Biology Notes

Ella Stephen-Oladele

Ella Stephen

UNIT 1 (6BIO1)
TOPIC 1: LIFESTYLE, TRANSPORT GENES AND HEALTH
Students will be assessed on their ability to:
1. Explain why many animals have a heart and circulation (mass transport to
overcome limitations of diffusion in meeting the requirements of
organisms)
The heart and circulatory system have one primary purpose to move
substances around the body. In very small organisms such as unicellular
creatures, substances such as carbon dioxide, oxygen and digestive products are
moved around the organism by diffusion. Diffusion is the movement of molecules
or ions to region of their high concentration to a region of their low concentration
by relatively slow random movement of particles.
Most complex multicellular organisms however are too large for diffusion to
move substances around their bodies quickly enough. These animals usually
have blood to carry vital substances around their bodies and a heart to pump it
instead of relying on diffusion. In other words, they have a circulatory system.
OPEN CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS In insects and some animal groups, blood
circulates in large open spaces. The heart pumps blood into cavities surrounding
the animals organs. Substances can then diffuse between blood and cells. When
the heart muscle relaxes, blood is drawn from the cavity back into the heart
through small valved openings along its length.
CLOSED CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS Many animals including all vertebrates have a
closed circulatory system in which the blood is enclosed within tubes. This
generates higher blood pressure as the blood is forced along fairly narrow
channels instead of flowing into large cavities. This means blood travels faster
and so the blood system is more efficient at delivering substances around the
body:

The blood leaves the heart under pressure and flows along arteries and
then arterioles to capillaries.
There are extremely large numbers of capillaries. These come into close
contact with most of the cells in the body where substances are
exchanged between blood and cells.
After passing along the capillaries, the blood returns to the heart by means
of venules and then veins.
Valves ensure blood only flows in one direction.

Animals with closed circulatory systems are generally larger in size and more
active than those with open systems.

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SINGLE CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS Animals with closed circulatory systems either

have a single circulatory system or a double circulatory system. Single
circulatory systems are found for example in fish:

The heart pumps deoxygenated blood to the gills.

Here gaseous exchange takes place; there is diffusion of carbon dioxide
from the blood into the water that surrounds the gills and diffusion of
oxygen from the water into the blood.
The blood leaving the gills then flows around the rest of the body before
eventually returning to the heart.

The blood flows through the heart once for each complete circuit of the body.
DOUBLE CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS Birds and mammals have a double circulatory
system:

The right ventricle of the heart pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs
where receives oxygen.
The oxygenated blood then returns to the heart to be pumped a second
time (by the left ventricle) to the rest of the body.

The blood flows through the heart twice for each complete circuit of the body.
The heart gives the returning blood from the lungs an extra boost, reducing the
time it takes for the blood to circulate around the whole body. This allows birds
and mammals to have a high metabolic rate, because oxygen and food
substances required for metabolic processes can be delivered more rapidly to the
cells.
2. Explain the importance of water as a solvent in transport, including its
dipole nature
THE TRANSPORT MEDIUM In a circulatory system a liquid and all the particles it
contain are transported in one direction in a process known as mass flow. In
animals the transport medium is usually called blood. The fluid, plasma, is mainly
water and contains dissolved substances such as food, oxygen and carbon
dioxide. Proteins, amino acids, salts, enzymes, hormones, antibodies and urea
are just some of the substances that are transported in urea. Cells are also
carried in the blood; red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets. Blood is not
only important in the transport of dissolved substances and cells, but also plays
a vital role in regulation of body temperature, transferring energy around the
body.
KEY BIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLE: PROPERTIES OF WATER THAT MAKE IT AN IDEAL
TRANSPORT MEDIUM

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Water unlike other small molecules is liquid at normal biological temperatures.
Water is a polar molecule; it has an unevenly distributed electrical charge. The
two hydrogens are pushed together forming a v-shaped molecule; the hydrogen
ends of the molecule are slightly positive and the oxygen end is slightly negative
because the electrons are more concentrated at that end. It is this polarity that
accounts for many of its biologically important properties.
The positively charged end of the water molecule is attracted to the negative
ends of surrounding molecules. This hydrogen bonding holds the water
molecules together and results in many of the properties of water, including
being liquid at r.t.p.
Solvent properties many chemicals dissolve easily in water, allowing vital
biochemical reactions to occur in the cytoplasm of cells. Free to move around in
an aqueous environment the chemicals can react, often with water itself being a
part of the reactions (for example hydrolysis and condensation reactions). The
dissolved substances can also be transported around organisms, in animals via
the blood and lymph systems, and in plants via the xylem and phloem.
Ionic molecules, such as sodium chloride dissolve easily in water. In the case of
sodium chloride, the Cl- is attracted to the positive ends of the water molecules,
whilst the Na+ is attracted to the negative ends of the water molecules. The
chloride and sodium ions become hydrated in aqueous solution (they become
surrounded by water molecules).
Polar molecules also dissolve easily in water. Their polar groups for example the
OH group in sugars or the amine NH2 group in amino acids, become surrounded
by water molecules and go into solution. Such substances are said to be
hydrophilic. Non-polar, hydrophobic substances such as lipids do not dissolve in
water. To enable transport in blood, they combine with proteins to form
lipoproteins.
Thermal properties the specific heat capacity of water, the amount of energy in
joules needed to raise the temperature of 1cm 3 of water by 1C, is very high.
This is because a large amount of energy is needed to break the hydrogen
bonds. A large input of energy causes only a small increase of temperature, so
water warms up and cools down slowly. This is extremely useful for organisms,
helping them to avoid rapid changes in their internal temperature, enabling them
to maintain a steady temperature even when the temperature of their
surroundings varies considerably.
3. Explain how the structure of blood vessels, (capillaries, arteries and veins)
relates to their functions.
Arteries and veins can easily be distinguished. The walls of both vessels contain
collagen, a tough fibrous protein, which makes them strong and durable. They
also contain elastic fibres which allow them to stretch and recoil. Smooth muscle
cells in the walls allow them to constrict and dilate. The key differences between
the arteries and veins are listed below:

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ARTERIES:

Narrow lumen
Thicker walls
More collagen; elastic fibres and
smooth muscle
No valves

VEINS:

Wide lumen
Thinner walls
Less collagen; elastic fibres and smooth muscle
Valves

The capillaries that join the arterioles and venules are very narrow about 10m
in diameter, with walls only one cell thick.
4. Describe the cardiac cycle (atrial systole, ventricular systole and diastole)
and relate the structure and operation of the mammalian heart to its
function, including major blood vessels.
Every time the heart contracts
(systole), blood is forced into the
arteries and their elastic walls
stretch to accommodate the
blood. During diastole
(relaxation), the elasticity of the
artery walls causes it to recoil
behind the blