosage of disinfection. .But the
high installation cost and maintenance cost of membranes are the disadvantages for this system.
Proposing UF membranes only for tertiary treatment of waste water may not be economically
viable.
The Dynasand filters, micro fiber technology and suction scanning technology are new
technologies and successfully been used for water applications. However, these systems can be
used after carrying out pilot projects.
However, in our case, as the TSS and BOD load is very less , we may not need coagulation,
flocculation and sedimentation units. Instead, we can directly go for filtration. In the later stage,
when clarification is needed, we can easily place the tube settlers ( due to their light weight and
flexibility in sizes) in the existing concrete structures like post-equalization tank after the SBR
tank. So the filtration option ( like cloth media filters or membranes) which is self sufficient for the
removal of TSS and BOD, should be selected as the option.
The final selection of option can be made after the capital and O & M cost analysis.
3.8. Capital and O & M cost for Recommended Options
The capital and O & M cost for Cloth media filtration, Membrane Filtration, Dynasand, Micro Fiber
and Suction scanning technology are as follows
Table 3.7 Capital & O & M cost for Cloth Media filtration (Ref : Aqua Aerobic)
A. Capital Cost
Total Capital cost including E & M and Room
Rs. 3,35,00,100 /-

Power,
chemicals,
consumables,
membranes,
Rs. 0.417 /cum
Operator/ labors, Maintenance
Rs.9,180 /- per day
22 KWH/ day
_____________________________________________________________________ 86

Table 3.8 Capital & O & M Cost for Membrane filtration (Ref: Siemens)
A. Capital Cost
Mechanical and Electrical
Rs. 10,45,56,100 /-
Civil & Buildings
Rs. 1,78,61,000 /-
Total Capital cost -
Rs. 12,24,17,100 /-

Power,
chemicals,
consumables,
membranes,
Rs. 0.887/ cum
Rs. 19,514/ - per day
171 KWHs / per day
Table 3.9 Capital & O & M Cost for Dynasand Filters ( Ref : Shubham India)
A. Capital Cost
Rs. 2,95,00,000/-

Power,
chemicals,
consumables,
membranes,
Rs. 0.6/ cum
Rs 13,200/- per day
195 KWHs / per day
Table 3.10 Capital & O & M Cost for Micro-Fiber technology(Ref : Amiad)
A. Capital Cost
Rs. 5,60,00,000/-
Civil & Buildings
Rs. 18,00,000/- ( assumed)
Rs. 5,78,00,000/-

Power,
chemicals,
consumables,
membranes,
Rs. 0.44/ cum
Rs 9,680/- per day
220 KWHs / per day
_____________________________________________________________________ 87

Table 3.11 Capital & O & M Cost for Suction- Scanning Technology ( Ref : Amiad)
A. Capital Cost
Rs. 1,12,00,000/- ( 1 W + 1 SB)
Civil & Buildings
Rs. 9,00,000/- ( assumed)
Rs. 1,21,00,000/-

Power,
chemicals,
consumables,
membranes,
Rs. 0.6/ cum
Rs 13,200/- per day
180 KWHs per day incl. pumping
3.9. Final Recommended Option Considering the advantages and disadvantages and the techno economic offers from different
venders, it is recommended that the Cloth media filters are the most suitable option in our
case as they are
Technically satisfies our desired criteria
Presently in successful use worldwide after biological treatment by SBR for applications
identical to our situation
Tested and proven technology for tertiary treatment
Power requirement is the minimum among all options
Capital cost is less than membrane, Micro fiber and Dynasand
Footprint requirement is affordable and at per with other applications
O & M cost is significantly less than Membranes and little less than Microfiber technology.
Though capital cost of cloth media filters is approximate 40 lakhs more than Dynasnd, the
O & M cost is 2/3rd of Dynasand and power consumption is significantly less.
Cloth media filtration do not need upstream treatment with coagulation, flocculation and
sedimentation. So there is significant reduction in Capital and O & M cost.
All other techniques have certain disadvantages e.g. Membrane filtration has very high
Capital and O & M cost, Suction scanning needs high rate pumping to maintain pressure
of 2.5 bars etc.
Both the technologies from Amiad (Micro Fiber and Suction scanning) are good
techniques but none of them are tested under similar applications. If we want to use
either of them, we need to go for additional pilot project which adds to the cost.
_____________________________________________________________________ 88

3.10. Technical Specification for some of the Recommended Options The technical specifications for membranes and dynasand filters are already described under
section 3.4.2.3.2.3 and section 3.4.2.2.3.2. In this section, technical features of Micro Fiber,
Suction Scanning technology and the Cloth Media Filters ( the most optimum and recommended
solution) as obtained from the manufacturers are presented.
Table 3.12 Specifications of Micro Fiber Technology (Ref: Amiad)
Model
AMF-370K
Flow rate range
Up to 100 m3/hr
Filtration Degree
3 micron
Flange connections
8 ISO, PN 10
Minimum working pressure
1.5 Bar
Vessels design pressure
10 Bar
Filtration area
370,000 square Cm.
Element type
3640 Units of 2 Micron Cassettes
Exhaust valve
4" Pneumatic valves with pneumatic actuator
Inlet & Outlet Valves
8 Butterfly with pneumatic actuator
Flushing Pump Characteristics:
20 m3/hr @ 9.0 bar
Flushing cycle time
10 minutes
Wasted water per cycle
3500 - 5000 liter
Maximum working temperature
60C
Construction Materials:
Filter housing and lid
Epoxy coated Carbon Steel or St/St 316L
Cassette
Plastic and polyester
Cleaning mechanism
St.St. 316-L and plastic
Seals
Installation requirements
NBR, EPDM
Power supply for the pump

Compressed air
Power supply for control system
400 VAC, 3-phase, 50 HZ

80-100 PSI dry and clean
230 VAC, 1-phase, 50 HZ
_____________________________________________________________________ 89

Table 3.13 Specifications of Suction Scanning Technology (Ref: Amiad)
_____________________________________________________________________ 90
Table 3.14 Specifications of Cloth Media Filters (Ref : Aqua-Aerobic)

The Recommended Option
_____________________________________________________________________ 91
_____________________________________________________________________ 92

Specifications of Dynasand Filters ( Ref : Shubham Hydrosys Pvt Ltd)
Description of System
A.
The filter shall produce a continuous filtrate stream and a continuous reject stream and
shall not be shut down for any backwash cycles.
No backwash valves, pumps or
instrumentation shall be required for backwash cycles.

B.
The sand bed shall be continuously backwashed internally and redistributed on top of the
sand bed an average of 4-6 times per 24 hours. No external sand movement or washing
will be allowed.
C.
Continuous sand cleaning shall be accomplished within the filter using filtered water. Filter
influent (feed) shall not be used for sand cleaning.
D.
The filter shall be a continuous backwash, upflow, deep bed, single media filter. Mixed or
multiple media shall not be allowed.
E.
The filter shall operate counter currently.
The feed shall be upflow with sand moving
downward.
F.
The filter shall be designed for a filtration bed depth of 80 inches.
G.
The filter shall not contain any moving parts.
H.
The filter shall not contain any screens, wedgewires, grids, etc., to retain the media in
place.
I.
The headloss through the filter shall not exceed 48 inches.
J.
The backwash surface loading rate shall exceed 50 gpm/ft.2 to ascertain a superior
scouring and cleaning of the sand.
K.
The air scouring of the sand shall exceed 100 SCFM/ft.2. This shall be accomplished by
the supply of SCFM of air per module at 15-25 psi.
L.
The air supply system shall consist of a separate NEMA 4X panel including an air filter,
control valve, air flow sensor, pressure regulator and pressure gauge (one panel for each
cell). The air will flow through the air flow sensor which will provide a 0-10Vdc on the
Digital display and the Plant PLC (by others). The Plant PLC will scale this signal and
provide to the Plan SCADA the Instantaneous air flow through the air lift. The digital display
is a local indication of the air flow in case the operator is near to the panel and for
troubleshooting purposes. The amount of the air which is going through the Air Lift can be
adjusted locally on the Filter Cell Control Panel (ACP) with a needle valve.Each control
panel includes a solenoid valve and level switch to allow automatic start/stop of air flow to
airlifts corresponding to flow of water through filter cell. An additional solenoid valve and
timer provide a burst of air to the airlifts when flow starts. A 115/1/60 electrical supply is
required for each panel.
_____________________________________________________________________ 93

M.
For multiple unit (cell) installations, the flow between filters (cells) shall be self equalizing.
No flow controls, regulators, etc. shall be required.
Equalization shall not be
accomplished by overflow weirs or feed recycle.

Products
General
A. All structural steel shall conform to "Standard Specifications for Structural Steel of the
A.S.T.M.".
B. All equipment shall be designed for continuous, twenty-four hour operation, and all parts of the
mechanism shall be amply proportioned for all stresses which may occur during fabrication,
erection, and operation.
C. All anchor bolts shall be and shall be of ample size and strength of the purpose intended. The
filter manufacturer shall furnish with the equipment all anchor bolts. The Contractor shall install
the anchor bolts in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions.
D. All wetted parts to be , FRP, polyacetal, or polypropylene. No carbon steel allowed.
E. All parts above the water line associated with the support steel, platforms, and handrails to be
aluminum. No painted carbon steel allowed.
Materials of Construction
Basin
Concrete (by customer)
Filtrate trough
Concrete
Bottom hopper cones
FRP
Feed pipe
PE
Feed Assembly
FRP
Reject compartment
FRP
Washer rings
Polyethylene
Reject weirs
Polypropylene
Airlift pipes
PVC
Reject supports
Aluminum
Airlift panel
FRP
Nuts, bolts, fasteners
304SS
Anchor bolts
304SS
_____________________________________________________________________ 94
Filter Media
A.
Sand Specification to comply with filter manufacturer requirements.
B.
Quantity: Provide 432 tons of sand. Contractor to provide, install, disinfect, and wash the
media per the filter manufacturer's recommended procedures. Contractor shall check the
manufacturer shop drawings to insure correct sand levels.
Compressed Air System

1.
The system will require a minimum of 62.4 cfm of air at 35 psig.
2.
Type:
3.
Motor size:
4.
Package to include controls, one (1) air receiver, one (1) air dryer and one (1) coalescing
Rotary Screw
20 HP
filter to protect the air control system.

Painting
There are no carbon steel components requiring painting.
Manufacturer
The filters shall be manufactured by
Parkson Corporation, Ft. Lauderdale, Florida
_____________________________________________________________________ 95

3.11. General Arrangement of Recommended Options -
Figure 3.31A: Layout Drawing for Cloth Media Filters (Recommended Option)
(Ref: Aqua Aerobic)
_____________________________________________________________________ 96
Figure 3.31B: Sectional Elevation for Cloth Media Filters (Recommended Option)
(Ref: Aqua Aerobic)
_____________________________________________________________________ 97
Figure 3.31C: Sectional Elevation for Cloth Media Filters (Recommended Option)
(Ref: Aqua Aerobic)
_____________________________________________________________________ 98
Figure 3.31D: PLC layout for Cloth Media Filters (Recommended Option)
(Ref: Aqua Aerobic)
_____________________________________________________________________ 99
Figure 3.32 A: Layout Drawing for Micro Fibers (Ref : Amiad)
_____________________________________________________________________100
Figure 3.32 B: G.A Drawing for Micro Fibers (Ref: Amiad)
_____________________________________________________________________101
Figure 3.33: Installation of Suction Scanning Filters (Ref : Amiad )
_____________________________________________________________________102

References:
CPHEEO Manual on Water Supply & Treatment- Ministry of Urban Development, GOI
GOI
Oct 06)
M/s. Aqua-Aerobic Systems Website
M/s. Amiad Technologies Website
M/s. Parksons Corporations
www.Techbrief.com
M/s. Cumberland Electrochemical Ltd. Pvt.
M/s. Water Engineers Australia Pty Ltd
_____________________________________________________________________103
Chapter-IV
Disinfection
_____________________________________________________________________104
4.0 Disinfection
4.1 Objective of Disinfection Disinfection is an important step to destroy microorganisms that can cause disease in humans. In
our case, 22 MLD treated effluent from Sequential Batch Reactor (SBR) needs tertiary treatment
and disinfection before recycling for Power plant usage. This water will not be used for drinking
but mainly for cooling and chilling in Power Plant. 42 MLD treated effluent from SBR will be
directly disinfected and either will be disposed off or will be used for road washing or gardening
purpose. The expectant colliform level after filtration is 2.2 nos per 100 ml sample. The
disinfectant shall be used to lower down the colliform concentration to non-detectable level per
100 ml sample.
42 MLD
Disinfection
Recycling for Gardening/

Road Washing
SBR
Tank
2
2
M
L
D
Disposal
Coagulation
Flocculation
District
Cooling
Settling
Disinfection
Filtration
Figure 4.1: Location of Disinfection treatments in STP
Many industries today use large quantities of water for process cooling. Power generation plants,
chemical plants, refineries, LNG facilities, paper mills, steel works etc. In addition in many areas
of the World desalination of seawater and brackish water, waste water
by flash evaporation or
membrane process is commonplace.

In most cases the presence of biofouling such as molluscs, algae or slime, cause numerous
problems for plant and equipment. Fouling can adversely affect system hydrodynamics,
restricting flow increasing pumping pressures and accelerating corrosion potential. Such
problems will shorten the life of pumps, screens, heat exchangers and other plant items as well
as increase the operation and maintenance costs.
The common methods of disinfection are chlorination, chloramines, ozone, and ultraviolet
light. Other disinfection methods include chlorine dioxide, potassium permanganate, and nanofiltration. Since certain forms of chlorine react with organic material naturally present in many
_____________________________________________________________________105

water sources to form harmful chemical by-products, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
has proposed maximum permissible limits for these contaminants.
Disinfection practices provide substantial public health benefits by reducing discharges of many
waterborne pathogenic organisms to water supplies, recreational waters, shellfish waters, and
other waters that can potentially transmit disease to humans. Concerns to be considered as a
minimum for requiring disinfection are as follows:
Protection of recyclable water from microbial contamination
Protection of irrigation and agricultural waters.
Protection of water where human contact is likely.
Various methods to effectively disinfect wastewater effluent are technically feasible and have
been proven to be reliable alternatives. The best method will depend primarily upon the quality of
the effluent and the residual disinfectant necessary. Also of concern are the potential adverse
effects of residual chlorine or its byproducts on aquatic life and humans. Historically, chlorination
has been almost exclusively used to disinfect municipal wastewater because of its relatively low
cost, availability, and general effectiveness. Over the years, increasing concern about public
safety and toxicity to fisheries has led to other disinfection alternatives, such as ultraviolet light,
ozonation, electro-chlorination and hypochlorite.
_____________________________________________________________________106

4.2 Disinfection Process 4.2.1 How is disinfection achieved
Our Natural environment contains numerous Microorganisms. Most of these do not present any
concerns. However, somesuch as Giardia Lamblia and various viruses, which can be present
in water suppliesare extremely harmful and can cause disease in humans. These diseasecausing organisms are known as pathogens. Disinfection treatment methods include Chlorination,
chlorine dioxide, chloramines, Ozone, and ultraviolet light. When combined with conventional
tertiary treatment, such as coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation, and filtration, good results
have been obtained Direct filtration, slow sand filtration, and diatomaceous earth filtration, along
with disinfection, have been just as successful. In fact, insoluble oxides form when chlorine,
chlorine dioxide, or ozone are added to these systems. Both ozonation and chlorination may
cause flocculation of dissolved organics, thus increasing turbidity and necessitating filtration. The
effectiveness of disinfection is judged by analyzing for an indicator organism (total coli form
bacteria). This organism is considered harmless, but its presence indicates that pathogens may
also have survived.
4.3 Methods of Disinfection
There are common methods of disinfection for tertiary treatment of waste water like chlorination,
Ultra Violet Light, Ozonation, Chloramines etc. However, as Ozonation is very costly and
Chloramines associate high usage of raw chemicals and equipments, high cost and less
efficiency, only the following 2 options are considered.
Ultraviolet Light
Chlorination
_____________________________________________________________________107

4.3.1 Ultraviolet Light (UV)Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is generated by a special lamp. When it penetrates the cell wall of an
organism, the cells genetic material is disrupted and the cell is unable to reproduce.
Figure 4.2: Composition of UV Elements

Use of UV light for disinfection
UV has become widely accepted as an alternative to chemicals for water disinfection. UV
disinfection is a completely clean technology that is harmless to humans, animals and aquatic life
and produces no unwanted disinfection by-products. It is highly effective at permanently
destroying virtually all microorganisms, including those resistant to chlorine, such as
Cryptosporidium parvum.
How UV disinfection works?
UV is the part of the electromagnetic spectrum between visible light and X-rays. The specific
portion of the UV spectrum between 200 - 400 nm has a strong germicidal effect, with peak
effectiveness at 265nm. At these wavelengths UV kills microorganisms by penetrating cell
membranes and damaging their DNA and other intracellular molecules, making them unable to
reproduce and effectively killing them.
_____________________________________________________________________108

The different classes of UV are:
UV vacuum: 40 - 200 nm
UVc area: 200 - 280 nm
UVb area: 280 - 315 nm
UVc area: 315 - 400 nm
Types of UV lamp technology

A typical Berson 'in-pipe' UV disinfection system consists of a UV lamp housed in a protective
quartz sleeve, which is mounted within a cylindrical stainless steel chamber. The wastewater to
be treated enters at one end and passes through the chamber before exiting at the other end.
There are two main types of UV technology, based on the type of UV lamps used: low pressure
and medium pressure. Low pressure lamps have a monochromatic UV output (limited to a
single wavelength at 254nm, whereas medium pressure lamps have a polychromatic UV output
(between 185-400nm).
Effect of UV on microorganisms
The DNA of microorganisms absorbs UV light and is destroyed by it. Maximum absorption occurs
at both 200nm and 265nm and not at 254nm, the wavelength produced by low pressure lamps
and often wrongly assumed to be optimum wavelength for killing microorganisms. At 200nm most
absorption occurs in the 'backbone' DNA molecules of ribose and phosphate. At 265nm, UV
absorption mainly occurs in the nucleotide bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine (and
uracil in the case of RNA). The most common products resulting from damage by UV radiation
are thymine dimers, which are formed when two adjacent thymine molecules become fused. The
formation of these dimers and other photoproducts prevents the DNA from being able to replicate,
effectively killing the cell.
In addition to DNA and RNA, UV also causes photochemical reactions in proteins, enzymes and
other molecules within the cell. Absorption in proteins peaks around 280nm, and there is some
absorption in the peptide bond (-CONH-) within proteins at wavelengths below 240nm. Other
biological molecules with unsaturated bonds may also be susceptible to destruction by UV examples include coenzymes, hormones and electron carriers. The ability of UV to affect
molecules other than DNA and RNA is particularly interesting in the case of larger
microorganisms such as fungi, protozoa and algae. In these microorganisms, although UV may
be unable to penetrate as far as the DNA, it could still have a lethal effect by damaging other
molecules.
_____________________________________________________________________109

Parameters influencing the effect of UV
UV dose is a combination of UV lamp power and exposure time. Lamp power is measured in UV
intensity (mW/cm2) and depends on the initial UV intensity of the lamp and the UV intensity at a
certain distance from the lamp. In practice, UV intensity is very much dependent on the water
quality, which is influenced by the level of UV-absorbing compounds in the water. In addition, the
quantity of water to be treated and its speed defines the required exposure time in a UV reactor.
The sum of UV intensity multiplied by the exposure time results in the calculated UV dose.
1 - UV dose
Just as UV has different effects on the various components within a microorganism, it also has
differing effects on different microorganisms, which each have their own specific sensitivity to UV
light. A bacterium, for example, is much more sensitive to UV light than a mould or algae. This
sensitivity is expressed by a D10-value, which shows the UV dose needed for a 90% reduction
rate of the specific micro-organism.
UV dose is a combination of UV lamp power and exposure time. Lamp power is measured in UV
intensity (mW/cm2) and depends on the initial UV intensity of the lamp and the UV intensity at a
certain distance from the lamp. In practice, UV intensity is very much dependent on the water
quality, which is influenced by the level of UV-absorbing compounds in the water. In addition, the
quantity of water to be treated and its speed defines the required exposure time in a UV reactor.
The sum of UV intensity multiplied by the exposure time results in the calculated UV dose.
2 - UV transmittance
A simple indication of the absorbance of UV light by liquid is the transmission value of the liquid
(T10), which is the total value of all absorbing components in the water, such as suspended
organic materials, and minerals such as iron and magnesium both dissolved and undissolved. If
the transmission value is known, the calculation of UV intensity in the UV reactor can be
calculated and the size of the reactor determined. Depending on the size or volume of the
reactor, the UV dose can be calculated.
3 - Quantity of water to be treated
The quantity of water to be treated defines the size of a reactor. The choice of the size of a
reactor is limited by factors such as headloss, pipeline sizes, and the UV dose required.
_____________________________________________________________________110

4 - Water temperature
Low pressure UV lamps
As the surface temperature of a low pressure UV lamp is relatively low, the influence of water
temperature is significant. The optimal water temperature is around 20 degrees Celsius, with all
temperatures below or above 20 degrees Celsius resulting in lower UV output by low pressure
lamps. At temperature below five degrees Celsius, UV output becomes unpredictable and low
pressure lamps fail to start.
Medium pressure UV lamps
Medium pressure UV lamps, with a higher surface temperature, are not influenced by the
surrounded water temperature and can operate effectively at temperatures ranging from -20
degrees Celcius to +80 degrees Celsius.
5 - Repair mechanism of UV damage
The need to recover from or repair UV damage is common to virtually all microorganisms that are
regularly exposed to UV light in nature. Known as reactivation, the process can take place in both
light and dark conditions and is called, respectively, photoreactivation and dark repair. The ability
to reactivate varies significantly depending on the type of UV damage inflicted and by the level of
biological organization of the microorganism. The repair mechanism is not universal and there are
no clearly defined characteristics determining which species can repair themselves and those
which cannot.
The part of cells most vulnerable to UV damage is the DNA and RNA. This is due partly to its
unique function as the depository of the cell's genetic code, and also because of its highly
complex structure and large size. It is hardly surprising therefore that all known molecular repair
mechanisms have evolved to act upon the macromolecular nucleic acids, particularly DNA. In
photoreactivation, repair is carried out by an enzyme called photolyase which reverses the UVinduced damage, while in the case of dark repair it is carried out by a complex combination of
more than a dozen enzymes. To begin reactivation (both light and dark), these enzymes must
first be activated by an energy source - in photoreactivation this energy is supplied by visible light
(300-500nm), and in dark repair it is provided by nutrients within the cell. In both cases,
reactivation is achieved by the enzymes repairing the damaged DNA, allowing replication to take
place again.
_____________________________________________________________________111

Common strains of E. coli contain about 20 photolyase enzymes, each of which can repair up to
five thymine dimers per minute - this means that, in a single cell, up to 100 such dimers can be
repaired per minute. 1mJ/cm2 of UV produces approximately 3000-4000 dimers (Oguma, 2002)
so, theoretically, damage induced by 1mJ/cm2 of UV can be repaired in just 30 minutes.
Photoreactivation comparison between Low Pressure and Medium Pressure lamps
Figure 4.3: Photoreactivation comparison between Low Pressure and Medium Pressure
lamps
Types of UV systems for water disinfection
There are a number of different UV chamber designs, including the in-line design of Berson
systems, where the UV lamp is positioned at 90 degrees to the flow of the water. 'Conventional'
UV systems, on the other hand, have their lamps positioned in the same direction as the water
flow.
The output of a UV system must be continuously monitored and controlled. A UV sensor on the
inside wall of the chamber detects the UV output from the lamp and signals any changes in UV
_____________________________________________________________________112

due, for example, to a sudden change in water quality or because of fouling of the quartz sleeve
around the UV lamp. The sensor also monitors the lamp ageing process.
Microprocessors controls the operation of the UV lamps and make manual or automatic
adjustment of the UV output of lamps possible.
To prevent fouling of the quartz sleeves and subsequent loss of UV output, a wiping device can
be mounted. This cleans the quartz sleeve surrounding the UV lamps, either manually or
automatically, without needing to dismantle or stop the UV system.
AdvantagesUV radiation effectively destroys bacteria and viruses. As with ozone, a secondary disinfectant
must be used to prevent regrowth of microorganisms.
UV radiation can be attractive as a primary disinfectant for small systems because:
It is readily available,
It produces no known toxic residuals,
It requires short contact times, and
The equipment is easy to operate and maintain.
Limitations
UV radiation may not inactivate Giardia lamblia or Cryptosporidium cysts, and should be used
only by groundwater systems not directly influenced by surface waterwhere there is virtually no
risk of protozoan cyst contamination.
UV radiation is unsuitable for water with high levels of suspended solids, turbidity, color, or
soluble organic matter. These materials can react with or absorb the UV radiation, reducing the
disinfection performance.
Process
The effectiveness of UV radiation disinfection depends on the energy dose absorbed by the
organism, measured as the product of the lamps intensity (the rate at which photons are
delivered to the target) and the time of exposure. If the energy dosage is not high enough, the
organisms genetic material might only be damaged instead of destroyed. To provide a safety
factor, the dosage should be higher than needed to meet disinfection requirements.
ChemicalsNo chemical oxidant required; therefore, microorganisms can be killed without generating byproducts of chemical oxidation or halogenations.
_____________________________________________________________________113

Repair after exposure to low and medium pressure UV lamps
Low pressure UV lamps have traditionally been used in treatment plants because their UV output
at 254nm closely matches the absorption peak of DNA bases at 265nm. Recent research,
however, has shown that E. coli DNA is capable of photoreactivation after exposure to low
pressure UV, but not after exposure to medium pressure UV. Further studies concluded that
polychromatic, medium pressure UV radiation is much more effective than monochromatic low
pressure UV at causing permanent, irreparable damage to the DNA of E. coli.
The implications of these findings are far-reaching. For any industry where UV is used to disinfect
water or effluent, the operator needs to be sure that the treatment is permanent. This is especially
the case when the treated liquid will subsequently be exposed to light. The applications affected
by these findings include any where the treated water or effluent is subsequently exposed to light.
Examples include wastewater, bottled water, fisheries and swimming pools. Also important, due
to the possibility of dark repair, are drinking water and process water applications.
4.3.2 Chlorination Chlorination is the process of adding the element chlorine to water as a method of water
purification to make it fit for human consumption as drinking water. Water which has been treated
with chlorine is effective in preventing the spread of disease.
The chlorination of public drinking supplies was originally met with resistance, as people are
concerned about the health effect of the practice. The use of chlorine has greatly reduced the
prevalence of waterborne disease as it is effective against almost all bacteria
and viruses, as
well as amoeba. Chlorination is also used to sterilize the water in swimming poll and as a
disinfection stage in sewage treatment. It can also apply to the addition of chlorine to other
elements, such as gold in the formation of gold chloride.
_____________________________________________________________________114
Table 4.1: Properties of Chlorine
Chlorine is a powerful oxidizing agent and has been used as an effective disinfection in Water
and waste water treatment for a century. Chlorine may be added to water as a gas (Cl2) or as a
liquid in the form of sodium hypochlorite, respectively. When added liquid, Hypochlorite forms
hypochlorous acid (HOCL) and sodium hydroxide. The resulting pH increase promotes the
information of the anion. OCl-, which is a free form of chlorine. The difference between the
chlorine residual in the waste water after some time interval (free and combined chlorine) and the
initial dose of chlorine is referred to as chlorine demand for wastewater after filtration will be in the
range of 2 to 5 mg/l.
The Chemistry of Chlorination Sodium hypochlorite defeat germs through this chemical reaction -
HOCl, hypochlorous acid, formed when sodium hypochlorite is added to water, penetrates the
normally resistant surfaces of microorganisms like Salmonella typhi, destroying them. Whether
_____________________________________________________________________115

the acid remains in the form of HOCl or as the ions H+ and OCl- depends on the acidity, or pH of
the solution.
The product of the contact time and disinfection residual concentration (ct) is often used as a
parameter for design of the system. The contact basin should be baffled to ensure that shortcircuiting not occurs.
Advantages
Chlorination is a well-established technology.
Presently, chlorine is more cost-effective than either UV or ozone disinfection (except when
dechlorination is required and fire code requirements must be met).
The chlorine residual that remains in the wastewater effluent can prolong disinfection even after
initial treatment and can be measured to evaluate the effectiveness.
Chlorine disinfection is reliable and effective against a wide spectrum of pathogenic organisms.
Chlorine is effective in oxidizing certain organic and inorganic compounds.
Chlorination has flexible dosing control.
Chlorine can eliminate certain noxious odors while disinfecting.
Disadvantages The chlorine residual, even at low concentrations, is toxic to aquatic life and may require
dechlorination.
All forms of chlorine are highly corrosive and toxic. Thus, storage, shipping, and handling pose a
risk, requiring increased safety regulations (especially in light of the new Uniform Fire Code).
Chlorine oxidizes certain types of organic matter in wastewater, creating more hazardous
compounds (e.g., trihalomethanes [THMs]).
The level of total dissolved solids is increased in the treated effluent.
The chloride content of the wastewater is increased, it difficult to control .
Chlorine residuals are unstable in the presence of high concentrations chlorine demanding
materials, thus requiring higher doses to effect adequate disinfection.
Some parasitic species have shown resistance to low doses of chlorine, including oocysts of
Cryptosporidium parvum, cysts of Endamoeba histolytica and Giardia amblia, and eggs of
parasitic worms.
The long-term effects of discharging dechlorinated compounds into the environment are
unknown.
_____________________________________________________________________116
Table 4.2 : Waste water characteristics affecting chlorination performance
4.3.2.1 Dechlorination
After disinfection, chlorine residuals can persist in the effluent for many hours.
Most states will not allow the use of chlorination alone for pristine receiving waters because of its
effects on aquatic species. To minimize these effects, chlorinated wastewater must often be
dechlorinated. Dechlorination is the process of removing the free and combined chlorine residuals
to reduce residual toxicity after chlorination and before discharge. Sulfur dioxide, sodium bisulfite,
and sodium metabisulfite are the commonly used dechlorinating chemicals. Activated carbon has
also been used. The total chlorine residuals can usually be reduced to a level that is not toxic to
aquatic life Chlorination/dechlorination systems are more complex to operate and maintain than
chlorination alone. For a schematic of the chlorination/dechlorination system using sulfur dioxide.
.
4.3.2.2 Types of Chlorine
The different forms of chlorine used in wastewater treatment plants are listed below.
A. Gas (Cl2):
Also known as elemental chlorine, it is the most commonly used form of chlorine. This toxic,
yellow-green gas is stored as a liquid under pressure. At normal pressures, elemental chlorine is
a toxic, yellow-green gas, and is liquid at high pressures.
Advantages
Chlorine is very effective for removing almost all microbial pathogens and is appropriate as both a
primary and secondary disinfectant
_____________________________________________________________________117
Limitations
Chlorine is a dangerous gas that is lethal at concentrations as low as percent air by volume.
Process
Chlorine gas is released from a liquid chlorine cylinder by a pressure reducing and flow control
valve operating at a pressure less than atmospheric. The gas is led to an injector in the water
Supply pipe where highly pressurized water is passed through venturi orifice creating a vacuum
that draws the chlorine into the water stream. Adequate mixing and contact time must be
provided after injection to ensure complete disinfection of pathogens. It may be necessary to
control the pH of the water.
Equipment
A basic system consists of a chlorine cylinder, a cylinder-mounted chlorine gas vacuum regulator,
a chlorine gas injector, and a contact tank or pipe. Prudence and/or state regulations would
require that a second cylinder and gas regulator be provided with a changeover valve to ensure
continuity of disinfection. Additional safety and control features may be required. A gas chlorinator
should be installed in a room or chamber with direct emergency access to outside air and fitted
with an exhaust fan ventilation system. Federal and state safety regulations must be observed. If
not onsite, self contained breathing apparatus and chlorine cylinder repair kit should be available
within a reasonable time frame and/or distance.
Chemicals
Chlorine gas is supplied as liquid in high pressure cylinders.
B. Calcium hypochlorite (Ca(OCl)2):
This highly corrosive compound is white, dry solid containing 70% chlorine. It commercially
available in granular, powdered, or tablet form.
C. Sodium hypochlorite solution (NaOCl):
This solution is clear, light yellow, highly alkaline, and corrosive with a strong chlorine odor. It is
often referred to as liquid bleach and contains 5 to 15% chlorine, but is more expensive than
chlorine gas (as available chlorine).
Advantages Sodium hypochlorite is easier to handle than gaseous chlorine or calcium hypochlorite.
_____________________________________________________________________118

Limitations
Sodium hypochlorite is very corrosive and should be stored with care and kept away from
equipment that can be damaged by corrosion. Hypochlorite solutions decompose and should not
be stored for more than one month. It must be stored in a cool, dark, dry area.
Process
Sodium hypochlorite solution is diluted with water in a mixing/holding tank. The diluted solution is
injected by a chemical pump into the water supply pipe at a controlled rate. Adequate mixing and
contact time must be provided.
Equipment
A basic liquid chlorination system, or
Hypo chlorinator, includes two metering pumps (one
serving as a standby), a solution tank, a diffuser (to inject the solution into the water), and tubing.
Chemicals
Sodium hypochlorite solution is readily available. Sodium hypochlorite can also be generated
onsite by electrolysis of sodium chloride solution in specialized proprietary equipment. The only
supplies required are common salt and electricity. Hydrogen is given off as a by-product and must
be safely dispersed.
D. Electrochlorination
Many industries today use large quantities of water for process cooling. Power generation plants,
chemical plants, refineries, LNG facilities, paper mills, steel works etc. In addition in many areas
of the World desalination of seawater and brackish water, waste water
by flash evaporation or
membrane process is commonplace. In most cases the presence of biofouling such as molluscs,
algae or slime, cause numerous problems for plant and equipment. Fouling can adversely affect
system hydrodynamics, restricting flow increasing pumping pressures and accelerating corrosion
potential. Such problems will shorten the life of pumps, screens, heat exchangers and other plant
items as well as increase the operation and maintenance costs.
_____________________________________________________________________119
Fig 4.4: Electro chlorination Scheme System

Electrochlorination is an electrolysis process where either: natural seawater, or, an artificial brine
solution (fresh water + salt) is converted into sodium hypochlorite solution
Salt is composed of sodium and chloride. When in solution and DC (direct current) is passed
through titanium electrodes, the chlorides will disassociate to form chlorine. The process is
basically as follows:
Electrolysis occur in an undivided cell when a DC current is passed through a saline

water solution (e.g. seawater or brine solution)
At the anode: Oxidation of chloride ions to produce chlorine (Cl2)
At the cathode: Reduction of water to produce sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and hydrogen
(H2)
_____________________________________________________________________120

The overall reaction, sustained by electrical energy, is as follows:
CHEMISTRY The actual reactions are complex, but the key reaction can be represented by the
following equation.
Liberated chlorine reacts with the sodium hydroxide to produce sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl)
instantaneously
Electrochlorination is the only 100% safe chlorine technology as Cl2, in the form of a low
concentrated hypo solution, is generated:
on-site (at the point of application)
on demand (only when required and always "fresh")
no bulk storage (because it is generated on demand)
only basic/safe inputs are used (seawater + electricity, or, fresh water + salt +
electricity)
no heavy metal pollution (e.g. copper or lead), and,
chlorine decomposes back into common salt (sodium chloride) again
When using an electrochlorinator, there is no need for any commercial chlorine products. It is
a safe, economical and independent chlorine alternative to hazardous, high concentrated
commercial chlorine products e.g. gaseous chlorine, commercial hypo and dry chlorine
(granular calcium hypochlorite).It is also safe for the environment:
4.4 Controlling of disinfection by-products
A number of factors can affect the formation of disinfection by-products. These include the types
and concentrations of organic materials present when chlorine is added, the dosage of chlorine,
the temperature and pH of the water, and the reaction time. To control the formation of
halogenated by-products (compounds formed by the reaction of a disinfectant, such as Chlorine
with organic material in the water supply) during chlorination, EPA has identified these three
strategies:
_____________________________________________________________________121

1. Remove the by-products after they are formed, which can be difficult and costly.
2. Use alternative disinfectants those do not produce undesirable by-products, which is often the
most cost-effective strategy.
3. Reduce the concentration of organics in the water before oxidation or chlorination
To minimize the formation of by-products. This will provide the highest quality finished water .on
of by-products. This will provide the highest quality finished water.
4.5 Comparison & Recommendation of Final Disinfection Option
Table 4.3: Advantages & Limitations of Disinfection Options
Disinfectant
Chlorine Gas
Advantages
Limitations
Highly effective against most pathogens
Byproduct formation (THMs, HAAs1)
Provides "residual" protection -
Special operator training needed
Operationally the most reliable
Additional regulatory requirements (EPA's
Generally the most cost-effective option
Risk Management Program)
No chemical storage required for electro
Not effective against Cryptosporidium
chlorination
Sometimes Corrosive; requires special
Can be generated on demand
handling
Chemical cost involved
Onsite generation cost involved
UV
- No chemical generation, storage, or
- No residual protection
handling
- Less effective in turbid water
- Effective against Cryptosporidium
- No taste and odor control
- No known byproducts at levels of
- Generally higher cost than chlorine
concern
As the chlorination has the 2 distinct advantages of Residual protection and control of odor, this is
more applicable option for sewage treatment. If we go for electrochlorination, then it is easy to
control the disinfection by products. There is no need for chemical storage facility required for
electrochlorination. So chlorination through electrochlorination is recommended as the
disinfection option. A comparison is made among the chlorination options in the following table.
_____________________________________________________________________122
Table 4.4: Comparison among Chlorination options from O & M perspective

Disinfection
Handling of
Shelf-LIfe of
system
Product
Product
No transportation
Electrochlorination
No storage Easy
No storage
Transportation and
Stable
hazardous
Bleaching Powder
inconvenient and
Messy
Very Easy
Economical
Difficult and
handling is
storage is
Consumable
required
No loss of chlorine
Handling and
Cost of
Produced onsite
handing
Chlorine Gas
O&M
unsafe to
Economical
handle
Highly unstable
Rapidly chlorine
loss on Storage
Commercial
Handling and
Unstable and
Sodium
Storage is
chlorine loss on
Hypochlorite
inconvenient
Storage
Difficult &
Messy
Fairly Easy
Expensive
Most Expensive
4.5 Recommended Option

Considering the above advantages and disadvantages of the disinfection options and comparing
among the chlorination options also, it is recommended that Electrochlorination is the best
option for our application.
4.6 Operation & Maintenance
Sodium hypochlorite solution must be stored in rubber-lined steel or fiberglass storage tanks..
Several large cities have switched to hypochlorite to avoid the transport of chlorine through
populated areas. A routine O&M schedule should be developed and followed for any chlorine
disinfection system. Regular O&M involves disassembling and cleaning the various components,
such as meters and floats, once every 6 months. Iron and manganese deposits can be removed
with muriatic acid. Booster pumps have the same maintenance requirements as any other pump.
Valves and springs should also be inspected and cleaned annually. All manufacturers O&M
commendations should be followed, and equipment must be tested and calibrated as
recommended by the equipment manufacturer.
_____________________________________________________________________123

4.7 Capital and O & M Cost
The cost of chlorine disinfection systems is dependent on the manufacturer, the site, the capacity
of the plant, and the characteristics of the wastewater to be disinfected. Hypochlorite compounds
are more expensive than chlorine gas. The total cost of chlorination will be increased by
approximately 30 to 50% with the addition of dechlorination. Listed in Table 4.5 are the results of
a 1995 study conducted by the Water Environment Research Federation for secondary effluents
from disinfection facilities at average dry weather flow rates of 1, 10, and 100 mgd (2.25, 20, and
175 mgd peak wet weather flow, respectively). The annual O&M costs for chlorine disinfection
include power consumption, cleaning chemicals and supplies, miscellaneous equipment repairs,
and personnel costs. The costs associated with the Uniform Fire Code requirements can be high
for small facilities (as high as 25%). The operating cost comparison among different chlorination
options are given in table 4.6
Table 4.5 : Estimated annualized costs for chlorination
Flow ( MGD)
Cl2
Estimated Capital Costs ($)
Estimated Cost($)
dose
ADWF
PWWF
(mg/l)
Chlorination
Dechlorination
UFC
Capital
O&M
2.25
410,000
290,000
239,000
1127000
49,300
10
20
1,804,000
546,000
264,000
3137000
158,200
100
175
10,131,000
1,031,000
788,000
14,340,000
660,000
2.25
10
441000
370000
239,000
1,260,000
59,200
10
20
10
2051000
664000
264,000
3,575,000
226,700
100
175
10
10258000
1258000
788,000
14,765,000
721,800
2.25
20
445000
374000
239,000
1,270,000
76,600
10
20
20
2113500
913500
264,000
3,949,000
379,100
100
175
20
10273000
1273000
788,000
14,801,000
1,311,000
UFC : Uniform Fire Code ( US): ADWF average dry weather flow, PWWF Peak
dry weather flow
_____________________________________________________________________124

Table 4.6: Operating cost comparison for Chlorination Options
Disinfection System
Total Cost
Equivalent
Cost/Kg,L
Chlorine Gas (Baby cylinder) 100% Cl content
1 Kg
40
40
Bleaching Powder Avg 20% Cl content
5 Kg
15
75
Commercial Hypochlorite Avg 5-10% Cl content
20 lit
15
300
INR
0.23
Electrochlorination 0.7-1% Cl Content
100 lit
(salt+ power
23
cost)
4.8 Comparison of Electrochlorination by different Venders4.8.1 Technical comparison between Electrochlorination options
Table 4.7: Electro chlorination offered by 2 venders
Sr. No Criteria
HES Water Engineers (India)
Denora India Ltd
Pvt Ltd
Life of Electrodes
6-8 years
4-5 years
Safety of Handling
Concentration less than 1% and Safe for personnel handling the

completely safe to handle
Concentration of
chlorination
0.6-1.0%
0.6%
hypochlorite solution
produced
3
Components included
One Dosing pump
in the offer
One HDPE storage tank

with level sensors
Brine preparation/ salt storage

tank
Electrolyser
Electro-chlorination plant
Intercooler
PLC
One set of instruments and
Power supply unit
relevant accessories
Installation and Trial run

Pipeline up to 5 meters
4
Exclusions in the offer
Any civil construction

except foundation for unit
as per requirement
Incoming AC power supply
Fresh water connection to the

generator
Drain line
Hypochlorite dosing line
_____________________________________________________________________125

up to DC supply input
3 phase AC power supply up to
Fresh water connection
DC power supply unit

Any civil work
Earthing, Lighting, ventilation
Manpower
Warranty
18 months from date of supply 18 months from date of supply or 12

or 12 months from date of
months from date of installation,
installation, whichever is earlier whichever is earlier

6
Validity
Delivery
120 days
30 days
120 days from the date of Work 140 days from the date of Work
order
order
4.8.2. Capital and O & M costs for electro chlorination options

With the dosing of 1 ppm for the disinfection after tertiary treatment and dosing of 2 ppm for the
treated effluent from SBR, the capital, O & M costs and the electricity requirement as received
from different venders are listed in the following tables -
Table 4.8: Offer from Denora India Ltd
Table 4.8 A. Capital & O & M cost for Electrochlorination after Tertiary Treatment
Flow to be disinfected
22 MLD
Dosing rate
1 ppm
Capital cost (( E & M)
Rs. 7,99,759 /-
Electricity requirement
60 KWH/ day
Space Required
6Mx4Mx3M
Table 4.8 B. Capital & O & M cost for Electrochlorination after SBR
42 MLD
Dosing rate
2 ppm
Capital cost (( E & M))
Rs. 52,59,938/-
240 KWH/day
Space Required
10 M x 6 M x 4 M
_____________________________________________________________________126

Table 4.9: Offer from HES Water Engineers (India) Pvt Ltd
Table 4.9A. Capital & O & M cost for Electrochlorination after Tertiary Treatment
22 MLD
Dosing rate
1 mg/l
Capital cost( E & M)
Rs. 16,35,000/-
70 KWH/ day
Space Required
6Mx4Mx3M
Table 4.9B. Capital & O & M cost for Electrochlorination after SBR
42 MLD
Dosing rate
2 mg/l
Capital cost ( E & M)
Rs. 47,98,000/-
250 KWH/day
Space Required
10 M x 6 M x 4 M
_____________________________________________________________________127

4.9 Recommended of Option
As per the applicability and coverage of offers, offer from HES Water Engineers (India) Pvt Ltd is
recommended as the final option as the system has some typical advantages as
generates chlorine on continuous basis from hour to hour.
longer life for electrodes
auto sensing system
microprocessor based logic control system.
flexibility of pouring salt for 4-8 days at one go
inbuilt feature of Salinity check, without which the electrolyzer will not start.
the electrolyzer is mounted in an acrylic / PVC shell and process of generation can
actually be seen.
The costs between the offers from 2 venders are comparable.

4.10. Technical Specification of Recommended Option
Electrolyser is coated with SC-12 super coating, providing longevity and dimensional
stability.
System is fully automatic providing instrumentation to minimize human intervention.
System provides various sensors to regulate strength and levels of brine solution, hypo
generation and storage tank.
This entire instrumentation is explained as under:

Stage 1: Operator has to fill the Salt saturation tank with salt upto 2/3rd level. This salt is
sufficient for 10-15 days of salt requirement.
Stage 2: Switch on the power
Stage 3: Operators job is over and the system takes care of all other operations. Water
starts pouring into the salt tank and will stop automatically once a pre-determined level is
reached.
Stage 4: immediately thereafter, saturated brine solution will start moving into the
generation tank along with fresh water to create desired salinity level.
Stage 5: System is fitted with a unique reference cell to check accurate salinity level.
Stage 6: Once reference cell ensures proper salinity, it will send message to the system for
start of main generation cell and work to a predetermined, pre programmed cycle.
Stage 7: After completing the generation, system shall automatically transfer hypo chlorite
to the storage tank.
All the above steps will be repeated from stage-3 to stage-7 (stage 1 & stage 2 need no
repetition, unless salt is low or machine is switched off).
_____________________________________________________________________128

Engineering
Electrochlorinator is built with Engineering Plastics, such as CPVC, UPVC, Acrylic etc.,
thus making the system completely corrosion resistant.
Electrochlorinator is controlled by micro processor based, pre programmed logic control

cards and regulated by DC power supply.
Electrochlorinator incorporates sensor system to automatically sense all the above

functions (stage 1 to stage 7).
Electrolyser is bipolar made of Grade 1 titanium sheets, coated with SC-12 super coating,
ensuring high cell efficiency and life.
Electrochlorination process can be seen through a transparent PVC/ acrylic cover.
_____________________________________________________________________129

Table 4.10: Technical Specifications Data Sheet
Electro chlorinator Model
OxiMax MA1000 ( for 22
OxiMax MA4000 ( for 42
MLD)
MLD)
Cell designation
MA1000 or MA 500x2
MA2000x2 or MA1000x4
No. of cells
1 or 2, as may be desired
2 or 4, as may be desired
Rated chlorine Output (kg/hr)
1.0
4.0
Operating DC amps at rated
375
1500
15.5
15.5
Anode material
SC-12 coated Titanium Sheet
SC-12 coated Titanium Sheet
Anode thickness (mm)
1.5
1.5
Anode Area (Sq.M.)
0.7
2.6
Cathode material
Titanium sheet
Titanium sheet
Cathode Thickness (mm)
1.5
1.5
Cathode Area (sq. M.)
0.7
2.6
Electrode area (Sq.M)
1.4
5.2
Expected Electrode Life
6-8 years
6-8 years
Cell body
RTM moulded FRP
RTM moulded FRP
Spacers
PTFE
PTFE
Electrode Gap (mm)
2.5
2.5
Cell cover
Acrylic plate
Acrylic plate
Gaskets
Viton
Viton
Internal Hardware
Titanium/PVC
Titanium/PVC
External cell fasteners
SS316
SS316
External cell electrical
Titanium/brass/copper
Titanium/brass/copper
40mm CPVC
40mm CPVC
6..5 to 7.5
6.5 to 7.5
Hypochlorite flow (l/hr)
166.0
664.0
Saturated brine flow (l/hr)
15.0
60.0
Water flow (l/hr)
151.0
604.0
Dilute brine salinity (g/l)
24.0
24.0
output
Operating DC volts at rated
output
materials
hardware
Flow lines
Specifications
Hypochlorite strength
(grams/ltrs)
_____________________________________________________________________130

Salt consumption/kg
3.6
3.6
3.6
14.4
0.7
2.8
12
12
Rated DC Amps
450
1800
Rated DC volts
20.0
20.0
Rated DC output (kVA)
9.0
36.0
DC power consumption at
5.7
22.8
5.7
5.7
Rectifier efficiency @ full load
85%
85%
AC power connected (kVA)
10.6
42.4
AC power consumption @
6.7
26.8
chlorine/kg
Amount of salt per hour at
max. output
Hydrogen produced a required
output (kg)
Temperature increase through
electrolyser
Specifications-power supply
required output
DC power consumption
(kWh/kg Cl2)
required output (kVA)
_____________________________________________________________________131
Figure 4.5 : Control Logic for Oximax Electrochlorinator
_____________________________________________________________________132

Inclusion in the offer
One suitable dosing pump
One HDPE Storage Tank with level sensors
Electro chlorination plant
PLC
Power Supply unit
Installation and trial run
Pipeline up to 5 meters
Exclusion in the offer 1. Any civil construction except foundation for unit as per requirement
2. Incoming AC power supply up to DC supply input
3. Fresh Water connection
References:
CPHEEO Manual on Water Supply & Treatment- Ministry of Urban Development, GOI
www.Techbrief.com
Presentations from M/S. DENORA, TTPL and HES Engineering
_____________________________________________________________________133
Chapter-V
Sludge Handling & Disposal
_____________________________________________________________________134

5.0 Sludge Handling and Disposal
5.1
Introduction
5.1.1
What Is Sludge?
The wastewater treatment unit processes remove solids and BOD from the waste stream before
the liquid effluent is discharged to its receiving waters. What remains to be disposed of is a
mixture of solids and wastes, called process residuals; they are more commonly referred as
sludge.
The most costly and complex aspect of wastewater treatment can be the collection, processing,
and disposal of sludge. This is the case because the quantity of sludge produced may be as high
as 2% of the original volume of wastewater, depending somewhat on the treatment process being
used. As sludge can be as much as 97% water content and the cost of disposal will be related to
the volume of sludge being processed, one of the primary purposes or goals (along with
stabilizing it so it is no longer objectionable or environmentally damaging) of sludge treatment is
to separate as much of the water from the solids as possible. Sludge treatment methods may be
designed to accomplish both of these purposes.
5.1.2
Sources of Sludge
The source of sludge in conventional waste water treatment plant
Primary treatment process

o
The settleable material that collects on the bottom of the clarifier is known as
primary sludge.
Secondary treatment process

o
The sludge at the bottom of the secondary clarifier is called secondary sludge.
Chemical treatment processes.

o
The addition of chemicals and various organic and inorganic substances prior to
sedimentation and clarification may increase the solids capture and reduce the
amount of solids lost in the effluent.
Since we are opting for SBR technology, the primary & secondary clarifier is removed. The
source of sludge will be primarily the SBR tanks.
_____________________________________________________________________135

5.1.3
Quantity of Sludge
Based on the Aqua-aerobic technology on SBR, the quantity of sludge to be formed is around
1.47 MLD (14.7 tons per day) with consistency of 1% from the SBR tanks. Details are given
below.
Table 5.1: Quantity of sludge to be produced per day
SL No
Description
Values
Units
Capacity of waste water plant
65
MLD
Inlet BOD
250
mg/l
Outlet BOD
10
mg/l
Sludge yield as per Aqua-aerobic
0.94
Sludge generation
14.664
tons
Consistency of sludge
Volume of sludge to be handled
1.4664
MLD
% of treatment plant capacity
2.256
_____________________________________________________________________136
5.1.4
Sludge Characteristics
The main component of all sludge is water. Prior to treatment, most sludges contain 95 to 99%
water. This high water content makes sludge handling and processing extremely costly in terms
of both money and time. Sludge handling may represent up to 40% of the capital cost and 50% of
the operation cost of a treatment plant. As a result, the importance of optimum design for
handling and disposal of sludge cannot be overemphasized.
The water content of the sludge is present in a number of different forms. Some forms can be
removed by several sludge treatment processes, allowing the same flexibility in choosing the
optimum sludge treatment and disposal method. The various forms of water and their
approximate percentages for a typical activated sludge are shown in Table
Table 5.2 : Distribution of Water in an Activated Sludge
The forms of water associated with sludges are:

Free water
Water that is not attached to sludge solids in any way. This can be removed by simple
gravitational settling.
Floc water
Water that is trapped within the floc and travels with them. Its removal is possible by
mechanical dewatering.
_____________________________________________________________________137

Capillary water
Water that adheres to the individual particles and can be squeezed out of shape and
compacted.
Particle water
Water that is chemically bound to the individual particles and cant be removed without
inclination.
From a public health view, the second and probably more important component of sludge is the
solids matter. Representing from 1 to 8% of the total mixture, these solids are extremely unstable.
Wastewater solids can be classified into two categories based on their origin: organic and
inorganic. Organic solids in wastewater are materials that are or were at one time alive and that
will burn or volatilize at 550C after 15 minutes in a muffle furnace. The percent of organic
material within sludge will determine how unstable it is. The inorganic material within a sludge will
determine how stable it is. The inorganic solids are those solids that were never alive and will not
burn or volatilize at 550C after 15 minutes in a muffle furnace. Inorganic solids are generally not
subject to breakdown by biological action and are considered stable. Certain inorganic solids,
however, can create problems when related to the environment (e.g., heavy metals such as
copper, lead, zinc, mercury, and others). These can be extremely harmful if discharged. Organic
solids may be subject to biological decomposition in either an aerobic or anaerobic environment.
Decomposition of organic matter (with its production of objectionable by-products) and the
possibility of toxic organic solids within the sludge compound the problems of sludge disposal.
5.2
Sludge Treatment: An Overview
The release of wastewater solids without proper treatment could result in severe damage to the
environment. We must have a system to treat the volume of material removed as sludge
throughout the system. Release without treatment would defeat the purpose of environmental
protection.
Sludge treatment processes can be classified into a number of major categories. In this report,
we discuss the processes: thickening, digestion (or stabilization), de-watering, incineration, and
land application. Each of these categories has then been further subdivided according to the
specific processes that are used to accomplish sludge treatment.
_____________________________________________________________________138
Sludge
thickening
Sludge
Digestion
Sludge
Handling
Disposal
Sludge
Dewatering
Figure 5.1: Sludge Treatment Processes

5.2.1
Sludge Thickening
Sludge thickening (or concentration) is a unit process used to increase the solids content of the
sludge by removing a portion of the liquid fraction. By increasing the solids content, more
economical treatment of the sludge can be effected. Sludge thickening processes include:
1. Gravity Thickener
2. Flotation Thickener
3. Belt Thickener
4. Centrifugal Thickener
5. Rotary drum thickener
5.2.1.1 Gravity Thickener
Gravity thickening is most effective on primary sludge. In operation, solids are withdrawn from
primary treatment (and sometimes secondary treatment) and pumped to the thickener. The solids
buildup in the thickener forms a solids blanket on the bottom. The weight of the blanket
compresses the solids on the bottom and squeezes the water out. By adjusting the blanket
thickness, the percent of solids in the underflow (solids withdrawn from the bottom of the
thickener) can be increased or decreased. The supernatant (clear water) that rises to the surface
is returned to the wastewater flow for treatment.
_____________________________________________________________________139
Performance of gravity thickeners (i.e., the solids concentrations achieved) typically results in
producing 8 to 10% solids from primary underflow, 2 to 4% solids from waste activated sludge, 7
to 9% solids from trickling filter residuals, and 4 to 9% from combined primary and secondary
residuals.
Figure 5.2: Gravity Thickeners

5.2.1.2
Flotation Thickener
Flotation thickening is used most efficiently for waste sludges from suspended-growth biological
treatment process, such as the activated sludge process. In operation, recycled water from the
flotation thickener is aerated under pressure. During this time the water absorbs more air than it
would under normal pressure. The recycled flow together with chemical additives (if used) is
mixed with the flow. When the mixture enters the flotation thickener, the excess air is released in
the form of fine bubbles. These bubbles become attached to the solids and lift them toward the
surface. The accumulation of solids on the surface is called the float cake. As more solids are
added to the bottom of the float cake, it becomes thicker and water drains from the upper levels
of the cake. The solids are then moved up an inclined plane by a scraper and discharged. The
supernatant leaves the tank below the surface of the float solids and is recycled or returned to the
waste stream for treatment.
Flotation thickener performance is typically 3 to 5% solids for waste activated sludge (WAS) with
polymer addition and 2 to 4% solids without polymer addition.
_____________________________________________________________________140
Figure 5.3: Components of a Floatation thickener
_____________________________________________________________________141
Figure 5.4: Operations of a Floatation thickener

Operational Controls
The solids loading rate of a floatation thickener is generally 0.4 to 1.0 lb/hr/sqft to produce a
thickened waste activated sludge (WAS) of 3 to 5 percent TS. Adding polymer increases the
solids loading rate to as much as 2.0 lb/hr/sq ft without negatively impacting performance.
Polymer additions of 4 to 10 lbs per dry ton are common. WAS sludge volume index (SVI) is a
solids characteristic that correlates well with floatation performance. An SVI of 125 or less is
required for optimum performance.
Floatation thickeners are designed hydraulically to operate in the range of 0.5 to 2 gpm/sq ft, with
a suggested maximum hydraulic loading of 0.8 gpm/sqft. The quantity of air provided in
floatataion thickening is defined in terms of an air: solids dimensionless weight ratio. Adequate
flotation is achieved in most municipal wastewater thickening applications at ratios of 0.02 to
0.06.
5.2.1.3
Gravity Belt Thickener (GBT)
Solids concentrators (belt thickeners) usually consist of a mixing tank, chemical storage and
metering equipment, and a moving porous belt. In operation, the process residual flow is
chemically treated and then spread evenly over the surface of the moving porous belt. As the
flow is carried down the belt (similar to a conveyor belt) the solids are mechanically turned or
_____________________________________________________________________142

agitated and water drains through the belt. This process is primarily used in facilities where space
is limited.
Figure 5.5: Gravity Belt thickener

A key operational control consideration for a GBT is the feed rate. Loading rates to gravity belts
vary significantly. A loading rate at or below 150 gpm/meter of belt width should provide good
performance.
Other operational control considerations for GBT installations include:
5.2.1.4
The need for adjustable rate solids feed and polymer feed
Pressure drop requirements for the solids/polymer mixing device
Provision of adequate flow and pressure for the belt wash water supply
Building ventilation and odor control
Centrifugal Thickeners
The rate of separation of sludge particles is increased by using higher centrifugal forces. Free
water along with part of colloidal water is removed in this case.
There are mainly three types of centrifuges used for sludge thickening are Disc nozzle, Solid bowl
decanter and Basket type. The disc nozzle can be used only for pretreated excess activated
sludge. Solid bowl decanter is mostly used for dewatering of sludge and not for thickening. The
centrifuge consists of three major components, a rotating solid bowl, (shape of a cylinder with
truncated cone section at the end), an inner rotating screw conveyor and a planetary gear
_____________________________________________________________________143

system. The clarification capacity depends upon the gravitational force and the detention time of
the feed mixture.
In the basket type centrifuge, feed is introduced in the bottom of the basket. At equilibrium, solids
settle out and build up on the bowl wall, while the centrate overflows the lip ring at the top. When
the solids have filled the basket, feed is stopped, the basket speed is reduced and a knife moves
into the cake to discharge it from bottom of the casing.
Features differ substantially among centrifuge manufacturers. In general, performance of a
centrifuge, as measured by thickened solids and solids capture, can be adjusted to desired
values by modifying feed flow rate, bowl and conveyor differential speed, polymer addition, and
pool depth. For a particular solid, polymer addition allows increasing the hydraulic loading while
maintaining solids capture and thickening solids performance. Polymer use also improves
achievable solids capture efficiencies typically to over 90 percent.
Design considerations for centrifuge thickening include:
Provide effective wastewater degritting and screening or grinding. Where wastewater

screening or grinding is inadequate, grinders should be provided on the solids feed to the
centrifuge to avoid plugging problems.
Use adjustable rate feed pumping with positive flow rate control from a feed source that is
relatively uniform in consistency. A mixed storage or blend tank is recommended.
Consider centrate-handling delivery to either primary or secondary treatment processes,

venting, and foam suppression.
Provide water for centrifuge flushing when equipment shutdown occurs.
Consider the need for heated water supply to periodically flush grease buildup.
Ensure proper ventilation and consider odor control.
Consider struvite formation potential when thickening anaerobically digested sludge.
Provide flexibility within the polymer feed system.
5.2.1.5 Rotary Drum Thickeners

A rotary drum or rotary screen thickener functions like a gravity belt thickener allowing free water
to drain through a porous media while solids are retained on the media. Rotary drum thickeners
are often used as a pre-thickening step with belt filter press dewatering. They are well suited for
the thickening of high-fiber sludge such as those in the pulp and paper industry and also for
thickening either raw or digested bio-solids that contain a significant primary solids fraction. Their
success with municipal WAS is variable and dependent on solids characteristics. Polymer
requirements are a concern because of floc sensitivity and shear potential in the rotating drum.
_____________________________________________________________________144

The thickener uses a rotating drum with wedge wires, perforations, stainless steel fabric,
polyester fabric or a combination of stainless steel and polyester fabric as the porous media.
The drum either is equipped with a center shaft mounted on a steel frame or is mounted on four
trunnion wheels supporting its outer perimeter. A variable speed drive unit rotates the drum at
approximately 5 to 20 rpm. Conditioned solids enter the drum and filtrate drains through the
screen openings. Solids are conveyed along the drum by a continuous internal screw or diverted
angle flights and exits through a discharge chute. Wash water is used to flush the inside and
outside of the drum cleaning the screen openings of solids.
Figure 5.6: Rotary Drum thickener

The performance of a rotary drum thickener is similar to GBTs. Rotary drum thickeners typically
require less space than other thickening methods and have a relatively low capital cost. The need
for polymer conditioning and necessary operator attention are O&M cost related considerations.
Rotary drum thickeners offer the flexibility of varying process performance with sludge feed and
polymer feed rate control and drum speed adjustment. Equipment sizes and configurations vary
among manufacturers. Design considerations include control of solids and polymer feed rate,
drainage, and screen wash water supply.
_____________________________________________________________________145
5.2.1.5
Comparisons of various options
Table 5.3: Comparison among options of sludge thickening

Parameters
Expected Under flow
Gravity Thickener
Floatation Thickener
Gravity Belt
Centrifugal
Rotary
Drum
Thickener
Thickeners
Thickener
5 to 8 %
5 to 9%
4 to 9%
3 to 5 %
4 to 8%
0.5 m3/ m2 hr
2.5 m3 / m2 hr
34 m3/ m hr
Solid Loading Rate
4 kg/hr/m2
5 kg/hr/m2
Area requirement
122 m2
32 m2
1.8 m wide belt
Solids Recovery
80-92 %
Over 90%
90 to 98%
0ver 90%
93 to 98 %
Energy cost
Negligible
High
50 watt/m3
1.5 to 3 K.wh/m3
80-100 watt/m3
Air supply with air:
Polymers- 3 to 10
Polymers- 3 to 10
Polymers- 3 to 10
solid ratio- 0.02 to
lbs/dry tons
lbs/dry tons
lbs/dry tons
Solid concentration
Surface
Overloading
Rate
Other consumables
0.06, Polymer-4 to 10
lbs/dry tons
_____________________________________________________________________
146
Parameters
Advantages
Gravity Thickener
Floatation Thickener
Low energy
consumption
Good for waste
Gravity Belt
Centrifugal
Rotary
Thickener
Thickeners
Thickener
sludge from
Good for raw and

digested sludge
Low
space
requirement
Large
area
space
requirement
biological
Easy installation
Easy installation
treatment process
Min.
Min.
Odour
problem
Disadvantages
Low
Drum
Odor problem
High energy cost
requirement
_____________________________________________________________________
High energy cost
Odour
problem
High
energy
cost.
147
5.2.2
Sludge Stabilization
The purpose of sludge stabilization is to reduce volume, stabilize the organic matter, and
eliminate pathogenic organisms to permit reuse or disposal. The equipment required for
stabilization depends on the specific process used.
5.2.2.1
Aerobic Digestion
Equipment used for aerobic digestion consists of an aeration tank (digester) which is similar in
design to the aeration tank used for the activated sludge process. Either diffused or mechanical
aeration equipment is necessary to maintain the aerobic conditions in the tank. Solids and
supernatant removal equipment is also required. In operation, process residuals (sludge) are
added to the digester and aerated to maintain a DO concentration of 1.0 mg/L. Aeration also
ensures that the tank contents are well mixed. Generally, aeration continues for approximately 20
day retention time. Aeration is periodically stopped and the solids are allowed to settle. Sludge
and the clear liquid supernatant are withdrawn as needed to provide more room in the digester.
When no additional volume is available, mixing is stopped for 12 to 24 hours before solids are
withdrawn for disposal. Process control testing should include alkalinity, pH, percent solids,
percent volatile solids for influent sludge, supernatant, digested sludge, and digester contents.
The aerobic digestion tank is same as aeration tank with sludge addition apparatus. Other
operational parameters are given below.
_____________________________________________________________________148
Table 5.4: Operational parameters for Aerobic sludge digestion

5.2.2.2
Anaerobic Digestion
Anaerobic digestion is the traditional method of sludge stabilization. It involves using bacteria that
thrive in the absence of oxygen and is slower than aerobic digestion. The advantage of anaerobic
digestion is that only a small percentage of the wastes are converted into new bacterial cells.
Most of the organics are converted into carbon dioxide
and methane gas.
Equipment used in anaerobic digestion includes a sealed digestion tank with either a fixed or a
floating cover (see Figure 18.14), heating and mixing equipment, gas storage tanks, solids and
supernatant withdrawal equipment, and safety equipment (e.g., vacuum relief, pressure relief,
flame traps, explosion proof electrical equipment). In operation, process residual (thickened or
unthickened sludge) is pumped into the sealed digester. The organic matter digests anaerobically
_____________________________________________________________________149

by a two-stage process. Sugars, starches, and carbohydrates are converted to volatile acids,
carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide. The volatile acids are then converted to methane gas. This
operation can occur in a single tank (single stage) or in two tanks (two stages). In a single-stage
system, supernatant and digested solids must be removed whenever flow is added. In a twostage operation, solids and liquids from the first stage flow into the second stage each time fresh
solids are added. Supernatant is withdrawn from the second stage to provide additional treatment
space. Solids are periodically withdrawn for dewatering or disposal. The methane gas produced
in the process may be used for many plant activities.
A. Tank dimensions.
No particular shape possesses advantages over all others but circular tanks are more popular.
Circular tanks will not be less than 6 m or more than 30 m in diameter. Side-wall water depths will
be a minimum of 6 feet and a maximum of 9 m. A 0.75 feet freeboard will be provided between
the top of the wall and the working liquid level. With mechanisms for removing sludge, the
bottoms of the tanks will be flat; otherwise, hopper bottoms with steep slopes of 3 m horizontal to
1 m vertical will be provided. All tanks designed for treatment plants rated at or above 1.0 million
gallons per day will be multiple units.
B. Covers.
Two types of covers are used on sludge digestion tanks, fixed and floating. If a combination of
covers is used, fixed covers will be used for the primary stage of a two-stage digestion process,
and floating covers will be used for the secondary stage. In lieu of floating covers on separate
digesters and in cold regions where freezing ice and snow are problems, fixed covers may be
used provided a gas collection dome is installed in the top of the cover. At least two access
manholes will be provided in the tank roofs. In addition, the tank covers will be provided with
sampling wells, pressure and vacuum relief valves, and flame traps.
C. Control chamber.
Entrance to the control chamber must be designed with the safety of the operator and the
equipment foremost. The chamber will be well-lighted, ventilated, and equipped with a water
service and drain. All sludge-heating equipment, gas piping, gas meters, controls and
appurtenances will be located in a separate structure. All the above-mentioned structures will be
of explosion-proof construction.
_____________________________________________________________________150
D. Piping.
The particular piping requirements for sludge digesters will include provisions for adding sludge,
withdrawing sludge, multi-level supernatant removal points, heating, recirculating sludge or
supernatant, flushing, sampling gas collection, and gas recirculating. All supernatant will be
returned to process for further treatment. Supernatant draw-off facilities will be designed to
provide variable-rate return to prevent plant upset.
E. Heating.
The method to be used for heating sludge digestion tanks is the circulation of the contents of the
tank through a heat exchanger. Heated tanks will be insulated and the heating equipment sized to
maintain a temperature of 95 degrees Fahrenheit during the coldest weather conditions.
F. Chemical feeding.
Practical means for feeding lime or other chemicals that are commonly used to correct digester
operation problems must be included as part of the digester design.
G. Gas collection.
Sludge gas will be collected from the digesters either for utilization or for burning it to waste. Twostage units will provide interconnecting lines, permitting transfer and storage from one unit to the
other. Gas withdrawal will be from a common point.
H. Gas utilization.
Gas storage facilities will have to be provided if the gas is to be utilized and not wasted by
burning. Sludge gas has a heat value of between 500 and 700 British thermal units per cubic foot.
An average gas yield is 15 cubic feet per pound of volatile solid destroyed.
5.2.2.3
Composting
In a composting operation, dewatered solids are usually mixed with a bulking agent (i.e.,
hardwood chips) and stored until biological stabilization occurs. The composting mixture is
ventilated during storage to provide sufficient oxygen for oxidation and to prevent odors. After the
solids are stabilized, they are separated from the bulking agent. The composted solids are then
stored for curing and applied to farmlands or other beneficial uses. Expected performance of the
composting operation for both percent volatile matter reduction and percent moisture reduction
ranges from 40 to 60%+.
_____________________________________________________________________151

5.2.2.4
Lime Stabilization
In lime stabilization, process residuals are mixed with lime to achieve a pH of 12. This pH is
maintained for at least 2 hours. The treated solids can then be dewatered for disposal or directly
land applied.
5.2.2.5 Thermal Treatment
Thermal treatment (or wet air oxidation) subjects sludge to high temperature and pressure in a
closed reactor vessel. The high temperature and pressure rupture the cell walls of any
microorganisms present in the solids and causes chemical oxidation of the organic matter. This
process substantially improves dewatering and reduces the volume of material for disposal. It
also produces a very high strength waste, which must be returned to the wastewater treatment
system for further treatment.
5.2.2.6
Chlorine Oxidation
Chlorine oxidation also occurs in a closed vessel. In this process, chlorine (100 to 1000 mg/L) is
mixed with a recycled solids flow. The recycled flow and process residual flow are mixed in the
reactor. The solids and water are separated after leaving the reactor vessel. The water is
returned to the wastewater treatment system and the treated solids are dewatered for disposal.
The main advantage of chlorine oxidation is that it can be operated intermittently. The main
disadvantage is production of extremely low pH and high chlorine content in the supernatant.
5.2.2.7
Comparisons of various technology
Out of six option, Lime stabilization, chlorine oxidation and thermal treatment is not suitable for
sludge of common STP as there are costly and used for special condition such as industrial
sludge etc. The comparison among the other three options is given below.
_____________________________________________________________________152
Table 5.5 : Comparison among options of Sludge Stabilization

Parameters
Aerobic Digestion
Anaerobic Digestion
Composting
Area requirement
1500+ m2 ( area consider
1200-1500 m2
Huge
2 months
for sludge of 4%
consistency)
Time requirement
20 days (even more)
15-20 days
VSS Reduction
35-50%
60-70%
Recoveries
Manure
40 to 60%
Methane production @
Manure
0.35 m /kg COD

removed
Benefit of carbon credit

under CDM
Others
Manure
Requires oxygen 2. 5 to
Require large
2.3 kg for 1 kg of VSS
quantity of bulking
agent like
hardwood chips
Advantages
Disadvantages
5.2.3
Easy operation
Low energy cost
Odor less end product
Useful by product
High energy cost
Have more operational
Larger volume
Constraints
Easy operation
High area
requirement
Sludge Dewatering
Digested sludge removed from the digester is still mostly liquid. Sludge dewatering is used to
reduce volume by removing the water to permit easy handling and economical reuse or disposal.
Dewatering processes include sand drying beds, vacuum filters, centrifuges, Belt filter presses,
and incineration.
5.2.3.1
Sand Drying Bed
Drying beds have been used successfully for years to dewater sludge. Composed of a sand bed
(consisting of a gravel base, under drains, and 8 to 12 in. of filter grade sand), drying beds
_____________________________________________________________________153

include an inlet pipe, splash pad containment walls, and a system to return filtrate (water) for
treatment. In some cases, the sand beds are covered to provide drying solids protection from the
elements. In operation, solids are pumped to the sand bed and allowed to dry by first draining off
excess water through the sand and then by evaporation. This is the simplest and cheapest
method for dewatering sludge. No special training or expertise is required. There is a downside;
drying beds require a great deal of manpower to clean beds, they can create odor and insect
problems, and they can cause sludge buildup during inclement weather.
Figure 5.7: General arrangement of Sand Drying Bed

A. Operational Controls
The operation of a conventional sand drying bed is impacted by the following:
Solids concentration of the feed
Depth of solids applied
_____________________________________________________________________154

Sand/underdrain system performance
Solids conditioning digestion provided
Pan evaporation rate
Type of removal method used, and
Ultimate disposal method used.
B. Solids Loading
Solids loading criteria for sand drying beds are 10 to 25 lb/yr/sqft for open beds and 12 to 40
lb/yr/sqft for enclosed beds (USEPA, 1979).
C. Chemical Conditions
In some cases, drying bed installations include chemical conditioning. Conditioning helps improve
the drying capacities of the beds.
D. Polymer Addition
If a drying bed system includes polymer addition, a minimum of three polymer addition points are
recommended for optimum effectiveness. One near the suction side of the pump, another at the
pump discharge, and the third near the discharge point to each bed.
E. Total Drying Time
The total drying time required depends on the desired final moisture content, and also relates to
the means of removal and subsequent use. Ultimate bed sizing is a function of evaporation,
solids application depth, and applied solids concentration.
The time required to achieve a liftable cake depends more on the initial solids content and
percentage of total water that is drained than on the initial drainage rate. This is particularly
significant from a dewatering standpoint since the time required for evaporation of moisture is
longer than that required for drainage. Therefore, the total time the solids must remain on the bed
is controlled by the amount of water that must be removed by evaporation.
5.2.3.2
Rotary Vacuum Filter
Rotary vacuum filters have also been used for many years to dewater sludge. The vacuum filter
includes filter media (belt, cloth or metal coils), media support (drum), vacuum system, chemical
feed equipment, and conveyor belts to transport the dewatered solids.
In operation, chemically treated solids are pumped to a vat or tank in which a rotating drum is
submerged. As the drum rotates, a vacuum is applied to the drum. Solids collect on the media
and are held there by the vacuum as the drum rotates out of the tank. The vacuum removes
additional water from the captured solids. When solids reach the discharge zone, the vacuum is
_____________________________________________________________________155

released and the dewatered solids are discharged onto a conveyor belt for disposal. The media
are then washed prior to returning to the start of the cycle.
Figure 5.8: Sludge Drying with Rotary vacuum filter

A. Operation Controls
A number of items should be considered in the operation of a vacuum filter. Operational controls
include:
Solids Loading Rate
Vacuum Level
Drum Speed and Solids Conditioning
B. Loading Rates
The capacity of a rotary vacuum filter is based on hydraulic and solids loading rates. The solids
loading rate is typically the more limiting of the two. Solids loading rates range between 3 to 6 dry
pounds per square foot per hour for blended primary and secondary solid
C. Vacuum Level
The vacuum level associated with filter operation ranges from 1.4 to 2.0 cubic feet per min. per
square foot (cfm/ft2) at 5 pounds per square inch (psi). If the solids loading rate to the filter is
_____________________________________________________________________156

greater than 5 to 10 lb/ft s/hr the vacuum air flow should be increased to between 4.0 and 6.0
cfm/ft2.
D. Drum Speed and Solids Conditioning
The optimum drum speed, vacuum level and solids conditions are best determined by bench
scale testing. Performance will be impacted by feed solids content. Feeds solids below three
percent will be difficult to dewater. Solids capture on well operated filters range from 85 percent
for course media to 98 percent for close weave media.
5.2.3.3
Belt Filter
In operation, the belt filter uses a coagulant (polymer) mixed with the influent solids. The
chemically treated solids are discharged between two moving belts. First water drains from the
solids by gravity. The two belts then move between a series of rollers, and pressure squeezes
additional water out of the solids. The solids are then discharged onto a conveyor belt for
transport to storage or disposal. Performance factors for the belt press include sludge feed rate,
belt speed, belt tension, belt permeability, chemical dosage, and chemical selection. Filter
presses have lower operation and maintenance costs than vacuum filters or centrifuges. They
typically produce a good quality cake and can be batch operated. The downside is that
construction and installation costs are high. Moreover, chemical addition is required and the
presses must be operated by skilled personnel.
Figure 5.9: Sludge Drying with Belt filter
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A number of items should be considered in the design and operation of a belt filter press.
Controls include:
Hydraulic and Solids Loading Rates
Solids Conditioning
Flocculation System
Systems Control
B. Loading Rates
The capacity of a belt filter press is based on hydraulic and solids loading rates. The solids
loading rate is typically the more limiting of the two. Hydraulic loading rates to a belt filter press
range between 45 and 60 gallons per minute per meter of belt filter press width, (gpm/m). Solids
loading rates range between 480 and 600 dry pounds per hour per meter of belt filter press width,
(dlb/hr/m). Table 5.6 presents hydraulic and solids rates for belt filter presses dewatering a variety
of solids with ranges of loading rates applied and the results experienced.
C. Solids Conditioning
Polymer conditioning systems typically include chemical metering pumps, polymer storage and
mixing equipment, polymer and solids mixer, and controls. Some installations operate directly
from the drums of delivered polymer, eliminating the need for mixing and conditioning tanks and
feed pumps.
D. Flocculation System
Belt filter presses typically have a system to flocculate and agglomerate the solids after polymer
addition. This system normally has a flocculating tank unit, a static mixer, or an inline Venturi-type
mixer. Each unit is design to mix the solids with the conditioning chemicals. Flocculation tanks
provide a longer detention time and allow slower mixing of the solids and the polymer. This often
results in improved performance.
E. System Controls Panel
Controls panel is designed for each application to operate the belt filter presses and the auxiliary
systems. Critical alarms should be annunciated and a system emergency power shutdown should
be provided. The controls should be located in a dry area within sight of the belt press but away
from potentially corrosive atmosphere or spray from equipment washdown.
_____________________________________________________________________158

5.2.3.4 Centrifugation
Centrifuges of various types have been used in dewatering operations for at lease 30 years and
appear to be gaining in popularity. Depending on the type of centrifuge used and the centrifuge
pumping equipment for solids feed and centrate removal, chemical makeup and feed equipment
and support systems for removal of dewatered solids are required.
Generally, the centrifuge spins at a very high speed when operating. The centrifugal force it
creates throws the solids out of the water. Chemically conditioned solids are pumped into the
centrifuge. The spinning action throws the solids to the outer wall of the centrifuge. The centrate
(water) flows inside the unit to a discharge point. The solids held against the outer wall are
scraped to a discharge point by an internal scroll moving slightly faster or slower than the
centrifuge speed of rotation.
In the operation of the continuous feed, solids bowl, conveyor type centrifuge (this is the most
common type currently used), and other commonly used centrifuges, solid and liquid separation
occurs as a result of rotating the liquid at high speeds to cause separation by gravity. In the solid
bowl type, the solid bowl has a rotating unit with a bowl and a conveyor. The unit has a conical
section at one end that acts as a drainage device. The conveyor screw pushes the sludge solids
to outlet ports and the cake to a discharge hopper. The sludge slurry enters the rotating bowl
through a feed pipe leading into the hollow shaft of the rotating screw conveyor. The sludge is
distributed through ports into a pool inside the rotating bowl. As the liquid sludge flows through
the hollow shaft toward the overflow device, the fine solids settle to the wall of the rotating bowl.
The screw conveyor pushes the solids to the conical section where the solids are forced out of
the water and the water drains back in the pool.
Figure 5.10: Co-Current and countercurrent centrifuges
co-current flow
countercurrent flow
_____________________________________________________________________159

Two types of solid bowl centrifuges have proven successful -- the countercurrent flow and the cocurrent flow designs. Major differences in the designs relate to the location of the feed ports, the
removal of centrate, and the internal flow patterns of the liquid and solid phases.
In the co-current flow configuration, the solids travel the full length of the bowl while the liquids
travel in a parallel pattern with the solids phase. Conduits remove the liquid, which then flows
over the discharge weirs.
In the countercurrent design, feed enters the centrifuge at the junction of the cylindrical conical
sections. Solids travel to the conical end of the centrifuge while the liquid travels in the opposite
direction. The liquid overflows weir plates located at the large diameter end of the centrifuge.
A number of items should be considered in the design and operation of centrifuge dewatering
systems. They include:
Hydraulic and Solids Loading Rates
Polymer Addition
Cake Discharge
Centrate Handling
Control Systems
B. Hydraulic Feed and Solids Loading Rates

The hydraulic feed rate and the solids loading rate are important control variables in the operation
of a centrifuge. The hydraulic feed rate to the centrifuge impacts the solids capture rate. The
solids loading rate impacts the cake solids performance. Increasing the hydraulic load will
decrease the solids capture and may increase polymer consumption. When solids loading rate
changes occur, a corresponding change in the differential speed is required. The best
performance is achieved at minimum differential speed and at a feed rate that matches the
reduced volumetric conveying capacity (USEPA, 1987). The selected hydraulic feed rate should
minimize floc shear and turbulence.
_____________________________________________________________________160

C. Polymer Addition
As discussed, the location of the polymer injection points requires careful consideration. The
design, generally, will allow polymer feed directly into the solid bowl centrifuge and upstream of
the centrifuge, either before or after the feed pump. Maximum flexibility is needed to allow future
modifications of the system. Design considerations also include the space requirements of the
polymer feed system and pilot testing a range of polymer concentration.
D. Cake Discharge
Direct gravity discharge, belt conveyors, screw conveyors, or pumps are used to convey the cake
from the centrifuge. Conveyors require a great deal of cleaning and maintenance for reduced
odor and consistent operation. Pump systems are a popular way of conveying the cake. They
allow the maintenance of a closed system.
E. Centrate Handling
The centrate generated during dewatering usually is discharge downstream from preliminary
treatment. Centrate piping must be properly sized and sloped to prevent centrate backups; long
radius bends are recommended. If struvite build up is a concern, the ability to add ferric chloride
should be considered. Ferric chloride binds with the phosphate ion preventing struvite buildup.
Because polymers can often produce foam or roth, a froth spray is required. A sampling line from
the centrate discharge line to the sample sink should be provided. This will allow a simple check
of performance.
F. Controls
Electrical control provisions and interlocks are an important part of centrifuge dewatering system.
The centrifuge drive motor should run at full speed before the feed control can function. The
control circuitry shuts down the centrifuge and shuts off the feed to the centrifuge if any centrifuge
malfunction occurs. A water flush system should be interlocked with the centrifuge on-off controls.
After each shutdown, the centrifuge should be water flushed. Plant water can be used for
centrifuge flushing.
5.2.3.5
Incineration
Not surprisingly, incinerators produce the maximum solids and moisture reductions. The
equipment required depend on whether the unit is a multiple hearth or fluid bed incinerator.
Generally, the system will require a source of heat to reach ignition temperature, solids feed
system and ash handling equipment. It is important to note that the system must also include all
required equipment (e.g., scrubbers) to achieve compliance with air pollution control
requirements. In operation, solids are pumped to the incinerator. The solids are dried and ignited
_____________________________________________________________________161

(burned). As they burn the organic matter is converted to carbon dioxide and water vapor and the
inorganic matter is left behind as ash or fixed solids. The ash is then collected for reuse of
disposal.
_____________________________________________________________________162

For comparison of above option we have not considered incineration. As the water content in the sludge is more than 85%, incineration option will
be too costly. Again it will attract a lot of permission from various government departments to set up a incinerator. Hence it is not considered in the
comparison.
Table 5.6: Comparison among sludge drying options
Parameters
Expected
Under
Sand Drying Bed

flow
Rotary Vacuum Filter
Belt press
Centrifugation
20-30 %
18 to 25%
20-30 %
1.3 to3.2 l/s
Can handle volumes as large as
Solid concentration
Hydraulic Loading
200 to 300 mm layer for
drying
70-160 m3 per hr
Solid Mass Loading
50 to 195 kg/m2.yr
14 - 30 kg/ m2 hr
180 to 320 kg/m.hr
Solids capture rate
100 %
85 to 98%
80 to 95 %
Over 90 %
Energy cost
Negligible
High
0.5 to 0.7 Kwatt per m3
0.8 to 0.9 Kwatt per m3 sludge
FeCL3-40 to 200 lbs/dry
Polymers- 4 to 16 lbs/dry tons
Polymers- 4 to 16 lbs/dry tons
tons
Back wash water:
CaO 160 to 720 lbs/dry
1 m3 per 1 m3 of sludge
Other consumables
tons
Advantages
Low capital cost
Low
consumption
No odor nuisance
Relatively
low
capital
cost(than centrifuge)
energy
Less complex mechanism
_____________________________________________________________________
Clean
appearance,
odor
containment
Produce relatively dry cakes
163
Disadvantages
Huge
requirement
area
Complex system
Odor problem
Area
Automatic
requirement
relatively high.
operation
High capital cost
is
not advisable
_____________________________________________________________________
164

5.2.4
Sludge Disposal
Generally, in conventional treatment plants, the final dewater and stabilized sludge is disposed off
in sanitary land fill. In case of composting, we can use the stabilized sludge as manure for
irrigation. There are also examples of incinerating the sludge. But the final product of incineration,
ash, has to be disposed off in landfills. Putting incinerator is a costly affair.
Hence we have considered the option of landfill for final dewatered and stabilized sludge. As per
Ramkys quotation, the disposal cost will be Rs. 865/- per ton.
_____________________________________________________________________165
5.3 Comparison of various Options:

Above section includes various options available for each steps (; i.e options for Thickening, Digestion, Dewatering and Disposal). These steps
can be arranged into various ways. We have considered three options for rearranging the various steps for sludge management. They are given
below.
Option -1:
Influent
Thickener overflow, Supernatant
Landfill
8760 kg/d
43 m3/day
(20%
consistency)
Sludge
Dewatering
0.175 MLD
(3-4 %
consistency)
Aerobic Sludge
Digester
(10000 m3)
SBR
Thickener
0.486 MLD
(3-4%
consistency)
Sludge
1.46 MLD
(1%
consistency)
Treated Waste water
Sludge from the reactor has to be thickened first, so that the volume of sludge decreases. Hence the capacity of subsequent processes will come
down significantly. In turns, the area requirement will decrease.
For thickening, rotary drum thickener seems to be suitable due to its simplicity in operation and less area requirement.
_____________________________________________________________________
166
For sludge digestion, we can use aerobic digester. It is simple in operation and more reliable than anaerobic digestion. The area requirement of
digester will be around 1500 m2.
For the dewatering, we can use centrifuges or belt press. Finally the sludge can be transported to landfill to dispose off. The landfillable solids will
around 8.76 tons per day.
Influent
Option -2:
Landfill
14600 kg/d
73 m3/day
(20%
consistency)
Sludge
Dewatering
Sludge Thickener
0.486 MLD
(3-4%
consistency)
SBR
Sludge
1.46 MLD
(1%
consistency)
Treated Waste water
From literature review, it seems that the sludge from SBRs is more or less stabilized. We can directly thicken and dewater the sludge. For
thickening, rotary drum thickener seems to be suitable due to its simplicity in operation and less area requirement. For the dewatering, we can use
centrifuges or belt press. Finally the sludge can be transported to landfill to dispose off. The landfillable solids will around 14.6 tons per day.
_____________________________________________________________________
167
Option 3 :
Landfill
14600 kg/d
73 m3/day
(20%
consistency)
Sludge
Dewatering
Influent
SBR
Sludge
1.46 MLD
(1%
Consistency
Treated Waste water
We can feed sludge from SBR reactors directly to the dewatering equipment as practiced in most of the recent treatment plants. The capacity of
sludge dewatering equipments has to be more.
_____________________________________________________________________
168
_____________________________________________________________________
169
Study Report on Waste Water Treatment___________________
5.3.1 Cost Comparison for above options:
Table 5.7: Capital & O & M cost for Option-1

Option -1
Unit (in no) or
capacity(in kg/d)
Unit cost in
Total cost in
INR
Lakhs
Centrifuge(Ref : M/S.Alfa Lavel)
no
3650000
36.5
Thickener ( Ref : M/S.Scru drum)
no
1035000
31.05
8600
Aerobic Digestor
14600
Kg
$ 215/ kg/day
Total capital cost
1255.6
1323.15
Total cost
per annum
Items
Quantity per day
Poly electrolytes
15
Kg
Rates
in lakhs
300
16.425
Power (for
Blower+Centrifuge+Thickener)
6615
KW
120.72
Disposal Cost
8.76
tons
865
0.08
Miscellaneous
5%
Total Operation Cost
6.86
144.09
_____________________________________________________________________170

Table 5.8 : Capital & O & M cost for Option-2
Option -2
Total
Unit (in no) or
capacity(in kg/d)
Unit cost in
cost in
INR
Lakhs
Centrifuge(Alfa Lavel)
no
3650000
36.5
Thickener ( Scru drum)
no
1035000
31.05
Total capital cost
67.55
Total
cost per
annum
Items
Quantity per day
Poly electrolytes
15
Kg
615
Disposal Cost
14.6
Rates
in lakhs
300
16.425
KW
11.22
tons
865
0.13
Power (for
Miscellaneous
5%
1.39
29.16
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Table 5.9 : Capital & O & M cost for Option-3
Option -3
Unit (in no) or
capacity(in kg/d)
Centrifuge(Alfa Lavel)
no
Unit cost in
Total cost
INR
in Lakhs
3650000
Total capital cost
109.5
109.5
Total
cost per
annum
Items
Quantity per day
Poly electrolytes
15
Kg
615
Disposal Cost
14.6
in lakhs
Rates
300
16.425
KW
11.22
tons
865
0.13
Power (for
Miscellaneous
5%
1.39
29.16
5.4 Recommendation:
From above comparison, it seems the option 2 ( i.e; thickener followed by decanter) is most
economical. Hence we can opt for option 2. We will need 3 thickeners of capacity 500 m3/day
each and a centrifuge of 500 m3/day.
The area requirement will be around 25 m2.
_____________________________________________________________________172

5.5 Technical Specification:
Centrifuges
Centrifuge shall be capable of handling sludge consisting of minimum 8% solids by weight. The
dewatered cake shall be based on minimum consistency of 28% by weight dry solids. The
centrifuge shall be solid bowl centrifuge of co-current/countercurrent design, as decided by the
bidder. The centrifuge shall have sufficient clarifying length and differential RPM so that
separation of solids is effective. The centrifuge shall have central lubrication system. The
centrifuge shall have adjustable weir plate, so that its pond depth can be raised. The centrifuge
and its accessories shall be mounted on a common base frame so that entire assembly can be
installed on an elevated structure.
Suitable drive with V- belt arrangement and turbo-coupling shall be provided along with overload
protection device. The wetted parts of Centrifuge shall be stainless steel, 316L. The tungsten
carbide lined conveyor liner across surface, feed chamber and solid discharge outlet shall be
provided. Differential speed and bowl speed should be adjusted by changing the pulleys;
differential speed may be adjustable by use of epicyclic-gear. The bowl shall be protected with
flexible connections so that vibrations are not transmitted to other equipment. The base frame
shall be in epoxy painted steel construction and provided with anti-vibration pads. All steps
necessary to prevent transmission of structure borne noise shall be taken. The drive motor shall
be of 1450 rpm. Interlocking with centrifuge feed pump, polyelectrolyte dosing pump shall be
provided. The noise level shall be 88 dB (A) measured at 1m distance under dry run. The
vibration level shall be below 50 micron measured at pillow blocks under dry run condition.
Adequate sound proof shall be carried out for the housing the centrifuges to ensure that the noise
level at 5 m distance from the enclosure is less than 75 dB (A).
A hoist shall be provided above centrifuge for maintenance purpose. The hoist shall be such that
it shall be possible to erect or de-erect the centrifuge while one centrifuge is in operation.
Acceptable Makes:- Humboldt Wedag/ Penwalt/ Alfa lavel
Parameters
Number of Centrifuges
3 working + 1 standby
Type
Horizontal,
Capacity of each unit
25 m3 per hour
Number of working hours/day
20 hours (maximum)
Mixing arrangement of Polyelectrolyte and sludge:
online-mixing
_____________________________________________________________________173

POLYELECTROLITE DOSING PUMPS
The Polyelectrolyte solution from the preparation tanks shall be pumped by the use of
Polyelectrolyte solution dosing pumps to the Centrifuges. The pipe and the pipe fittings shall be
HDPE and valves shall be Polypropylene.
These pumps shall be capable of pumping the upto 0.5 % Polyelectrolyte solution. There shall be
three pumps of which two shall be working and the other standby at any time.
Dosing pumps shall be of the duplex type diaphragm type hydraulically operated. These shall
permit manual override and variable flow control at both sides of the chosen median duty point for
the duty already stated herein. These shall be able to handle a flow variation of plus 25 % of the
required flow. The construction shall be totally enclosed and corrosion proof. The liquid end shall
be in SS 316.
Acceptable Makes:- Swellore/ Asia LMI/ VK Pumps/ Shaotools
Parameters
Number of pumps
3W+1S
Standby
minimum 50%
Capacity of each pump
to suit each centrifuge requirement
Material of construction of wetted parts
AISI SS 316
_____________________________________________________________________174
Chapter VI
Odor Control for Waste Water Treatment Plant
_____________________________________________________________________175

6.0. Odor Control for Waste Water Treatment Plant
6.1 Objective
In the modern world of wastewater treatment, control of odors has moved from an afterthought to
a primary design consideration for most collection and treatment facilities. As development
encroaches on our facilities and our new neighbors become less tolerant of nuisance odors,
wastewater professionals have found the need to address odor as a primary concern in the
design and operation of collection and treatment facilities. As the attention paid to odor control
has increased, so has the number of odor control technologies that are available in the
marketplace. This report consists of an evaluation of the qualitative characteristics and the
economic properties of the various technologies available for wastewater odor control.
6.2 Odor Generation
Any place or process in which wastewater is collected, conveyed or treated has the potential to
generate and release nuisance odors to the surrounding area. However, most odor problems
occur in the collection system, in primary treatment facilities and in solids handling facilities. In
most instances, the odors associated with collection systems and primary treatment facilities are
generated as a result of an anaerobic or "septic" condition. This condition occurs when oxygen
transfer to the wastewater is limited such as in a force main. In the anaerobic state, the microbes
present in the wastewater have no dissolved oxygen available for respiration. This allows
microbes known as "sulfate-reducing bacteria" to thrive. These bacteria utilize the sulfate ion
(SO4-) that is naturally abundant in most waters as an oxygen source for respiration. The
byproduct of this activity is hydrogen sulfide (H2S). This byproduct has a low solubility in the
wastewater and a strong, offensive, rotten-egg odor. In addition to its odor, H2S can cause severe
corrosion problems as well. Due to its low solubility in the wastewater, it is released to the
atmosphere in areas such as wet wells, headworks, grit chambers and primary clarifiers. There
are typically other "organic" odorous compounds, such as mercaptans and amines, present in
these areas, but H2S is the most prevalent compound.
Solids handling facilities are another significant odor problem area. In biosolids dewatering and
treatment processes, the biosolids commonly undergo extreme turbulence, pH adjustment and/or
thermal treatment. Depending on the nature of the biosolids stream and the treatment used, the
odor compounds released can consist of any combination of the following compounds in a wide
range of concentrations: ammonia, amines, hydrogen sulfide, organic sulfides and mercaptans.
Additionally, anaerobic digestion of sludge creates the anaerobic conditions in which sulfatereducing bacteria thrive, causing the formation of hydrogen sulfide that is vented with the digester
"biogas" formed from the digestion of sludge.
_____________________________________________________________________176
Figure 6.1: Potential points of odor generation in a Waste Water Treatment Plant
6.3. Measurement of Odor

Odor is measured mainly through the following 4 techniques.
Air sampling & gas chromatographic analysis
Gas chromatic analysis of liquid and solids
Electronic noses
Dynamic dilution olfactometry
6.3.1 Air Sampling and Gas Chromatographic Analysis

Instrumental methods have relied mainly on the application of gas chromatography (GC),
including gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), since this mature separation
technology is capable of the efficient separation required for analysis of complex mixtures of
VOCs. In gas chromatography a mixture of volatile substances is injected into a column which
separates the compounds based on their relative vapor pressures and polarities. The compounds
are then detected as peaks which have specific retention times and peak areas which can be
used for qualitative and quantitative determinations, respectively.
The main problem or consideration associated with use of gas chromatography has been the
requirement of an extraction or preconcentration step. VOCs are most often isolated by taking
advantage of their volatility and nonpolar nature. For analysis of airborne VOCs this generally
means the use of an adsorbent trap, which allows for the selective enrichment (trapping) of the
_____________________________________________________________________177

VOCs away from the bulk of the atmospheric gases and water vapor. The VOCs contained in the
adsorbent trap are then transferred via thermal desorption, which releases the compounds from
the trap and sends them to the gas chromatograph for analysis. Based on the experience, mixedbed graphitized carbon traps are an excellent choice, since they allow for isolation of VOCs
having widely varying volatilities and polarities, while at the same time, these traps minimize
water vapor absorption which can perturb the thermal desorption step by causing blockage (ice)
of the cryogenic trap of the gas chromatograph.
However, occasionally even these traps can have moisture problems, such as when field
sampling is done under very humid or extremely cold conditions. To overcome this problem bags
are used for the primary field sampling. The bag sample is then brought back to the laboratory
where the airborne VOCs are transferred from the bag onto an adsorbent trap using a vacuum
pump under controlled conditions which minimize moisture sorption on the trap. The above
method offers an additional advantage since the same bag samples can be used for dynamic
dilution olfactometry. In this case, gas chromatography was performed using both a nonspecific,
broad spectrum flame-ionization detector and a sulfur-selective flame photometric detector. Gas
chromatography-mass spectrometry is applied during the early stages of method development to
aid in compound (peak) identification. The use of duel detectors for routine monitoring allows for
the simultaneous analysis of key swine odor components found in relatively high concentrations
(e.g. volatile short-chain fatty acids and phenols by flame ionization detection) and those found at
trace levels (e.g. sulfur-containing compounds by flame photometric detection). The trace level
sulfur-containing compounds are of particular importance because they often have very low odor
detection thresholds and possess noxious odor properties.
6.3.2 Gas Chromatic Analysis of Liquids and Solids
For liquid or solid samples a large number of sample preparation strategies may be employed
prior to gas chromatographic analysis. These include direct solvent extraction, purge-and-trap
and solid phase microextraction (SPME) among many other techniques. Purge-and-trap involves
the continuous removal (entrainment) of VOCs from a thermostatted sample using a stream of
inert gas (e.g. N2). The VOCs contained in the gas stream are then enriched on an adsorbent
trap and then analyzed by thermal desorption-gas chromatography as discussed above for air
sampling. The relatively new solid phase microextraction represents a rapid, solventless
technique that is based on the partitioning of the volatile components between the sample or the
sample headspace and a polymer-coated fiber. For analysis, the volatiles are thermally desorbed
from the fiber in the heated injector port of the GC. Solid-phase microextraction-gas
chromatography offers the advantage of high sample throughput since this method can be
performed by modern automated multipurpose samplers. The technique has been applied for the
analysis of swine VOCs (Rizzuti et al., 1999; Yo, 1999). Prior to the analysis the sample was
_____________________________________________________________________178

spiked with known amounts of two surrogate internal standards to aid in quantification of key
odorants (i.e., 2-ethylbutanoic acid was used for volatile short-chain fatty acids; and 4tertamylphenol for phenolic and indolic compounds). In addition, the sample is mixed with a
matrix modifier, which serves to stabilize the pH (necessary for analysis of volatile acids, phenols
and indoles since their dissociation is affected by pH) and to minimize the protein or lipid binding
of the volatile constituents by a salting out (high NaCl concentration) effect. Details of the analysis
are given in the caption of Figure 2. Typical quantitative results for a manure sample are shown in
Table 1. These concentration levels are in general agreement with other published reports on the
volatile composition of swine manure and slurries (Chen et al., 1994; Zahn et al., 1997). We also
have applied the above methodology to the analysis of wastewater and dust samples originating
from swine finishing buildings.
6.3.2 Electronic Noses
The electronic nose is an instrument that consists of an array of electronic chemical receptors
which detect volatile chemicals or categories of chemicals then uses the information to predict
sensory-like properties. Electronic noses contain an array of sensors (sintered metal oxides,
catalytic metals, conducting polymers, lipid layers, phtholocyanins, organic semi-conductors,
surface acoustic wave or combinations) which respond to a wide variety of chemical classes
(Strassburger, 1996). The sensors are based on conducting composites that change resistance
on exposure to a vapor (Feast, 2000). The change in resistance (R) of individual sensors from
baseline resistance (R) produces a pattern of resistance changes (R/R) across the array
(Misselbrook et al., 1997). The measured response is then converted to a signal using a changes
in the pattern generated in the entire sensory array. Metal oxide arrays require very high
temperatures to operate, and the polymer sensors dont detect small amines and thiols
responsible for fishy, skunky and rotten-egg odors (really smelly substances). New sensors using
inks based on organometallic compounds change color when bound by vapor molecules (like
heme iron in hemoglobin which becomes bright red when it reversibly binds oxygen;
Schmiedeskam, 2001). All of these sensors (and their combinations) vary in the magnitude of
response to any one compound giving them the discriminatory ability required to analyze odors.
The volatile sample is injected, in combination with filtered air, such that it can flow over and
interact with the sensors. An output signal is generated as a result of the change in resistance at
the sensory surface as a result of its interaction with compounds in the gas phase. The binding
and resistance change are rapid and temporary. Response data are exported to a computer
which has been trained to use chemometric and artificial neural network computer software as a
way to recognize the pattern of a mixture of compounds as a specific odor and to discriminate
slight differences. Because very large amounts of data are generated, processing it into useful
information requires statistical analysis software which can conduct principal component analysis
_____________________________________________________________________179

and discriminant factor analysis. Use of arrays of non-specific sensors allows for detection of
many thousands of chemical species due to the broad selectivity of the sensory surfaces. The
electronic nose can measure a complex group of substances (like the human olfactory system)
very rapidly (10-120 seconds), and it can be trained to discriminate good from bad aromas.
However, the electronic nose must be trained for each important component (grassy, smoky) for
each application, it must be standardized by both chemical and olfactometric methods, and the
sensor array is restricted. One of the biggest challenges for electronic noses is detecting
complex odors against an intricate background matrix. While the above instrumental methods do
offer the potential for the accurate estimation of VOC levels in waste streams and air emissions
associated with swine production facilities, they do not, however, allow for the direct
measurement of odor intensity nor odor quality. For this purpose, researchers have relied on the
use of subjective and objective sensory analysis using human panelists. Foremost among these
techniques is dynamic dilution olfactometry.
6.3.4 Dynamic Dilution Olfactometry
Dynamic Dilution Olfactometry (DDO) is based on dilution to threshold of a gas sample
containing multiple components. Odor threshold is a commonly used term. In general, it is the
minimum concentration detectable or the minimum detectable difference between two
concentrations (ASTM, 1997a). Because of additive / subtractive effects (of individual chemicals)
in mixed systems, the threshold for a particular compound may not be useful. Thresholds for
different substances can be several orders of magnitude different, and thresholds for different
people can be several odors of magnitude different.
An odor threshold (minimum detectable amount) can be measured in known samples
(standards) and expressed as X ppm of compound Y (in air). To conduct a dilution-tothreshold
test, the gas containing the volatile chemical is collected in a bag, then a known volume is
injected through a flow-splitter where air is used to dilute it to selected ratios. The dilutions are
usually factors of 2 or 3. The more the gas must be diluted with pure air to lower it to the
Detection Threshold, the stronger the odor of the gas. For a pure compound, the dilution
corresponds to the concentration:
1 ppm = 1/1,000,000 = 10-6 dilution = dilution factor 6
In this case, odor intensity is a function of concentration. Stevens Power Law (Stevens, 1957)
states that the apparent magnitude of intensity grows as a power function of the stimulus
magnitude which implies that equal ratio changes in sensation magnitude correspond to equal
changes in the stimulus magnitude:
I = k (C) n
where C is the odorant concentration, and k and n are constants that differ for each odor.
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Therefore, for a pure compound, if we know the power function and the concentration, we can
determine the intensity. A derivative of this relationship is the log function of the concentration of
the odorant. Determining Detection Thresholds of unknown complex mixtures (barn air) is much
more difficult because (1) we dont know what compounds are present, and (2) we dont know
their concentrations. No instrument is available to quickly measure the concentration of odors
consisting of many compounds. One way around this problem is to express the odor strength as
odor units. The odor unit is a calculated value based on the Threshold Dilution ratio and the
concentration:
Z = C / Cs
where Z is the Threshold Dilution ratio measured by an olfactometer (as with a pure compound),
C is the odor concentration and Cs is the theoretical minimum concentration of the odor for
detection in 50% of the population. To calculate odor units, Z must be determined for the
unknown sample while C and Cs are determined using a pure substance (standard; n-butanol).
The strength of the odor is expressed in dimensionless odor units which are calculated as the log of the dilution at which the odor can be detected which may be adjusted for the concentration
and the detection threshold of a known substance. For example, if odor is detected at a dilution of
1 part barn air to 27 parts purified air:
Dilution Threshold (ratio) = Volume of pure air / Volume of odorous air
Dilution Threshold ratio = 27/1
DDO requires a panel of 3-10 people who determine how much a sample of air must be diluted
before they can no longer smell it. An air sample, most often 10 L, is collected in a bag made of
relatively inert material (Tedlar). The odor mixture is diluted with purified air then presented to
pre-selected sensory panelists at several dilutions. For each dilution, the panelist is presented
with three samples two of which are the same. The panelist then makes a forced choice among
three alternatives selecting the sample which is different Very dilute samples are presented at the
beginning of the test, increasing in concentration after every set of three. At some point in the
series of concentrations, each panelist will become able to detect the odor. The Best Estimate
Threshold (BET), the halfway point between the dilution where odor can be detected and that
where it cant be detected, is calculated as the square root of the product of those two dilution
factors m=(ASTM 1990, 1997b). If the odor is detected at the 27/1 dilution but not at the 81/1
dilution, then:
BET = (27 x 81) = 46.77
The BET value for each panelist is determined. The log of each value is calculated. The logs of
the individual BETs are averaged to produce a geometric mean. This geometric mean is similar
to the log of the dilution factor for a pure compound (such as n-butanol). The antilog of the BET
geometric mean is the average concentration (or average Dilution Threshold ratio for mixed
samples) at which the group can detect the odor. The panel response to the mixed sample may
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be expressed in Odor Units (OU) which are simply the Dilution Threshold Ratio, the Dilution
Threshold Ratio adjusted for the concentration at the Detection Threshold for a known amount of
a pure standard, or the amount of odorant in one cubic meter (OU/cm3). The European Odor Unit
(OUE) is defined in terms of N-butanol (AWME EE-6, 2002)
To calculate the European Odor Units:
1. Determine concentration of n-butanol at its Odor Detection Threshold (ODTb). This is
the Odor Detection Concentration for n-butanol (ODCb).
2. Determine the Odor Units for the mixed sample: this is the Odor Detection Threshold of the
unknown sample adjusted to the Odor Detection Concentration for n-butanol
OUE = (ODT X ODCb) / 40 ppb
OUE = European Odor Units
ODT = Odor detection threshold (ratio) of the sample
ODCb = Odor concentration of n-butanol at its detection threshold
40 ppb= the definition of 1 OUE in terms of n-butanol
European standards require that ODCb be between 20 and 80 ppb for each panelist, so panelists
are screened prior to their participation in an olfactometry panel. One European Odor Unit is
123 mg n-butanol (40ppb) by definition so, if we determine the ODCb to be other than 40, we
must adjust our ODT accordingly.
If we determined that our actual Odor Detection Threshold for n-butanol is 50ppb, we must adjust
the Odor Detection Threshold of our unknown:
OUE = (ODT) x ODCb / 40
OUE = (25.7) x 50 / 40
OUE = 32.13
Dilution olfactometry will give an indication of the overall strength of the odor in terms of how
much must be present to detect it, and it will give numbers for comparison (across time,
intervention methods, etc.), however it gives no indication of odor strength at suprathreshold
amounts. Dilution olfactometry will not identify individual odors, it will not give an idea of which
compounds contribute most to a complex odor, and it will not give hedonic information (good /
bad smell). Unless the DDO data are correlated with a sensory intensity reference scale (1 =
very weak, 5 = very intense) using reference odorant concentrations, DDO data alone do not give
an indication of how intense the odor is. The primary advantage of DDO is that the human nose is
the actual detectorit is the most sensitive detector for many compounds. The disadvantage is
that is cumbersome for use outside a laboratory environment. It depends on using panelists who
have (1) been selected for their sensitivity in a specific range, and (2) have been standardized
to a specific concentration of a specific concentration of a specific compound (usually n-butanol).
DDO determines odor threshold, not odor quality (smells like lemon, cinnamon, etc.). The odor
unit seems to be the most common index for odor emission control. A number of states in the US
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have a source emission standard. However, there are problems with using the odor unit as a
standard: (1) because of the variability of people, who serve as the detectors for generation of the
odor unit, data vary from laboratory-to-laboratory, and (2) the odor unit includes no measure of
the importance of the odor.
6.4 Permissible Odor Limits
6.4.1 Odorant Concentration Gradient for One Individual
Table 6.2 Odorant Concentration gradient
Increasing Mass Concentration
Odorant mg/m3
Odor (Perception)
< < DT > > < < RT > >
Annoyance
< < < < < < AT > > > > > >
Health Symptoms
< < < < < < < < HST > > > > > > > >
This "Odorant Concentration Gradient" does NOT represent a toxicological model.

KEY Words:
mg/m3 Mass concentration of odorant, milligrams per cubic meter.
DT : Detection Threshold (ASTM E679-91, Para. 3.1.5 and 7.2)
RT : Recognition Threshold (ASTM E679-91, Para. 3.1.6 and 7.2)
AT : Annoyance Threshold (For this example of one individual's annoyance
based on memories, socio-economic background, etc.)
HST : Health Symptom Threshold (For this example of one individual's on-set of
non-specific symptoms.)
Objective measurement of odors is available and standardized for source emission air
samples and for ambient air at the property line and in the community. Therefore, three
basic odor limits may be incorporated into facility permits as "compliance determining
criteria":
Ambient odor concentration limits.
Ambient odor intensity limits.
Source emission odor concentration limits.
The three basic limits are not mutually exclusive and are sometimes combined in one
permit.
6.4.2 Ambient Odor Concentration
Ambient odor concentration limits, such as detection thresholds, can be used in permits
as criteria for defining compliance or determining non-compliance. Odor is measurable
using objective, scientific methods. Odor testing has evolved over the past 40 years with
changes in terminology, methods, and instrumentation. A clear understanding of "odor
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terminology" is needed in order to discuss the use of ambient odor concentration limits
for permits. Odor terminology is linked to methods and instrumentation for odor
measurement.
In 1958, 1959, and 1960 the U.S. Public Health Service sponsored the development of an
instrument and procedure for field (ambient) odor measurement. The instrument, originally
manufactured by Barnebey-Cheney Company and subsequently manufactured by Barnebey
Sutcliffe Corporation, is known as a "Scentometer".
The original Scentometer produced four (4) dilutions and the modified Scentometer Model 1959-A
produced six dilutions of the odorous ambient air by mixing the ambient air with carbon filtered
air. The U.S. Public Health Service method defined the dilution factor as "Dilution to
Threshold", D/T.
The method of producing "Dilution to Threshold" (D/T) with the Scentometer consists of
mixing two "volumes" of carbon filtered air (two 1/2 inch holes, each leading to a carbon
beds) with specific "volumes" of odorous ambient air (1/2, 1/4, 3/16, 1/8, 1/16, and 1/32
inch holes). See Figure 2, "Dilution to Threshold (D/T) with the Scentometer".
The method of calculating "Dilution to Threshold" (D/T) for the Scentometer is:
D/T = Volume of Carbon Filtered Air / Volume of Odorous Air
Table 6.3. Dilutions to Threshold (D/T) with the Scentometer
Dilution to Threshold
Carbon Filtered Air
Odorous Air Volume
Odorous Air
D/T
Volume*
**
Inlet Size (in. dia.)
1/2
0.285
1/4
15
0.1333
3/16
31
0.0645
1/8
170
0.0118
1/16
350
0.0057
1/32
* Two 1/2 inch diameter holes for the "Carbon Filtered Air Flow Path".
** Odorous Air Volume calculated from the D/T column.5 [Huey, 1960]
The Scentometer or a "Scentometer-like device" is referenced in a number of existing state odor
regulations. The "Dilution to Threshold" (D/T) terminology and the method of calculating the D/T
is likewise referenced in these odor regulations.However, olfactometry in the field with a field
olfactometer (Scentometer-like device) is inherently different from olfactometry in the odor
laboratory. The field olfactometer method for measuring the ambient odor utilizes a portable
dilution device (Scentometerlike device) in the hands of a trained air pollution inspector, trained
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plant operator, or trained professional or para-professional. The laboratory method for measuring
ambient or source odor utilizes a laboratory olfactometer with a trained group of assessors (odor
panelists).
In the early years of using the Scentometer5 [Huey, 1960] the following categories were
associated with D/T's:
D/T
Word Category
Noticeable
Objectionable
15
Nuisance
31
Nauseating
The ambient odor concentration limit for a permit may define the compliance as " ambient air
that is less than D/T (Dilution to Threshold)." The exact wording is important and can be stated as
a "compliance criteria" ("compliance ifless that 7 D/T") or a "nuisance criteria" ("nuisance
ifequal to or greater than 7 D/T").
A practical example is, if the permit language uses D/T = 7 and, if the air pollution inspector
observed odor with the field olfactometer set at 7 D/T, then the "nuisance criteria" odor was
observed at that time or the ambient air was above the "compliance criteria".
The permit language would also define the number of observations that need to be made
by the air pollution inspector and the time frame of the observations. For example: "three
samples or observations in a one hour period separated by 15 minutes each" or "for 2
separate trials (field olfactometer) not less than 15 minutes apart within a 1- hour period".
An alternative to measuring the ambient odor concentration by a field inspector is to collect
samples of the ambient air and send the samples to an odor laboratory for testing. In the early
years of odor testing in laboratories, the ASTM D-1391 syringe dilution technique measured
odors in the laboratory from samples collected from the ambient air and used the "Scentometer"
convention of calculating "dilution factors". However, since 1969 the method of calculating
"dilution factors" changed to "Total Flow" divided by "Sample Flow".
The present convention of calculating "dilution factors" for laboratory olfactometers is different
from the field olfactometer, "Scentometer Method". The present convention of calculating "dilution
factors" for olfactometers is based on the ratio of "Total Flow" divided by "Sample Flow" 7 8 2 9
10 [Dravnieks, 1980 and 1986], [ASTM E679-91], [AWMA EE-6 DRAFT Guidelines, 1995], and
[prEN 13725, 1999].
Dilution Factor = Dilution Volume + Odorous Sample Volume
= 'Z'
Odorous Sample Volume
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"The dilution factor, 'Z', is used in modest honor of H. Zwaardemaker, a Dutch scientist and early
investigator in olfactometry. Alternative terminology in use (1991): Dilutionto- Threshold Ratio
(D/T or D-T); Odor Unit (OU); Effective Dose (ED)" [ASTM E679- 91, Appendix]2.
However, in laboratory olfactometry the "dilution factor" ('Z') is not the value directly reported for
the odor sample concentration. Laboratory olfactometry uses a group of assessors called
"panelists"[ASTM E679-91]. Each panelist observes an odor sample in an ascending
concentration series (increasing concentration). If a panelist does not detect an odor at Z = 16 but
does detect an odor at Z = 8, then the panelist's individual "detection threshold" is calculated as
the geometric mean between 16 and 8, which is 11.
The statistical method is called the "best-estimate threshold" [ASTM E679-91].
(log 16 + log 8)/2 = (1.204 + 0.903)/2 = 1.054 {101.054 = 11}
Then the group threshold of all the panelists is calculated as an average from the logarithm
values (i.e. 1.054,) of each individual panelist.
The detection threshold [ASTM E679-91, Para. 3.1.5 and 7.2]2 and recognition threshold [ASTM
E679-91, Para. 3.1.6 and 7.2]2 of an odor sample are derived using "dilution ratios" and the
"best-estimate criteria" and, therefore, are dimensionless. However, the pseudo-dimensions of
"Odor Units" (O.U.) or "Odor Units per Unit Volume" are commonly applied. For example: "Odor
Units per Cubic Meter". The abbreviations for "detection threshold" (DT) and "recognition
threshold" (RT) are sometimes used in order to clarify which 'Z' value is being reported by the
odor laboratory.
Samples of ambient air can be collected in Tedlar gas sample bags and sent to an odor
laboratory for testing using a laboratory olfactometer. Any permit that specifies an ambient odor
concentration limit, i.e. threshold (D/T, DT, RT, "Odor Units") must also specify the method of
measurement, i.e. field olfactometer ("Scentometer-like device) or laboratory olfactometer and the
testing standard(s), i.e. ASTM E679-91 and prEN13725.
6.4.3 Ambient Odor Intensity
Odor intensity of the ambient air can be measured objectively using an "Odor Intensity
Referencing Scale" (OIRS) [ASTM E544-99]11. Odor intensity referencing compares the odor in
the ambient air to the odor intensity of a series of concentrations of a reference odorant. A
common reference odorant is n-butanol. Secondary butanol is an alternative to n-butanol for a
standard referencing odorant12 [Anderson, 1995]. The air pollution inspector, plant operator, or
odor monitor observes the odor in the ambient air and compares it to the OIRS. The person
making the observation must use a carbon-filtering mask to "refresh" the olfactory sense between
observations (sniffing). Without the use of a carbon-filtering mask, the observer's olfactory sense
_____________________________________________________________________186

would become adapted to the surrounding ambient air or become fatigued from any odor in the
surrounding. The adaptation of an observer's olfactory sense is a common phenomenon when
attempting to evaluate ambient odors, i.e. a wastewater treatment plant operator monitoring
treatment plant odors "off-site". ASTM E544-99, "Standard Practice for Referencing
Suprathreshold Odor Intensity", presents two methods for referencing the intensity of ambient
odors:
Procedure A - Dynamic-Scale Method and
Procedure B - Static-Scale Method.
Field inspectors commonly use the Static-Scale Method and it has become incorporated as a
standard of practice by a number of odor laboratories, because of its low cost of set-up compared
to a dynamic-scale olfactometer device (Procedure A).
Using the OIRS, the intensity of the observed ambient air is expressed in "parts per million"
(PPM) of n-butanol (or sec-butanol). A larger value of butanol means a stronger odor, but not in a
simple linear proportion. Odor perception is a psychophysical process and follows the "power
law" 3 [Stevens, 1960]. For example, an increase in butanol concentration by a factor of two (2)
results in an odor that is less than twice as intense. An important aspect of using a butanol
intensity referencing scale is knowing that a variety of scales are available. Common butanol
static-scales include:
12-point static-scale starting at 10-ppm butanol with a geometric progression of two;
10-point static-scale starting at 12-ppm butanol with a geometric progression of two;
5-point static-scale starting at 25-ppm butanol with a geometric progression of three;
The OIRS serves as a standard practice to quantify the odor intensity of the ambient air
objectively. To allow comparison of results from different data sources and to maintain a
reproducible method, the equivalent butanol concentration is reported or the number on
the OIRS is reported with the scale range and starting point.
An example 5-point OIRS with a geometric progression of three is:
Reference Level
n-Butanol PPM in Air
25
75
225
675
2025
Field air pollution inspectors (field odor inspectors), using a standard odor intensity
referencing scale (OIRS), can provide measured, dependable, and repeatable observations
of ambient odor intensity13 [McGinley, 1995].
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The ambient odor intensity limit of a permit may define a violation of an ambient odor intensity
limit if: the geometric average of ten (10) observations of the ambient air over a period of 30minutes yields an OIRS value of 2.0 (75-PPM n-butanol) or greater if there is a permanent
residence upon the property, or 3.0 (225-PPM n-butanol) or greater if the property does not
contain a permanent residence.
The exact wording is important and can be stated as a "compliance criteria" or a "violation
criteria"
6.4.4 Limits of H2S for Sewage Treatment Plant
Levels of Exposure
Hydrogen sulfide is measured in parts per million (ppm). The American Conference of
Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) has recommended a Threshold Limit Value (TLV)Time Wrighted Average (TWA) of 10 ppm. 10 ppm is equal to 0.001 per cent by volume, or only
one-thousandth of one per cent of the total air volume. This is a time-weighted average exposure
for a normal eight hour work day and a 40 hour work week to which nearly all workers may be
repeatedly exposed without adverse effect.
A Short Term Exposure Level (STEL) of 15 ppm is also recommended. This STEL is a 15 minute
time-weighted average exposure which should not be exceeded at any time during a work day
even if the 8-hour time-weighted average is within the TLV. Exposure at STEL should not be
repeated more than 4 times per day. There should be at least 60 minutes between successive
exposures at the STEL. Other countries (Czechoslovakia and USSR) have accepted lower limits
of 7 ppm.
The recommended limit of 10 ppm does not guarantee worker safety. If should not be used as
a guideline demarcating safe and dangerous concentrations of hydrogen sulfide. Because of wide
variations in individual susceptibility some workers may experience problems at concentrations at
or below the threshold limit.
The safest exposure to Hydrogen sulfide is no exposure at all.
Effects of exposure
Hydrogen sulfide at low levels has a distinctive rotten-egg odour and workers mistakenly assume
that the absence of smell means that they are not exposed to it. Smell is a poor warning sign of
hydrogen sulfide.
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At higher concentrations a sweet smell may be noted, but at even greater concentrations,
hydrogen sulfide can paralyze the sense of smell and the ability to smell is lost. Some workers
are congenitally (by birth) unable to smell hydrogen sulfide. That is why the air should always be
monitored by instruments designed to detect hydrogen sulfide.
Table 6.4 : Effects of H2S with increase in concentration in ppm.
Concentrati
Effect
on in ppm
0.13
This is the odour threshold. Odour is unpleasant. Sore eyes
4.6
Strong intense odour, but tolerable. Prolonged exposure may deaden the sense of
smell
10-20
Causes painful eye, nose and throat irritation, headaches, fatigue, irritability,
insomnia, gastrointestinal disturbance, loss of appetite, dizziness. Prolonged
exposure may cause bronchitis and pneumonia.
30-100
50
Sickeningly sweet smell noted.

May cause muscle fatigue, inflammation and dryness of nose, throat and tubes
leading to the lungs. Exposure for one hour or more at levels above 50 ppm can
cause severe eye tissue damage. Long-term exposure can cause lung disease.
100-150
Loss of smell, stinging of eyes and throat. Fatal after 8 to 48 hours of continuous
exposure.
200-250
Nervous system depression (headache, dizziness and nausea are symptoms).

Prolonged exposure may cause fluid accumulation in the lungs. Fatal in 4 to 8 hours
of continuous exposure.
250-300
- Pulmonary edema (lungs fill with fluid, foaming in mouth, chemical damage to
lungs).
300
- May cause muscle cramps, low blood pressure and unconsciousness after 20
minutes.
300 to 500
500
may be fatal in 1 to 4 hours of continuous exposure.

Paralyzes the respiratory system and overcomes victim almost instantaneously.
Death after exposure of 30 to 60 minutes
700
Paralysis of the nervous system.
1000
Immediately fatal.
6.5 Containment & Extraction of odor

6.5.1 Containment of odor
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The first step in any foul air treatment system is containment of the odorous air. If fugitive
emissions under normal operation are not eliminated, the whole odor control strategy is negated.
This applies both to covered process tanks and channels and to occupied spaces. Collection of
foul air from covered tanks and channels has traditionally been based on air exchange rates. A
moderate exchange rate may be required to reduce condensation and corrosion, or a higher
exchange rate may be needed to allow utilization of the enclosed space above a clarifier or CSO
tank, for example.
Collection of foul air for prevention of air leakage through cracks, leaks, and other penetrations in
a cover primarily depends on establishing a negative pressure within the enclosed headspace.
The negative pressure is established by exhausting air from the enclosed headspace, which
draws air into the headspace through the various openings in the cover. The negative pressure is
a function of the air velocity through those openings.
As discussed above, containment will only be effective if it is not compromised. While
containment will increase the difficulty associated with operating covered units, it is important that
every effort be made to minimize the inconvenience and maximize worker safety. As an example,
hatches which need to be opened to observe internal equipment should be readily accessible and
easily opened (e.g., not blocked by railings or too heavy to lift).
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Figure 6.2: Example of Covering and Collection of odor
An exhaust hood should be constructed of an impervious material. If built from carbon steel
or stainless steel, the material thickness should be not less than 1.2 mm or 0.9 mm
respectively. All joints are to be of satisfactory mechanical strength and grease tightness.
It is recommended that the depth of the hood should be not less than 600 mm, and that all
internal surfaces should be vertical, or sloped at an angle not greater than 40 degrees from the
vertical. A condensation gutter no less than 50 mm wide by 25 mm deep is to be provided around
the inside of the hood and must be provided with a drainage facility. A drip pan under the lower
edge of the filter is desirable. Wall-mounted hoods should be flush with the wall. The number of
outlets necessary in the hood crown is related to the overall length of the hood. For hoods up to
two metres in length, one outlet is usually provided; however, for larger hoods outlets should be
spaced at no more than two-metre intervals. Automatic self-cleaning hoods with in-built spray jets
that direct detergent and hot washing water to the internal surface of the hood are recommended.
6.5.2 Extraction of foul air
The common foul air-extraction techniques are as follows Ventilating through windows or doors when the weather is warm enough.
Using solely suction fans, although this will not generally solve the entire problem.
_____________________________________________________________________191

Ventilating in combination with heating fans, although this does not either afford a satisfactory
solution.
Replacing harmful solvent with solvent that is believed to be less harmful.
These measures have not resulted in a truly effective solution.
The odor extraction systems currently in practice worldwide are as follows
A. Odor extraction system with outside air dilution
B. Portable Ventilation system
A. Odor extraction system with outside air dilution
1- Wind band entrains outside air above fan motor to enhance discharge volume and effective
stack height
2- Up to 170% of free outside air introduced into the airstream prevents odor and re-entrainment
3- Special materials and coatings are required for severe environment duty
4- Specially designed, mixed flow impellers provide high pressure and volume, with no stall
region, and at low RPM. The impeller mounts directly to the motor shaft without belts or pulleys
5- Modular construction speeds and simplifies installation, reduces costs and downtime
6- Extremely low vibration levels eliminate the need for spring isolation and flex connections
B. Portable Ventilation system

A portable ventilation system includes a portable unit comprising a fan for sucking-in fresh air
from the outdoor atmosphere and blowing the fresh air into a room, and an extraction fan for
sucking foul air from said room and blowing the foul air into the outdoor atmosphere. The system
includes a flexible air conduit having two mutually separate passageways which are arranged so
as to obtain a transfer of heat between the passageways, through the medium of a wall of one
passageway One end of one passageway is connectable to the input side of the fresh-air suction
fan and one end of the remaining passageway is connectable to the output side of the foul-air
extraction fan Remaining ends of the passageways are intended to be placed in connection with
the outdoor atmosphere. The two passageways of the flexible conduit may be divided into a
number of concentrically sub-passageways which are disposed so that each alternate subpassageway is associated with one passageway and each other alternate sub-passageway is
associated with the remaining passageway A distributed, counter-flow heat-exchanging effect is
obtained in this way.
Ducts should be constructed of galvanised sheet iron at least 1.2 mm thick, or stainless steel at
least 0.9 mm thick. The ductwork must be easily accessible for cleaning and maintenance. Clean-
_____________________________________________________________________192

out doors need to be provided for every three metres and near each elbow, angle or duct
junction; they should be of quick release design, built to finish flush with the inside of the duct,
and be suitably sealed to prevent leakage.
It is recommended that the horizontal exhaust ducts be graded to a drainage point. Flexible
connections are to be kept to a minimum and must be non-collapsible, grease proof and fire
resistant.
The duct must be sized to ensure a minimum exhaust gas velocity of 10 m/sec.
All openings in walls, floors, ceilings or roof through which an exhaust duct passes
should be proofed against the entry of vermin.
The capture velocity in our situation should be 0.25-0.5 M/ seconds
Different types of hoods and the Flow & capture velocities are shown in the following two figures.
_____________________________________________________________________193
Figure 6.3: Types of Hoods (Ref: American Conference of

Governmental Industrial Hygiene)
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Figure 6.4: Flow & Capture Velocities for different types of Hoods (Ref:
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygiene)
_____________________________________________________________________195

Determination of efficiency of different ventilation techniques
The air extraction performance of any ventilator are ascertained in the following
way
_____________________________________________________________________196

6.6 Odor Control Technologies
In a large area like sewage treatment plant, there are only two proven methods that can be used
to reduce odour complaints. These are:
excluding development close to the site
ensuring that the operation is carried out under best management practice.
If development close to the site is to be excluded, a reasonable 'buffer zone' around the area
source has to be determined. The actual size of this zone will depend upon a number of factors,
including the size of the area from which the odour emanates, the intensity of the odors being
emitted, the duration and frequency of the odour emissions, the actual process being undertaken,
the topography of the site, the weather conditions that prevail at the site and the neighbors'
perception of offensiveness of the odours being produced.
For example, a rural community may not regard low intensity feedlot odours as offensive, but the
same odors close to an urban community may generate many complaints.
Best management practices (BMPs) will vary according to the industry producing the odor.
However, for all new developments, BMPs will start with the site selection and the building of the
facility. For example, composting in Holland is being conducted in specially designed, fully
enclosed process chambers ('tunnels') instead of in the open.
In some cases these strategies reduce the production of odors because there is closer process
control; if the odors are still produced it is often easier to control them.
There are many different technologies that can be applied to control odors from wastewater
collection and treatment systems. These technologies can be split into following groups:
1. Vapor-phase technologies, used to control odorous compounds in the air or gas; and
2. Liquid-phase technologies, used to control odorous compounds in the liquid wastewater itself.
3. Covering of Tanks
4. Exhaustion of Foul Air
Vapor-phase technologies typically are used in point-source applications such as wastewater
treatment plants and pump stations or for the treatment of biogas. Liquid-phase technologies
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typically are used in collection systems where control of both odors and corrosion are concerns
and/or where multiple point odor control is an objective.
Liquid-phase designs are driven by the wastewater flow rate and/or the total mass loading of the
contaminants within the liquid phase. The ventilation and volatilization rates corresponding to
liquid flow and mass loading vary widely for individual applications, making generalized
comparisons of vapor- vs. liquid-phase treatment impossible. Often the general objectives and
the logistics of an application will dictate one approach being desired over the other
6.6.1. Vapor-Phase Technologies
Vapor-phase technologies ventilate the point sources of odor problems (wet wells, headworks,
etc.). For air treatment, the ventilation system is designed to maintain a negative pressure on the
area at all times. This prevents the "leakage" of odorous air from vents, manways, access
hatches or other areas. The discharge from the ventilation system is the only route for the
odorous air to escape, therefore it must be treated. Vapor-phase systems are very effective at
preventing fugitive emissions from the ventilated sources and preventing odor problems
associated with those sources.
If large amounts of air are ventilated, vapor-phase systems also can be effective at providing
adequate ventilation for occupancy and/or reducing the contaminant concentration to levels that
do not pose safety or corrosion hazards. Biogas treatment systems are concerned primarily with
the removal of hydrogen sulfide to prevent the formation of sulfur dioxide (SO2), a product of the
combustion of gas containing hydrogen sulfide. Most plants that have anaerobic treatment burn
the methane-rich biogas produced from the anaerobic sludge digestion (either as waste gas in a
flare or in engines, turbines or boilers for the production of power or steam). Because of this
practice, the removal of hydrogen sulfide many times is required to meet emissions standards or
to prevent corrosion in the combustion equipment. The technologies evaluated in this paper for
use in treating the ventilation air or biogas are packed bed wet scrubbing, mist scrubbing,
liquid redox technology, biofiltration, solid scavengers and carbon adsorption.
6.6.1.1 Packed-Bed Wet Scrubbers
The most common chemical scrubber is the packed-bed wet scrubber. Scrubbing liquid is
sprayed over packing through which the odorous gases pass. The foul air is passed through the
gas-liquid contacting packed bed, then through a mist eliminator and exhausted to the
atmosphere. The purpose of the packing is to promote turbulent mixing of liquid and gas and,
hence, increase the gas-liquid mass transfer rate. The scrubbing liquid is collected in the bottom
of the vessel and recirculated. Fresh chemicals are added to the system, and a small amount of
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spent solution is bled off to drains. Generally, packed-bed scrubbers operate with relatively weak
circulating solutions to avoid too much chemical loss in the scrubber blowdown. When
contaminants (such as hydrogen sulfide) are readily absorbed and oxidized in aqueous solutions,
packed-bed
scrubbers can perform with reasonable efficiency. However, organic sulfur compounds that are
not absorbed efficiently at the elevated pH required for H2S absorption usually are not controlled
to a great extent in packed bed scrubbers. In addition, other odorous organic compounds, such
as amines and aldehydes, may not be absorbed efficiently at elevated pH levels. As a result,
exhaust gases can exhibit low hydrogen sulfide concentrations but have high odor levels. It is
possible to customize the odor scrubber operation depending on the primary contaminant
present. Scrubbers treating primarily H2S are operated at elevated pH levels. If ammonia and
amines are the primary odor source, operation in an acidic range will provide greater removal.
Highly complex mixtures may require multi-stage units to effectively treat all odorous compounds
present in the air stream.
The chief operating problem with packed-bed scrubbers is scaling. Dissolved constituents in the
circulating solution will concentrate so that potential for scaling always exists. Scaling results in
high pressure drops and channeling of the liquid and gas streams. These problems can increase
energy cost and decrease the rate of mass transfer. Alleviating scaling potential may require
excessive solution blowdown, which significantly increases chemical costs. Softening the makeup
water reduces the scaling problem. Packed-bed scrubbers, with their associated chemical startup
systems, have a higher capital cost than carbon adsorbers or biofilters. They become cost
effective at medium to high contaminant concentration levels and at high air-flow rates.
6.6.1.2 Mist Scrubbers
An alternate chemical scrubber design, known as a mist scrubber, offers a significantly different
approach to wet chemical scrubbing of odorous gases. In this design, a relatively strong chemical
solution of sodium hypochlorite and caustic is introduced through an air-atomizing nozzle. This
nozzle creates a fine mist consisting of millions of very fine droplets (typically about 20 microns or
less in diameter) that are introduced into a relatively large vessel. The very high surface-area-tovolume ratio of the fine droplets, coupled with the high gas-liquid contact time and high chemical
concentration, creates efficient hydrogen sulfide absorption and oxidation.
Removal of organic sulfur compounds tends to be better in this type of scrubber because the
oxidant concentration is higher and the fine droplets promote greater direct contact of odorous
compounds and scrubbing chemicals. The mist scrubber has the advantage of using a chemical
solution that is immediately drained from the scrubber as condensate that forms on the walls of
the scrubber vessel after a single pass. The drawbacks to this design are greater mechanical
complexity (compressors and associated peripheral equipment) and a tendency for some air-
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atomizing nozzle designs to plug frequently. Another disadvantage is that some mist is inevitably
carried in the treated air discharged from the scrubber. Mist scrubbers should use fewer
chemicals than packed-bed scrubbers. However, the reduction in chemical usage is not great,
and the cost savings may be negligible when additional costs are considered for larger vessel
sizes (or additional vessels), compressors, and nozzle maintenance required with mist scrubbers.
6.6.1.3 Liquid Redox Technology
Liquid redox technology has a relatively long history, but is not widely used in the odor control
market. Most liquid redox processes are used in the petrochemical and natural gas industries and
generally are considered too complicated and costly for odor control applications. Liquid redox
units use a chelated metal dissolved in a water solution to remove hydrogen sulfide from a gas
stream and convert it catalytically to solid, elemental sulfur. The metal, held in solution by organic
chelating agents, acts as a catalyst, speeding up the naturally occurring reaction.
The metal ion in the solution removes electrons (negative charges) from a sulfide ion (S-) to form
sulfur and in turn can transfer the electrons to oxygen (O2) in the regeneration process. Although
there are many metals that can perform these functions, iron (Fe) is the most commercially used
because it is inexpensive and non-toxic. Liquid redox processes have limited applications in
wastewater treatment facilities compared to wet scrubbers, as they generally have higher capital
costs. Where these processes have seen greater demand is in the treatment of anaerobic biogas,
where higher levels of hydrogen sulfide and the presence of carbon dioxide cause the lower
capital costs of wet scrubbers to be offset by their much higher operating chemical costs.
Generally speaking, liquid redox units have operating costs that can be less than 10 percent of
other vapor phase treatment options because of the regeneration of the active catalyst, the iron
solution. However, because of their higher capital costs, the lower operating costs are enough to
justify the use of liquid redox systems only when the requirement for the removal of hydrogen
sulfide reaches 200 to 300 lbs./day. Above this level, the low operational cost of a liquid redox
system easily can achieve less than a 23 year payback on the initial capital investment.
Comparisons to conventional wet scrubbers are not productive. The two technologies really do
not overlap. Liquid redox units focus on digester gas treatment and ventilation air applications
with extremely high loadings of hydrogen sulfide. Additionally, because they remove only
hydrogen sulfide, liquid redox units used for ventilation air odor control in wastewater facilities
often will require polishing with hypochlorite or carbon to remove other odor compounds present.
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6.6.1.4 Biofiltration
Biofiltration technology can be used to treat a variety of biodegradable, water-soluble
contaminants. In a biofilter, the odor contaminants are solubilized from the vapor phase into an
aqueous phase on the surface of an organic medium such as compost, mulch or peat. The
compounds are then degraded by the bacteriological population on this media. Biofilters are very
effective at removing sulfur-based odor compounds such as hydrogen sulfide, organic sulfides
and mercaptans. Biofilters generally are not effective at removing nitrogen-based compounds
such as ammonia and amines.
Two major challenges in biofiltration systems are stability of the media and control of the
biofiltration process. The media used in biofilters can be prone to breakdown. When this occurs,
the bed settles and compacts, increasing the headloss through the filter. This causes a decrease
in airflow and fugitive odor emissions typically result from the air source. Control of the biofiltration
process also is an important concern. The biological population within the filter is subject to
upsets, as are any organisms. If the media are exposed to wide swings in environmental
conditions, upset of the bacteria population may result and break-through odors will occur.
These challenges can be addressed by applying an engineered or "manufactured" biofilter.
Engineered biofilters typically address media stability and control issues and are provided with
process guarantees. The media stability is addressed through the use of an "engineered media,"
as contrasted with a "simple media." Simple media typically consist of materials locally available
near a specific application (e.g., compost, mulch, wood chips, etc.). Engineered media typically
are designed to meet a particular composition and performance specification with a performance
guarantee. Engineered media have a specific combination of organic materials that is followed to
ensure consistent and repeatable performance. Process control is addressed through the design
of the filter. Most engineered systems utilize an enclosed design to protect the media from
temperature and humidity swings. In many cases, the enclosed design also is modular. The
media are contained in modules that are arranged in an array to provide a complete biofiltration
system. This modular design provides quick and easy construction of the system and extremely
easy media replacement.
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Table 6.5 . Biofilter Design Criteria
Parameter
Criteria
Media Properties
pH
Particle size
0.75 inch
Pore volume
60% minimum
Pressure drop
3 inches of water column per foot of media depth
Foul air
Moisture
Add moisture to provide 100% RH in the initial foul air to biofilter
Temperature drop
46 to 105 0F
Inlet H2S concentration
Less than 25 ppm ( volumetric measure)
Media depth
Open bed
3-4 feet
Closed bed
5 feet ( minimum)
Foul air residence time
60 seconds ( minimum)
Surface loading
2-4 cfm/ sqft
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6.6.1.5 Solid Scavengers

Scavengers are solid or liquid materials that remove sulfur compounds from gas or liquid
streams, reacting with them and converting them to stable compounds. Since the media are
actually consumed, scavengers typically are limited to low levels of contaminants. For the
purposes of this paper, only solid scavengers will be considered as they have the widest
application to wastewater facilities odor control and digester gas treatment.
Solid scavengers differ from carbon adsorbers in that the sulfur compounds (hydrogen sulfide and
light mercaptans) actually react to form stable compounds. As a result, spent media from
scavengers are easier to handle than spent carbon media. A downside is that scavengers
normally cannot be regenerated. An exception is aerobic applications where the scavenger
medium actually acts as a catalyst, and is not consumed in the removal of hydrogen sulfide.
Aerobic scavengers are regenerated in situ until the production of sulfur causes plugging of the
media bed.
Solid scavengers are of two major types; those that use an organic substrate (generally called an
iron sponge) or those that use an inorganic or ceramic substrate. The iron sponge has a long
history of treating digester gas with low levels of hydrogen sulfide but suffers from safety
concerns associated with the removal and disposal of the spent media. Because of its organic
substrate (usually wood), and the fact that the reaction of the product (iron sulfide) and air
releases heat, care must be exercised when removing and disposing the media, as a fire can
result from the improper handling. A recent alternative to iron sponge is media using the same
iron oxide active ingredient as iron sponge, but utilizing an inorganic substrate that has none of
the safety concerns associated with media combustion. These media have seen widespread use
in the natural gas market and have spread into the treatment of anaerobic biogas and even, in
some cases, odor control ventilation air due to their simplicity and low capital costs. Operating
costs for scavenger systems are comparable to single-stage wet scrubbers, but have the added
benefit of not absorbing carbon dioxide (a large constituent of biogas), making them ideal for
treating biogas with low to moderate levels of hydrogen sulfide.
6.6.1.6 Carbon Adsorption
Activated carbon has been widely used as an adsorbent for odorous air treatment at wastewater
treatment facilities. Because the main odor-causing agent at most facilities is H2S, the carbon is
often impregnated with sodium hydroxide to make it more effective at removing H2S. The alkaliimpregnated carbon not only adsorbs the H2S, but chemically converts it to elemental sulfur. This
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allows the carbon to continue to adsorb and convert H2S, greatly enhancing its H2S removal
capacity over ordinary activated carbon which can only adsorb H2S. The improved H2S removal
comes at the cost of reduced organic removal. If organics rather than H2S are the major source of
odor, unimpregnated carbon is the better choice. Where the air stream contains both, it may be
appropriate to utilize either a two-stage system with both impregnated and unimpregnated carbon
or a single unit with both impregnated and unimpregnated carbon. In either case, the
unimpregnated carbon should be the first product to be contacted by the air stream. The life of an
activated carbon bed is limited by the quantity of compounds being removed. The more
compounds that the carbon removes the shorter its effective lifespan. Unimpregnated carbon can
be reactivated with a high temperature steam treatment or thermally regenerated. This is normally
done by returning the product to the manufacturer. In the case of chemically impregnated carbon,
regeneration is accomplished by rinsing and soaking with a concentrated hydroxide solution.
Impregnated carbon should generally be replaced instead of regenerated a third time. Vessels
containing the carbon may be concrete or fiberglass. Fiberglass should be used unless space
constraints dictate a concrete rectangular vessel. A single stage of carbon treatment should be
provided. This may be provided by either a single- or dual-bed vessel, depending on space
constraints and cost. Regardless of configuration, each carbon bed should have down flow air
direction to reduce blinding of the carbon support sheet and enable operators to agitate the upper
surface of the carbon. Access to the vessels should be via hatches in the side walls and/or dome.
Sufficient access should be provided to enable loading by an inclined conveyor with simultaneous
manual raking of the carbon. Vessels shall be structurally and mechanically designed to enable
them to be filled with water in case such carbon regeneration is employed.
Figure 6.5: Carbon adsorption system for Odor removal from Screen
Carbon scrubbers have been used in combination with wet scrubbers where the wet scrubber is
optimized to remove H2S while the carbon scrubber utilizes unimpregnated carbon to optimize
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organic removal. Since carbon is affected by moisture, it is usually necessary to dehumidify the
air stream between the wet scrubber and the carbon unit.
Table 6.6 Carbon Adsorber Vessel Design Criteria
Item/Parameter
Criteria
Carbon vessel material
FRP
Types of carbon
Virgin GAC( nonimpregnated)
Sulphide adsorptive capacity
Impregnated GAC
Virgin GAC : 0.02 gm H2S / CC
Carbon hardness ( ball pan hardness)
Impregnated GAC : 0.14 gm H2S / CC

90% ( minimum)
Carbon pore volume(OCl4/100 g)
60% ( minimum)
Pressure drop across carbon head
2.0 inches of water column per foot of media depth
Foul air volumetric loading time
Less than 50 cfm/ sqft( optimum)
Discharge H2S concentration
60 cfm/sq.ft
1 ppm ( maximum)
Air flow direction through carbon bed
Downflow
Empty bed contact time
3-4 seconds
This is the simplest of the wastewater odor control technologies. There is no on-going chemical
supply to the system, and there are no biological processes to be upset. Adsorption is applicable
to a wide range of compounds. Hydrogen sulfide and related sulfur-based compounds are
removed effectively by carbon adsorption systems, but ammonia and other nitrogen-based
compounds are not effectively treated. Various carbon type systems including activated and
impregnated can be used independently or in combinations to remove many different
contaminants
6.6.2 Liquid-Phase Technologies
Liquid-phase technologies involve the treatment of a wastewater stream to control the release of
odor and corrosion-causing compounds from the stream. Most liquid-phase technologies involve
the addition of a chemical to the wastewater to either control the formation of odorous compounds
or react with those compounds once they are formed. It often is applied in a collection system for
downstream control at the headworks of a treatment plant. Since liquid-phase treatment controls
the odor compounds in the wastewater itself, it provides corrosion control in addition to odor
control.
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With liquid-phase treatment, hydrogen sulfide is prevented from escaping the liquid into the
vapor, therefore it is not present to cause corrosion on process structures, pipe crowns, etc.
Liquid-phase treatment can provide multiple point odor control. Through proper application of a
liquid-phase treatment in a collection system, multiple odor release points such as manholes, air
relief valves and re-pump stations can be controlled through one chemical application point. The
liquid-phase technologies evaluated in this paper are iron salts, bioxide process, oxidizers,
anthraquinone, caustic slug dosing and nitrate addition.
6.6.2.1 Iron Salts
Iron salts are applied to wastewater to oxidize and/or precipitate dissolved sulfide. Ferrous salts
such as ferrous sulfate precipitate sulfide as ferrous sulfide. Ferric salts such as ferric chloride
oxidize some of the sulfide to sulfur while reducing the ferric iron to ferrous iron. The remaining
ferrous iron then reacts with dissolved sulfide to form the ferrous sulfide precipitate. Ferrous
sulfide is a light precipitate, black in color, that is carried downstream to the treatment plant.
Within the aeration process of the treatment plant the ferrous sulfide is dissociated. The sulfide is
oxidized to sulfate and the ferrous iron is oxidized to ferric iron. The ferric iron then can be used
for chemical precipitation of phosphorous. Iron salts are specific to dissolved sulfide. Other
odorous compounds are not treated by iron salts. Iron salt solutions are classified as hazardous
compounds and often require double-wall tankage and piping systems.
Case Study
The Water and Wastewater Utility Department of the city of Austin, Texas, manages the operation
of a regional sludge processing facility where they were met with the challenge of solving an odor
problem.
Between October of 1992 and August of 1994, the facility received a total of 23 odor complaints
from the surrounding neighbors. Some had complained numerous times. Most of the complaints
occurred between the hours of 8 a.m. and 12 p.m. coming from the residents of apartment
complexes, the staff and students at two elementary schools, restaurant patrons, and a local air
force bases personnel.
In an effort to maintain effective control of any odor emissions from the plant site, the city had
retained several consultants over the previous years to monitor the site and conduct evaluations
of the existing odor control measures.
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Sampling was performed during September of 1992, December of 1992, and April of 1994.
Though some of the results were inconsistent with previous studies, there was a definite trend
that indicated certain processes were emitting appreciable levels of H2S and other sulfur
compounds.
The city opted to explore other odor control options. Working with the consultant, they purchased
a fixed bed, iron oxide based odor control system. The Sulfatreat Company of Chesterfield,
Missouri, supplied the media. The vessels and other mechanical equipment were competitively
bid and supplied by the general contractor. Based on experience gained from more than 1,000
previous applications, Sulfatreat based its recommendation on its proven commercial technology
for H2S scavenging used globally by major oil and gas producers.
The Sulfatreat technology provided a low cost, highly effective (over 99.5 percent removal)
solution to the major odor generation sources at the facility. The process provides the wastewater
plant or sludge processing facility owner/operator an easy-to-use, reliable, and cost-effective tool
for odor control. Additionally, the Sulfatreat media is a low pressure-drop product that provides
long on-stream operation with minimal maintenance or operational attention.
The H2S reacts with the iron chemistry to produce environmentally safe reaction products
consisting of predominantly iron pyrite and some elemental sulfur. The spent media is
nonhazardous and can be disposed of in a landfill or applied as a soil amendment product
(registered as such in the State of California).
The facility also purchased Sulfatreat media to condition the anaerobic digester gas at the site
upstream of the boilers and power generation equipment.
6.6.2.2 Bioxide Process
The bioxide process involves the application of a nitrate solution (Bioxide) to wastewater. It is a
patented process, proprietary to USFilter. The process uses naturally occurring bacteria to
biochemically oxidize dissolved sulfide in the presence of nitrate. This mechanism takes place
when the solution is applied in wastewater that contains dissolved sulfide. The sulfide typically is
either generated upstream of the injection point where no nitrate exists in the wastewater or is
contributed downstream via a septic lateral flow. Nitrate is injected in sufficient quantities to
biochemically oxidize the sulfide via the following reaction.
8NO3- + 5H2S > 5SO4- + 4N2 + 4H2O + 2H+
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This reaction takes place in the bulk flow and in the upper zones of the slime layer. Nitrate is not
added in sufficient quantities to fully saturate the slime layer, therefore sulfide production
continues to occur in the lower zones of the slime and is removed in the upper zones or in the
bulk flow. The Bioxide solution is not classified as a hazardous compound. It is relatively easy
and safe to store, handle and apply.
Figure 6.6: Bioxide application for Pump station

6.6.2.3 Oxidizing Agents
Oxidation for wastewater odor control involves the application of a strong chemical oxidizing
agent to the wastewater. The oxidizing agent is used to chemically react with dissolved sulfide,
converting it to sulfate or sulfur. In addition to dissolved sulfide, many other odorous compounds
are treated by the oxidizing agent. Many non-odorous compounds also are oxidized, causing
application rates to be higher than those predicted by the stoichiometry of the sulfide reaction.
All of the oxidizers commonly used for wastewater odor control are classified as hazardous.
Hydrogen peroxide is the most commonly used oxidizer.
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A. Chlorine
Chlorine is a powerful and relatively cheap chemical oxidant. The reactive component of any
chlorine application in water is the hypochlorite ion, regardless of whether chlorine gas or a
sodium hypochlorite solution is used. Because chlorine is very reactive it reacts with many
compounds found in wastewater including H2S. This high reactivity can also be a disadvantage,
however, because chlorine indiscriminately oxidizes any reduced compound in wastewater. The
competing side reactions require an overfeeding of chlorine to ensure sulfide oxidation. It has
been shown that between five and 15 parts by weight of chlorine are required to oxidize one part
sulfide. For applications requiring less than approximately 140 kg/d Cl2, hypochlorite solution feed
equipment is often the most economical. For applications requiring greater amounts of Cl2,
chlorine gas is required. Using chlorine gas requires greater maintenance and safety costs.
Best results are achieved when the chlorine solution is mixed rapidly and thoroughly with the
entire wastewater flow. Direct injection of gas dangerous because it may cause downstream
fuming with the potential to release dangerous chlorine gas. Chlorine also acts as a bactericide.
Depending on the point of application and dose, it can kill or inactivate many odor-causing
bacteria. On the other hand, since it is nonselective, it may also kill organisms beneficial to
wastewater treatment. Chlorine is a hazardous material, and any use of chlorine must include
consideration of health and safety.
Case Study
City of Winnipeg Collection System Odor Control
The City of Winnipeg has a northern climate, located at the junction of the Red and Assiniboine
Rivers in Manitoba, Canada, almost at the geographic center of North America. The City of
Winnipeg has a population of approximately 630,000 and provides secondary treatment to an
average of 350 million liters of wastewater per day. The citys wastewater collection system is
constructed of approximately 2,000 kilometers of wastewater and combined sewers, with 72
wastewater pumping stations that feed three wastewater treatment plants (located at the north,
south and west ends of the City).
The City of Winnipeg has a tannery that feeds its industrial wastewater into Winnipegs
wastewater collection system. Tanneries produce high sulfide levels as a consequence of their
process. The tannery has its own pretreatment system with the objective of maintaining its sulfide
discharge levels below the Citys by-law limit of 10 mg/L. However, prior to the installation of
pretreatment, and on occasions when the system is bypassed, high sulfide levels were/are
sometimes discharged to the sewer.
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The sewer line that collects the tannery wastewater has a sufficient slope to provide flow-through
velocities, avoiding stagnation problems, and is a 21-inch pipe constructed of sulfate-resistant
reinforced concrete. After inspection of the interceptors, it was noticed that corrosion was
insignificant. The pipe had some normal cracking but no corrosion.
When pretreatment is inadequate, the tannery wastewater contains a significant amount of
sulfides that convert into H2S as it travels through the collection system. The H2S creates a public
health concern when the odor reaches street level and at the North End Treatment Plant where
the H2S is released form the pump discharge box, grit building and in the open primary clarifiers.
The City responded to the local concern by sealing the collection system manholes with
polyethylene and working with the tannery to improve pretreatment reliability.
At the North End Treatment Plant, the city adds approximately two to three tons of Cl2 per day for
odor control. A consultant report recently recommended increasing this dosage rate by 300 to
400 percent. Winnipeg evaluated alternative chlorine-monitoring technologies used to determine
the feed rate of chlorine compounds in the collection system for odor control. Chlorine residual
analyzers, which measure chlorine residual in drinking water, require relatively clean effluent to
function reliably. Oxidation reduction potential (ORP) probes, which measure chlorine
effectiveness indirectly, have similar limitations.
Winnipeg has put off its investigations of these instruments while looking into non-chemical
potential solutions to odor control. Depending on the outcome, the City many resume its search. If
it does, one approach it may investigate is measuring H2S, either vapor or liquid phase, and
developing an empirical relationship between H2S in the pump discharge box, chlorine dosage
and odors in the discharge box, primary clarifiers and grit building at the North End Treatment
Plant.
B. Hydrogen Peroxide
Hydrogen peroxide is a commonly used oxidant that oxidizes H2S to elemental sulfur or sulfate
depending upon the pH of the wastewater. It is normally delivered as a 50-percent active solution.
Typical applications require one to three parts hydrogen peroxide per one part sulfide. The
reaction takes place quickly and most of the hydrogen peroxide is consumed soon after dosing.
Several advantages of hydrogen peroxide are: reactions with sulfide and other odor causing
compounds yield harmless byproducts; decomposition of excess hydrogen peroxide into water
and oxygen increases the DO concentration of the wastewater and produces no chemical
residue; and feeding equipment is relatively easy to operate and maintain if safety procedures are
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followed closely. Hydrogen peroxide can only control odors for a short retention time, thus it is
best suited for control of a point source by dosing just upstream of the source of odors. Under
normal conditions, injection must occur at a point at least 15 minutes ahead of potential release
points to ensure complete reaction. Because hydrogen peroxide is very reactive with organic
materials, the
maintenance and operation of such a system requires special training, procedures, and safety
practices.
C. Potassium Permanganate (KMnO4)
Potassium permanganate is a strong chemical oxidant that oxidizes H2S to elemental sulfur or
potassium sulfate. Studies have shown that approximately six to seven parts potassium
permanganate are required for each part sulfide oxidized. Potassium permanganate is expensive
and can be explosive if contaminated with acids or organics. For these reasons is not widely used
as an odor control oxidant in the US. It also produces an insoluble chemical floc (manganese
dioxide). Some success has been encountered in dewatering operations where the
permanganate helps to reduce odor and concurrently improves dewaterability.
6.6.2.4 Anthraquinone
Anthraquinone is a chemical compound that interrupts the sulfate reduction process carried out
by sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) in wastewater under anaerobic conditions. This metabolic
process occurs in the cytoplasmic membrane of the SRB at the cytochrome c3 location.
Anthraquinone interacts with cytochrome c3 and specifically disrupts the sulfate reduction
process. Anthraquinone is a non-hazardous compound. When used alone, anthraquinone is
specific to the control of sulfide. When contacted by anthraquinone, the bacteria in the slime layer
are inactivated for a period of several days up to six weeks. After this time, the bacteria start
sulfide production again if not retreated. Because of the low solubility, it is only partially effective
in force main application and fast gravity main flows.
6.6.2.5 Caustic Slug Dosing
Sodium hydroxide is a strong caustic solution. It controls H2S by shifting the sulfide equilibrium
from the H2S form to the dissolved hydrosulfide HS- forms. The continuous addition of sodium
hydroxide would prevent the release of H2S, but is not a cost-effective solution. Periodic slug
dosing with sodium hydroxide, however, can be effective in a sewer system. It works not by
shifting the chemical equilibrium, but by inactivating or killing the biological slime layer, which is
responsible for the generation of H2S. The slime layer will regrow, but it will take several days or
weeks for it to resume full sulfide production. For such a system large quantities of caustic are
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needed and the slugging can have adverse effects on nearby treatment plants. Treatment
facilities must have equalization facilities to deal with the elevated pH levels or they must
neutralize the wastewater with acid before treatment. These procedures add to the cost of a slug
dosing operation and may be prohibitive. Normal operation requires that the pH in the line be
raised to greater than 11 for at least 15 minutes. Higher dosages and or longer dosage periods
may initially be required to remove the accumulated slime layer. Caustic slug dosing is most
effective for force mains.
6.6.2.6 Nitrate Addition
Facultative and obligate anaerobic bacteria, which are responsible for sulfide production, prefer
nitrate to sulfate as an oxygen source. This results in the production of nitrogen gas and other
nitrogenous compounds rather than hydrogen sulfides. Nitrate can be obtained in a variety of
liquid and dry forms, mostly as sodium or calcium nitrate. It has several advantages over other
control options. It is consumed more slowly than dissolved oxygen in wastewater systems; it is
nonflammable and nonhazardous, requiring no special containment or safety devices; and it
produces only minor flocculants to increase solids production. Nitrate functions as an alternate
source of oxygen and thus inhibits the production of H2S. It also has been found to be effective at
reducing the existing concentration of H2S in collection systems by enabling biological oxidation
of the H2S back to sulfate. Dosage rates are dependent upon the length of time in the
conveyance system, with higher dosages being required for longer detention times and where
H2S is already present. Dosage has been experimentally determined to be 2,400g nitrateoxygen per kilogram sulfide (2.41lb/lb). Bioxide is a commercially available form of calcium
nitrate sold for use in wastewater treatment.
Case Study
City of Santa Cruz Collection System
The City of Santa Cruz, California, is situated on the northern part of Monterey Bay about 74
miles south of San Francisco and 30 miles from San Jose.
The City of Santa Cruz has been treating wastewater at the facility near Nearys Lagoon and
disposing of the effluent in the ocean since 1928. Treatment capacity has been expanded several
times since to accommodate the growth of the city and the addition of flows from the Santa Cruz
County Sanitation District.
The current rated design capacity is 17 million gallons per day (mgd), with an average daily flow
of 12 mgd. Design for wet weather flow is 81 mgd. In April 1998, the City completed a secondary
_____________________________________________________________________212

biological treatment system consisting of trickling filters/solids contact tanks to improve effluent
quality and satisfy federal requirements and the California Ocean Plan.
The City has a 4-mile long, 36-inch diameter force main in its collection system. The force main
collects wastewater from the unincorporated part of Santa Cruz. The force main has average
flows of 5 to 20 mgd and is constructed of concrete coated steel pipe.
Santa Cruz had a problem with sulfides in its collection system force main causing odor and
corrosion. There are several locations along the force main that have high points where hydrogen
sulfide gas can form. The content of the sulfides in the wastewater can be from 20 to 10 ppm,
translating into 20 to 200 ppm of hydrogen sulfide gas.
In the past, the force main has broken at some high points because of corrosion caused by
hydrogen sulfide gas being trapped. This resulted in very costly repairs to the force main.
The City of Santa Cruz purchased a liquid-phase sulfide ion-selective electrode (ISE) analyzer
four years ago (costing about $20,000 to $30,000). The analyzer was installed at the end of the
force main near the wastewater treatment plant. The City spent two years researching and further
developing the analyzer to ensure accurate and reliable measurement of the sulfides in the raw
wastewater.
The analyzer uses a pH buffer chemical reagent to condition the sample to measure total sulfide
concentration. This analyzer continuously monitors the amount of sulfides and controls the
addition of a proprietary nitrate chemical that is injected upstream in the force main.
The nitrate chemical oxidizes the sulfides present in the wastewater and significantly reduces
corrosion and odor. It is crucial that the nitrate chemical be dosed at the proper rate since over
dosing can cause sludge to float to the surface of the water in the primaries of the wastewater
treatment plant. In addition, the nitrate chemical is costly (approximately $1.50 to $2.50 per
gallon, depending on the quantity purchased). Santa Cruz uses anywhere from 200 to 1,000
gallons per day.
Even with its high price the nitrate chemical is preferred over the less costly use of chlorine gas
for oxidizing sulfides in this circumstance. This is due to the hazardous nature of storing gas
cylinders in residential areas. In addition, the analyzer allows the City of Santa Cruz to download
the measurement data collected by computer for further analysis and archiving. Santa Cruz
reports that the analyzer is working well.
These instrument investigations provided three potential solutions.
_____________________________________________________________________213

Real-time monitoring of an industrial discharger using a liquid-phase sulfide meter;
Optimization of chlorine injection for sulfide control by monitoring the sulfides in the collection
system and developing an empirical relationship to chlorine dosing; and
Replacement of chlorine with an alternative chemical that may have a higher chemical cost but
would eliminate the public safety and emerging regulatory issues associated with
6.6.3 Covering of Tanks
Tank covers may be concrete, aluminum, plastic, or fiberglass. Use of covers may require that
the area under the cover be ventilated for corrosion protection. Ventilation requirements will
depend on the use of the area being ventilated.
Ventilation of structures is used to provide an environment suitable for human occupancy by
purging the structure of odorous, toxic, and hazardous gases with outside fresh air; extend the life
of an enclosure and/or its equipment by purging the area of corrosive gases; create a negative
pressure within the structure to prevent the escape of fugitive emissions; or any combination of
the above. The air-exchange-rate principle must be used for occupied spaces such as free entry
wet wells and screen rooms. The negative pressure principle is typically used for covered tanks
and channels. The ventilation requirements for situations typically encountered in wastewater
facilities are shown in.
_____________________________________________________________________214

Table 6.7 Foul Air Ventilation Requirements
Areas where operator access is frequently
15 air changes per hour continuously in
required (wet wells, screen rooms, domed tank
occupied space.
covers).
Potentially corrosive areas where operator
6 air changes per hour continuously to reduce
access is treated as confined space entry
corrosion
(submersible pump wet well).

Confined space entry if occupied.
0.5 to 1.5 cfm/sq ft of cover area, depending on
Foul air withdrawal rate to create a negative
cover leak tightness.
pressure (flat covers over channels and

tankage).
Canopy hoods over equipment or tanks
. 400 fpm velocity through perimeter space
Negative pressure inside covered areas
. 0.05 to 0.1 inch of water column.
Handrailing around the tank must be provided if removable covers are installed on otherwise
open tanks. The handrailing may be the permanent type, or a method of temporarily installing
handrailing must be provided. Handrailing around the tank must be provided if removable covers
are used. Covers may be removed by hoist, crane, or manually; if manually, the maximum cover
weight must meet OSHA standards. Consideration should be given to issues of fall protection
where covers must be removed manually. Staff also needs to be aware of confined space
requirements associated with covered units, and design consideration should be given to this
issue. Factors to be considered in type and location of covers are:
Permanency (fixed, removable).
Ease of removal (by crane, manually).
Accessibility/visibility (hatches, clear panels).
Aesthetics (sun reflection, camouflage).
Sealing (gasketed, permanently sealed).
_____________________________________________________________________215

Case Study 1
South Dearborn Regional Sewer District located in Lawrenceburg, Ind.
After evaluating several cover systems, the district chose covers fabricated and installed by
Geomembrane Technologies Inc. (GTI), with customized features to meet their operational
needs, while fitting within the constraints of existing infrastructure.
Each clarifier is covered by a high performance coated fabric tensioned over a series of aluminum
support arches placed along the length of the clarifier tank openings. This industrial fabric is a
proven performer in a wastewater environment and features high strength, durability, and UV
protection.
Aluminum walkways divide the fabric covers into manageable sections which are easily detached
on three sides and rolled up along the support arches to expose the tank interior for inspection or
maintenance. Hatches in the walkways are located at key points to provide access for a single
operator to take samples, inspect equipment, tip scum troughs, etc. This easy access to the tank
interior is a key feature for the district's plant operators.
Case Study 2
Ohio Wastewater Treatment Plant - Covers On Sludge Digester Tanks
Attempting to maintain aerobic conditions in two large, municipal thickened sludge digesters
created problems in an Ohio community. High aeration rates caused splashing out of the
digesters, while lowering the aeration rates to reduce the splashing created additional odors.
Olentangy Environmental Control Center owns a 6 MGD tertiary treatment wastewater plant
employing biological nutrient removal with aerobic sludge digestion.
Bounded by the Olentangy River, a metro park, a scenic byway road as well as high-end housing,
this facility is the daily focus of many neighboring eyes and noses.
As part of its "Good Neighbor" effort, the Olentangy facility features low profile buildings, ponds
and landscaping. However, attempting to maintain aerobic conditions in the two 16 ft. x 85 ft. and
one 18 ft. x 85 ft. thickened sludge (6%) digesters created problems. High aeration rates caused
splashing out of the digesters a housekeeping nightmare while lowering the aeration rates
to reduce the splashing created additional odors.
_____________________________________________________________________216

To address this issue, the Delaware County Board of Commissioners issued in April of 1999 a
solicitation to procure covers for these tanks. Cover selection criteria in this solicitation included:
Total and long-term containment of odor emissions,
Minimize the visual impact of the covers,
Install covers without removing the existing handrails.
After a thorough evaluation of all cover options, ILC Dovers Vapor Guard covers were awarded
a turnkey contract for the design, engineering, manufacture and installation of the digester covers
in September of 1999. "ILC Dover had the product to fit our need," said operations manager Paul
Sandstrom.
Key to this award was Vapor Guards performance on each of the selection criteria:
Vapor Guards heat-sealed seams ensure total and long-term containment of odor emissions;
Vapor Guards flat profile and tan color minimize the visual impact of the covers;
Vapor Guards support structure included custom fabricated "knee braces" to discreetly
reinforce the cantilevered walkways and to permit installation of the covers without removal of the
existing handrails. Further, Vapor Guards modular panels were laser-cut at the factory to ensure
a tight fit with the existing handrails.
Installation of the Vapor Guard covers was completed in March of 2000. The covers have
enabled the previous high aeration rates to be maintained and presently, additional odor control
devices are not needed. Further, an added benefit of the covers is the warmer temperatures
maintained in the tanks especially helpful during Ohios winter season.
(Ref :ILC Dover, Inc. at 800-631-9567, FAX 302-335-1320, email vginfo@ilcdover.com.)
6.6.4 Exhaustion of Foul Air
This exhaustion is carried out by fans or ductworks.
Fans to exhaust or transfer foul air and to blow the foul air through the treatment system are
normally constructed of aluminum or fiberglass reinforced plastic material. They would likely be
the same material as the associated ductwork. They should be centrifugal, with the bearings
located outside the air stream. These fans or blowers are widely available in sizes up to 60,000
_____________________________________________________________________217

cfm. In areas where space is limited (particularly for transfer fans), inline centrifugal duct fans
may be used but are not recommended because of their more difficult maintenance requirements,
including removal from the ductwork.
The overall foul air system should be designed such that building space exhaust fans would
develop sufficient pressure to deliver the foul air stream into the ductwork exiting the building.
From that point, the odor control treatment system fan would power the air stream. If the odor
control system is nonoperational, the building space exhaust fan should bypass and exhaust to
the atmosphere. This type of fan should be AMCA certified. Redundant fans are not
recommended.
Ductwork may be constructed of galvanized steel, aluminum, stainless steel, fiberglass, or
polyethylene materials. The choice will depend primarily on the corrosiveness of the conveyed air
and of the external environment. The most cost-effective ductwork that meets the corrosion
demands should be used. Duct sizing would be based on velocity (to reduce noise) and air
friction loss (to conserve fan energy).
_____________________________________________________________________218

6.7. Technical comparison of Odor Control techniques
Table 6.7: Technical comparison of control options
Control Option
Advantages
Packed Bed Wet
Works
Scrabbers
Disadvantages
through
gas-liquid
mass transfer
Can
not
Remarks
remove
amines
&
unable to remove amines
aldehydes
Scaling
can
result
to
high
pressure drops & energy cost

Mist scrubbing
Efficient as works through
Greater mechanical complexity
both chemical reaction and
(compressors
adsorption
peripheral equipment)
Tendency
Not sufficient alone as
&
for
associated
& aldehydes. Scaling can

be a major threat.
Higher capital cost for the
mechanical equipments .
air-atomizing
nozzle designs to plug frequently

Liquid
Redox
technology
Regeneration
of
active
catalyst ( iron solution) is

possible
Low O & M cost
Biofiltration,
Simple & Common method
High capital cost
Not sufficient alone as
Polishing with hypochlorite or
unable to remove odors
carbon is needed for other odor
other than H2S.
producer gases
Higher capital cost.
Inability to remove ammonia or

ammonia odors
Solid scavengers
Spent
media
from
scavengers are easier to

handle than spent carbon
media.
Carbon adsorption
No chemical consumption
Bioxide process
sufficient alone as unable
Breakdown prone media
to remove odors other
Process control is major concern
than H2S.
Scavengers normally cannot be
Proper
regenerated
maintenance
required.
Fire can happen due to organic

substrate material
Regular media enhancing
Can be considered as the
No biological process
cheapest & best option
Can remove NO3 and NH3
for capital & O& M cost.
Minimal O & M
Iron salts
Common method, but not
Nonflamable
Nonhazardous
Iron salt is hazardous to tanks
Hazardous
Specific use for H2S only
tanks.
Patented process from USFilter
Can be considered after
for
RCC
the technoeconomic offer.
_____________________________________________________________________219

Table 6.7: Technical comparison of control options..Continued
Control Option
Advantages
Disadvantages
Remarks
Low material cost
Greater safety & maintenance
Rules out as hazardous
Oxidisers
A. Chlorides
and highly reactive.
Highly reactive
Hazardous material
B.
Hydrogen
peroxide
Special care for O & M as highly
Harmless byproducts
Decomposition
of
excess
reactive
with
organic load, but can be
reactive with organic load
considered as it increase
H2O2 into water
DO concentration.
Increase in DO concentration
Low material cost
C. KMnO4
Highly
Expensive, explosive & costly
Not
considered
as
explosive
Anthraquinone,
Nonhazardous
Partially active for low solubility
Not a permanent solution.
Odor reappears after 6 weeks

Caustic slug dosing
Kills
the
biological
slime
layer
Nitrate addition
pH,
acid
addition
Nonflamable
Sludge
floatation
Acid addition will increase

the cost.
needed U/S of treatment
Nonhazardous
Covering of Tanks
Increases
due
to
Can be considered as the

potential control process.
overloading
Slowly consumable
High chemical cost
Adds beautification
Needs walkways and handrails
Additional load over the
No power required
Ventilator required
tank walls and difficult to

design & operate.
No mechanical equipment
Extra cost.
Exhaustion of Foul
Simple to install
Corrosion of ducts
Air
Easy to operate
Difficult
No
power
requirement
or
chemical
maintenance
centrifugal fans
Inadequate
for
treatment
for
the
plant
and
difficult to install.
Extra cost for pipes.
_____________________________________________________________________220

6.8. Recommendation of optionsIn our case, the points of odor generation are
Raw Sewage Pumping Station
Grit Removal chambers
Reactor tanks
Sludge Digesters
The raw sewage pumping station in our case is unlike the dry well- wet well concept where
separate compartments for storage of sewage and pumping. The submergible pumps do not
need the separate place, they can pump directly from the wet well itself. So the odor generation
will not be a major problem in pumping station.
As we are recommending the aerated type grit chambers, the odor will be partially controlled.
This will also reduce the odor problem for main reactor tanks. Chlorine or other oxidizing agents
can be added to the liquid waste water in grit chamber, but this will upset the biological treatment
process in the reactors.
The main biological treatment processes like clarification and aeration occur in SBR tanks. The
batch aeration process reduces the possibility of odor generation as compared to anaerobic
processes. However, if there is any odor problem, it can be effectively handled by increasing the
aeration dose and no additional odor controlling system is required.
The most probable and vulnerable point for the odor problem is the sludge digestion or
stabilization process. Again, as we are going for aerobic sludge digestion process, the effect of
odor will be much less. The current practices of odor control for sludge digestion worldwide are
covering with transparent sheets, biofilter, wet scrubbing, exhaust ducts etc- but more applicable
for anaerobic sludge digestion.
Theoretically, there will be negligible odor generation in the Sewage Treatment Plant at Dronagiri
if all the selected processes are working properly. However, occasionally when odor problem is
beyond the limit, liquid phase technologies should be applied. Hydrogen peroxide, nitrate (or
Bioxides) can be added to the liquid at grit chamber, raw sewage pumping wells, reactor tanks or
sludge digesters for odor control. Vapor phase technologies like Carbon Adsorption or Biofilters
can be applied but that needs covering of tanks plus the ducts and all those things will add huge
cost and not at all economically viable for the waste water treatment plant with SBR technology.
6.9. Capital and O & M costs for the recommended options
Capital and O & M costs for the following 2 options are considered
Option A: Covering of Tanks, Extraction of Foul air with 300 mm dia PVC pipes, Treatment with
Carbon Adsorption unit
Option B: Covering of smaller units and mixing Nitrates or anthraquinone in the liquids for
prevention of foul odor
_____________________________________________________________________221

Cost for Option A: Covering of Tanks, Extraction of Foul air, Treatment with Carbon
Adsorption unit
Table 6.8: Cost of covering the STP units with RCC / Plastic
Areas of different units and the costs for covers Sr.
Unit
Qty
Length Width
Total
No.
(M)
(M)
unit area
(SqM
Coarse
screen
Fine
screen
Grit
Chamber
SBR Tanks
10
Filtrate
Collection
Tank
Aerobic
sludge
digester
Channels
42
42
50
Unit
Rate
for
RCC
(Rs/
sqM
Cost for
covering
entire
units with
RCC
Cover (Rs)
Unit
Rate
for
Plastic
(Rs/sq
M)
Cost for
covering
50% with
RCC and
50% with
Plastic
Cover (Rs)
40
48
20000
960000
1000
504000
20
24
20000
480000
1000
252000
72
86
20000
1728000
1000
907200
7056
8467
20000
169344000
1000
88905600
40
48
20000
960000
1000
504000
1500
1800
20000
36000000
1000
18900000
872.8
873
20000
17456000
1000
9164400
Adding
20%
extra
for
cover
(sqM)
30
Total area for covering the units in SqM
11346
Total cost for covering the units in Rs.-
226928000
119137200
Table 6.9: Cost of extraction of foul odor with PVC pipes

Perimeter of different units and the costs of Pipe extraction system
Sr.
Unit
Qty Length(M Width
Total
Adding
Unit Rate for
No.
(M)
unit
25% extra PVC pipe 300
perimeter
for
mm dia
(RM)
leading to
(6kg/sqcm)
odor
including
treatment
specials
(s/M)
1
Coarse
4
10
1
88
106
1000
screen
2
Fine
4
48
58
1000
screen
5
1
3
Grit
2
48
58
1000
Chamber
6
6
Cost for
PVC pipes
(Rs)
105600
_____________________________________________________________________222
57600
57600

4
SBR
4
Tanks
42
42
Filtrate
1
Collection
Tank
8
5
Aerobic
1
sludge
digester
50
30
Channels
1
Total length of pipes to be used in RM
672
806
1000
806400
26
31
1000
31200
160
192
1000
192000
104.2
104
1355
1000
104200
Total cost for extraction of foul air in Rs.
1354600
Table 6.10: Production of foul gas & rate of flow by extraction system in STP Units
Sl No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Unit
Receiving
chamber
Coarse screen
chamber
Raw Sewage
Sump
Grit chamber
Fine screen
chamber
SBR tanks
Filtrate collection
tank
Aerobic sludge
digestion
Stilling chamber
Total gas volume in

units in cum Adding 20% extra for
channels
Considering 12 times of
gas flow of gas extracted
Assuming working hours
of extraction system per
day-
Minimum
Free board M
Maximum
Free board M
Minimum
Air volume
cum
Maximum Air
volume cum
0.3
1.3
2.7
11.70
0.3
4.3
12.0
172.00
0.5
0.3
6.5
0.3
31.8
19.2
413.51
19.20
0.3
0.6
0.3
0.6
12.0
4233.6
12.00
4233.60
0.5
8.8
52.50
0.5
0.3
0.5
0.3
760.3
18.8
760.27
18.75
5099.08
5693.53
6832.24
81986.84
24
Rate of flow for extraction

of foul air in cum/ hr-
3416.18
Say, gas flow in cum/hr
3500
_____________________________________________________________________223

Table 6.11A: Cost of Control of odor by Bioscrubber and Biofilter (Ref : Ventsys Industries)
I. Capital Cost @ Rs. 2 lakhs for gas flow upto 5000
Rs.2,00,000/-
cum/Hr
II. Operation & Maintenance Cost
Cost for replacement of carbon with full charge
Rs 50,000/- per year
One charge each 6 months @ Rs. 25,000/- for each charge

for gas flow of 5000 cum/hr
III. Power Consumption
60 KWH / per day
Table 6.11B: Cost of Control of odor by Bioscrubber and Biofilter (Ref : Siemens Ltd)
I. Capital Cost
Rs. 4,42,80,000/-

O & M cost @ 1% per year of capital cost
Rs 4,42,800/- per year
60 KWH / per day
As the cost for biofilter and bioscrubber is much more , cost of carbon adsorption is considered .
The total cost for covering the tanks, extraction with PVC pipes and treatment with carbon
adsorption will be 1.
Rs. 22.84 crores with total RCC slabs and PVC pipes
2.
Rs. 12.06 crores with 50 % RCC slabs and 50% plastic covers and PVC pipes
Alternative 1 is totally unfeasible. Alternative 2 can be thought of with 50% RCC and 50% plastic
covers, PVC pipes & carbon adsorption unit. So the total cost for covering of tanks, extraction of
foul air and treatment by carbon adsorption is Rs. 12.06 Crores.
_____________________________________________________________________224

Cost for Option B: Covering of smaller units and Mixing Nitrates or Anthraquinone in the
liquids Table 6.12: Cost of covering of smaller units
(Covering with 50 % RCC and 50% Plastic covers)
Sr.
No.
Unit
Qty
Length
(M)
Width
(M)
Total
unit area
(SqM
Adding
20% extra
for cover
(SqM)
Cost for covering

50% with RCC and
50% with Plastic
Cover (Rs)
Coarse screen
10
40
48
504000
2
3
4
Fine screen
Grit Chamber
Filtrate Collection
Tank
4
2
5
6
1
6
20
72
24
86
252000
907200
40
48
504000
8
Total area to be covered in SqM -
206
Total cost for covering the units -
2167200
Table 6.13: Cost of Control of odor by Liquid Nitrate Addition

I. Capital Cost
Installation of liquid-phase sulfide ion-selective electrode (ISE) analyzer
Rs. 8,00,000/-
Installation of liquid Nitrate mixing and injecting machine -
Rs. 10,00,000/-
Total Capital Cost -
Rs. 18,00,000/-

Cost for daily injection of liquid nitrate into sewage
Rs 12,000/- per day
Daily injection of 910 Litres of liquid nitrate @ Rs. 13.25 /- per litre
Rs. 4,38,000/- every year
Negligible and insignificant
So total cost for Option B i.e covering smaller tanks and application of liquid nitrate is Rs.
39,67,200/- say Rs. 40 lakhs.
_____________________________________________________________________225

6.10 Final recommended option
Table 6.14: Comparison between Vapor phase technology and liquid phase technology
Odor control Technology
Vapor Phase technology
Liquid Phase Technology
System components
Covering of all tanks with 50 %
Covering of small tanks with
RCC and 50 % Plastic covers
50 % RCC and 50 % Plastic
Extraction of foul air with PVC
covers
pipes
Determination of liquid-phase
Treatment of foul air with
sulfide ion-selective electrode
carbon adsorption
(ISE) analyzer
Nitrate mixing and injecting
Capital cost
Rs. 1208 Lakhs
Rs. 40 Lakhs
O & M cost
Rs. 1 Lakh per year
Rs. 4.38 Lakhs per year
Power requirement
60 KWHs/ per day
Negligible & insignificant
The significant economical difference between the 2 options i.e vapor phase and liquid phase
technologies is that
Vapor phase technology (Opt-A)-incorporates more capital cost but less O & M cost.
Liquid phase technology (Opt-A) incorporates less capital cost but more O & M cost
However, as the minimum capital cost for odor containment and extraction in vapor phase is huge
(Rs.12.06 crores) and unaffordable in our project perspective, we need to go for liquid phase
technologies, i.e. nitrate or any other liquid addition for control of odor. The O & M cost is more in
case of liquid addition, but this can be managed and the actual requirement for the treatment
plant may be less if plant is operated properly as we are engaging aerobic systems for most of
the treatment systems. The total capital cost for this option is Rs.40 lakhs which is affordable for
effective odor treatment.
It is recommended to cover small tanks and use nitrate for low capital cost and easier
operation and maintenance.
6.11 Operation and Maintenance procedures
There are a number of operational procedures which can be utilized to limit the production or
release of odors. Probably the most important is good housekeeping. Routine hosing and debris
removal at pump station wet wells and within the treatment plant can significantly reduce odor
production. Operation of wet wells is also an important factor. While it may be more energy
_____________________________________________________________________226

efficient to operate at higher wet well levels, this increases detention times and the potential for
the development of anaerobic conditions and H2S production. Fill and draw pump stations should
consider more frequent pumping while level set points on variable speed pump stations should be
lowered where odor is an issue. This often creates problems for operations personnel because of
inconvenience. Containment is only effective if it is not compromised by leaving hatches or doors
open or otherwise compromising the containment. It requires an ongoing education program to
ensure that odor control procedures and design intentions are maintained.
References:
GOI
Oct 06)
Water & Wastes Digest, August 2000, October 2001- Journal
Water Engineering & Management, August 2000 - Journal
_____________________________________________________________________227
Chapter-VII
Recommendation & Conclusion
_____________________________________________________________________228

7.0 Recommendation and Conclusion
In the report, we travelled through the processes for the treatment of waste water( except
biological treatment) upto the desired standards or better not only for the waste water train, but
also for the sludge and odor the two non-disintegrable but frequently overlooked components for
waste water. We discussed all the treatment processes presently on practice worldwide, their
advantages, disadvantages, applicability in our situation and techno-economic evaluation before
the final recommendation.
Our final recommendations are as follows Pre-treatment
Coarse screen
3 mechanical working + 1 manual standby
Fine screen
3 working + 1 standby ( all mechanical)
Grit chamber
Aerated grit chamber
Grit removal mechanism
Inclined Screw Conveyer
Tertiary Treatment
Sedimentation( optional)
Tube Settlers
Filtration
1. Cloth media filters ( do not need sedimentation)
List of preferences
2. Dynasand Filters
3. Suction scanning technology
4. Micro Fiber
Disinfection
Disinfection after tertiary
Eletrochlorination with 1 ppm dose
treatment
Disinfection after SBR
Eletrochlorination with 2 ppm dose
Sludge Handling & Disposal

Sludge thickening
Gravity belt filter/ rotary drum thickener
Digestion ( optional)
Aerobic digestion
Dewatering
Centrifuge / Belt press
Disposal
Disposal to landfill
Odor Control
Control Technique
Covering of smaller tanks with 50 % RCC & 50% Plastic

covers and addition of liquid nitrate or anthraquinone
_____________________________________________________________________229
Annexure A
List of Venders for Waste Water Treatment
ANNEXURE- A
LIST OF MANUFACTURERS AND SUPPLIERS
______________________________________________________________________________________________________230
Annexure A
LIST OF MANUFACTURERS & SUPPLIERS

Screening Technology
Vender Name
Contact Person
Address
Telephone
E-Mail
Batliboi Groups
Pvt. Ltd
H-3, Heera Moti Society,

Behind Jog Centre,
Off Mumbai Pune Road,
Wakadewadi, Pune - 411 003
:+91(20) 2581 9730
The Eimco-Kcp
Pvt. Ltd
231, Arun Chambers,

J.Dadaji Road, Tardeo,
Mumbai - 400 034
(91 - 022) 24944030
ekcp@md2.vsnl.net.in
8th Floor, Express Trade Towers,

Plot No. 15 & 16, Sector 16-A,
Noida - 201301 India
+91 - 120 - 4308000
bkagrawal@projects.trive
nigroup.com
31 Sector 'C', Industrial Area, Sanwer

Road, Indore 452 015 (M.P.) India
0091-731-720143, 721143,
722566, 720034
jash@bom4.vsnl.net.in
Triveni Engineering
& Industries Ltd
Jash Engineering
Ltd
Mr. B. K. Agrawal
General Manager Water Business
Group
______________________________________________________________________________________________________231
Annexure A
Grit Removal Technology

Vender Name
Contact Person
Jash Engineering
Ltd
The Eimco-Kcp
Pvt. Ltd
Mr. K. Kalyana
Raman
General Manager
Address
Telephone
E-Mail
31 Sector 'C', Industrial Area,

Sanwer Road, Indore 452 015
(M.P.) India
0091-731-720143, 721143,
722566, 720034
jash@bom4.vsnl.net.in
231, Arun Chambers,

J.Dadaji Road, Tardeo,
Mumbai - 400 034
India
Ramakrishna Buildings No. 239,
Anna Salai, Chennai - 600006,
Tamil Nadu, India
(91 - 022) 24944030

91-44-28555171/28555862
+919444086921
ekcp@md2.vsnl.net.in
http://www.ekcp.com
______________________________________________________________________________________________________232
Annexure A
Disinfection By Chlorination
Vender Name
Va Tech Wabag
Limited
Wytewater
Technologies
Pvt.LtdUhde India Private
Limited Thermax Ltd
Praj Industries Ltd

Ion Exchange-
Contact
Person
Address
# 11, Murray's Gate Road
Alwarpet, Chennai - 600 018, Tamilnadu ,
India
Bhakti Plaza, 2nd Floor, Near Aundh
Police Chowki, Aundhgao, Pune-411007
Flat No. 401-404,4th Floor
Survey.No.- 121, Pawan Apartments,
Pashan Sus Road, Pashan
Pune-411021. India
Uhde House
Lal Bahadur Shastri Marg
Vikhroli (West)
Mumbai 400 083, India
Thermax House
4, Mumbai Pune Road
Shivajinagar,411 005 , Pune
Praj Industries.Limited , Praj House,
Bavghan, Pune-411021, India
Corporate Office
Tiecicon House, Dr. E. Moses Road,
Mahalaxmi, Mumbai-400 011, India
International Division
R-14, Ttc, Midc, Thane-Belapur Road,
Rabale, Maharashtra,
Navi Mumbai 400 705, India
Telephone
E-Mail
: 91 + 44 + 42232323
020-66424900 /
66424901
wabag@bdwt.com
91-020-25862852
91-020-25862853
91-020-25862854
wytewater@vsnl.net
info@wytewater.com
: 91 022 6796 8000
uhdein@vsnl.com
(+91) 20 - 2551 2122
www.thermaxindia.com
+91-20-22951511/+9120-30806666/+91- 2022905000
(91) 22 3989 0909
(91) 22 3989 0909/
3047 2400
info@praj.net
www.praj.net
hocro@ionexchange.co.in
ieil@ionexchange.co.in
rabcrointl@ionexchange.co.in
______________________________________________________________________________________________________233
Annexure A
Vender Name
Contact
Person
Address
Telephone
E-Mail
Rochem
Separation
Systems (India)
Pvt. Ltd.
Doshi Ion
Exchange And
Chemical
Industries Ltd
101,Dheeraj Arma,1st Floor Anant

Kanekar Marg,
Bandra (E), Mumbai : 400051
91-22 6704 9000
Plot 24/25/26, Phase -2, G.I.D.C,

Vatva,Ahemadabad Gujrat State
India
0091-79-25831156
Water Engineers
Australia Pty Ltd
Carollo Engineers,
P.C. -
18 Manufacturer Drive
Molendinar, Queensland Australia 4214
3033 North 44th Street, Suite 101
Phoenix, Az 85018
+61 7 5594 9799
enquiry@waterengineers.com.au
602.263.9500
1.800.523.5822
webmaster@carollo.com
K-27, Five Star Industrial Zone, MIDC,

Butibori, NAGPUR: 441122,
91-7104-265370,
91-7104-265372
hesweindia@hesweindia.com,
hesweindia@yahoo.co.in
86/1, Vengaivasal Main Road,

Gowrivakkam, Chennai - 600073
Plot Nos. 184, 185 & 189,
Kundaim IndustrialEstate,Kundaim, GOA
403115
Unit 30 Wedgewood Road Bicester
Oxfordshire Ox26 7ul EnglandSuite 309
Sheikha Sana Building
Sheikh Zayed Road P.O.Box 102603
Dubai United Arab Emirates
914422781210/11
epcgeneral@titanindia.com
0832 3981141/2/3
denoraindia@denora.com
,Vinay.chopra@denora.com
HES Water
Engineers Pvt Ltd
Narende
r Ahuja
(CEO)
TTPL
DENORA Ltd
Cumberland
Electrochemical
Limited -
Vinay
Chopra
rochem@rochemindia.com
sales@cumberlandec.com
+44 (0)1869 357722
+971 4 3215 651
______________________________________________________________________________________________________234
Annexure A
Disinfection By UV
Vender Name
Contact Person
Nagpur Aquatech
(P) Ltd. -
Kwan
Environmental
Solutions India P.
Hitech Ultroviolet
Pvt Ltd
Wtp Sales &
Services [Wtpss]Fluid Systems-
Mr. A. M. Shinde
(Director )
Siemens .
Ecologix
Environmental
Systems, Llc
Delta
Technologies
Mr.Shanker
Address
K - 60, Midc, Hingna Road, Nagpur 440016, Ms India
Head Office (Nagpur):
14-A, Sri Devi Ratan Complex,
Agyaram Devi Sq. Subhash Rd.,
Nagpur - 400018
3c-13, Saikalyandham Chs. Ltd.,
Adharwadi Jail Road,
Kalyan (W) - 421 301 Maharashtra
(India)
208, Sarita Industrial Estate, Opp. Mtnl,
Dahisar (East), Mumbai 400 068
Maharashtra, India
402, Kailash Ind.Complex, Park Site,
Vikhroli (W), Mumbai - 400079,
Maharashtra, India
58/59, D-Ll Block, Opp. Spaco
Carburettors, Midc, Chinchwad,
Pune - 411019, Maharastra, India
130, Pandurang Budhkar Marg, Worli
Mumbai 400 018
Du Parc Trinity, No. 17, Mg Road,
Bangalore 561 001
Ecologix Environmental Systems, Llc
5100 Old Ellis Point, Suite 200
Roswell, Ga 30076
: 101, Ranjeet Towers, Dilsukhnagar
: Hyderabad : Andhra Pradesh : India
Telephone
E-Mail
+91 7104 234739

+91 98900 46693
info@enceechlor.com
+ 91-251-232 95 50 (3
Lines)
info@kwan.co.in
(91) 22-28960727 /
65019366 / 6451 4637
info@graceintl.in /
gracesales@vsnl.net /
achan@mtnl.net.in
response@wtpsales.com
(+91-22) 25181620 / 22
+ 91-20-27488086,
27488186
09370151226
(022) 2498 7000-05
(080) 41191540
response@fluidsystems.in
sales@ecologixsystems.com
: 91-40-55468278
9948171469
mailto:deltatechnik@yahoo.co.in
______________________________________________________________________________________________________235
Annexure A
UF Membrane Filtration
Vender Name
Rochem
Separation
Systems (India)
Pvt. Ltd
Norit
Contact Person
Address
101,Dheeraj Arma,1st Floor
Anant Kanekar Marg,
Bandra (E), Mumbai : 400051
George Varkey,
Area Sales
Manager India
Telephone
E-Mail
91-22 6704 9000
rochem@rochemindia.com
020-2588 8363
09373311316
george@xflowindia.com
www.x-flow.com
Cloth Media Filtration

Vender Name
Aqua-Aerobic
Systems, Inc
SLS Technology
Pty. Ltd
Contact Person
Address
Mr. P.R. Hegde

Mr. S. Shetty
Mr. Ganesh
Purandare
(Sr Project
Engineer)
Crystal Industrial Syndicate

Crystal 412, Raheja Arcade,
Sector-11, Cbd Belapur)
Stewart Shipard
Manager
Andrew Chua
222 Planet Street, Welshpool,

WA 6106, Perth
78 Tuas Avenue 11 Tuas
Singapore 639095
Telephone
815/654-2501
02265113814/15
E-Mail
solutions@aqua-aerobic.com
www.aqua-aerobic.com
info@crystalindustrial.com
6306 N. Alpine Rd. P.O. Box

2026 Rockford, Il 61130
61893616262
6568633033
______________________________________________________________________________________________________236
Annexure A
Suction Scanning Technology & Micro Fiber Technology

Vender Name
Amiad Filtration
Systems Ltd
Contact Person
Mr. Sudhir Mehta

Ms. Rameshwary
Address
305, Sai Commercial Bldg,
Govandi Station Road, Govandi,
Mumbai -88
D.N. Galil Elyon 1
Elyon 12335 Israel
Telephone
022 67997813 / 14,
09820143117
E-Mail
jsk@bom2.vsnl.net.in
972 4 690 9500
Dynasand Technology
Vender Name
Shubham
Hydrosys Pvt. Ltd.
Contact Person
Vinod Malviya
Address
Telephone
501, kalash - ii, b/h Navrangpura

p.o.Navrangpura - Ahmedabad
91 - 79 - 30086162 - 66
E-Mail
vinod@shubhamindia.com
shubhamwater@yahoo.co.in
09909969411
Pressure Filtration
Vender Name
Contact Person
Sharplex Filters
(India) Pvt.Ltd
Putronix
Address
R-664, Rabale, M.I.D.C, T.T.C
Industrial Area, Thane Belapur
Road, Rabale, M.I.D.C,
Navi Mumbai
Mr. K.
Subrahmanya
Rao (Ceo)
# 162/1, 10th Main, 3rd Phase,

Peenya Industrial Area,
Bangalore - 560058, Karnataka,
India
Telephone
0091-22-27696322 /
27696339 / 27696331
E-Mail
sharplex@vsnl.com
91-8041170721/28372693
:+919449251516
______________________________________________________________________________________________________237
Annexure A
Sludge Dewatering by Centrifuge

Vender Name
Contact
Person
Alfa Laval (India)

Limited
Address
No 793, 12th Main, First Cros, HAL,
2nd Stage Indira Nagar, Bangalore,
Karnataka
IN-560 008, India
A-402, Kailash Industrial Complex,
Park Site,Vikhroli (West), Mumbai
400 079
Humboldt Wedag
India Pvt. Ltd
Pennwalt Ltd.
D-221, MIDC, TTC, Thane- Belapur

Road, Nerul, Navi Mumbai-400706
Telephone
E-Mail
+91 80 3051 42 00
india.info@alfalaval.com
www.alfalaval.co.in
+91 22 2517 1451 / 52
humboldtmum@hw-india.com
022-5616 6633
Pennwalt@vsnl.in, info@pennwalt.com
Sludge Dewatering by Filter Press/ Belt Press

Vender Name
Contact
Person
Address
Samsung Filter
Industrial Co., Ltd./
Aim Technologies
Auric Techno
H 90 Indraprastha complex, 589 rasta

peth pune 411011 Pune Maharashtra
411011 India
#4, Suyash, S No. 74+75/2/1,
Services Pvt. ltd.
Pancard Club Road,
P Premier Udyog
Baner, Pune 411045, India

8-Partap Nagar Ludhiana Punjab
141003 India
Telephone
E-Mail
91 - 20 - 26875135
www.aimfiltration.com
+91-20-2729 2485/89
auric@vsnl.com
www.auricent.com
91 - 161 - 2537541
www.premierudyog.org
param vir / ceo
______________________________________________________________________________________________________238
Annexure A
Sludge Thickener equipment

Vender Name
Contact
Person
Hindustan DorrOliver Limited.
Address
Dorr Oliver House, Chakala,
Andheri (East), Mumbai-400099
5/1/2, G.I.D.C., Vatva,
Near Railway Crossing,
Ahmedabad-382445
Telephone
91-22-28359400
91-79-5830591 / 2/3/4
E-Mail
hdoho@hdo.in
hdoahmedabad@hdo.in
Odor Control Equipments

Vender Name
Contact
Person
A.C. HUMIDIN AIR

SYSTEMS
Address
Telephone
E-Mail
PLOT NO. B-6, SECTOR-A3, UPSIDC,

TRONICA CITY, LONI (U.P)
0120-2696 683 / 01202696 684
info@humidinair.com
Aircon Systems
Mr. Kishore
Dulani
7/488-504, G.T. Road, First Back Lane,

Shahdra, Near Dilshad Dharm Kanta
New Delhi - 110 095 (India)
+(91)-(11)-22573079
+91 93128 93079
kdulani@gmail.com
Ventsys Industries
Paul
Sebastian
#No 19,3rd Street, Seevaram, Perungudi

Chennai
91-044-24963377
09444134637
Ventsys_3@hotmail.com
______________________________________________________________________________________________________239

Wastewater Treatment Final Report

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Study on Waste Water

Preliminary Treatment, Tertiary Treatment, Disinfection, Sludge

Urban Water Supply Private Limited

Preliminary Treatment : Screening

Scope and Objective

1.2.2 Types of screens

1.2.3 Classification of screens

1.2.4 Coarse screens including Bar Racks

1.2.4.1 Manual Screen

1.2.4.2 Mechanical Screen

1.2.5 Fine screens

1.2.5.1 Mechanical bar

1.2.5.2 Rotary drum

1.2.5.4 Band Screen

1.2.6 Screen Design Criteria

1.2.7 Screenings Handling Equipment

1.2.7.1 Belts & Dumpsters

1.2.7.4 Design Considerations

1.2.8 Screenings Disposal

1.2.8.1 Land Burial

1.2.9 Safety Considerations

Recommended option for screen

1.3.1 Technical Comparison of Coarse Screens

1.3.2 Recommended Option for coarse screen

1.3.5 Recommended Option for Fine screen

1.3.6 Capital and O & M cost for recommended fine screen

Technical Specification of selected screens

1.4.1 Coarse screens

1.4.1.1 Mechanical coarse screen

1.4.1.2 Manual coarse screen

Preliminary Treatment : Grit Removal

Types of Grit Chambers

2.2.3 Horizontal Flow

Grit Removal Criteria

2.4.1 Inclined screw conveyers

2.4.2 Chain & Bucket

2.4.3 In deep pit

Technical comparison of Grit chambers

Recommended Option for Grit chamber

Capital and O & M cost for recommended option

Technical Specification of recommended option

2.9.1 Grit chambers

2.9.2 Grit handling equipment

Tertiary Treatment for the SBR Effluent

Water Reclamation and Reuse Standards

3.3.1 Definitions for Reclaimed Water use

3.4.1 Coagulation, Flocculation and Sedimentation

3.4.1.1.1 Coagulant Dosing and Storage

3.4.1.1.2 Jar Testing

3.4.1.1.3 Rapid Mixing

3.4.1.3.2 Tube Settlers

3.4.1.3.3 Inclined Plate Separators

3.4.1.3.4 Comparison of sedimentation options

3.4.1.3.5 Recommended option for sedimentation

3.4.2 Filtration3.4.2.1 Functions of Filtration

3.4.2.1.1 Separation of Solids from Water

3.4.2.1.2 BOD Removal

3.4.2.1.3 Nutrient/ Metals Removal

3.4.2.1 Types of Filtration

3.4.2.2.1 Media Filtration

3.4.2.2.2 Types of Media Filters

3.4.2.2.2.1 Gravity Filters

3.4.2.2.2.2 Pressure Filters

3.4.2.2.2.5 Micro Fiber Technology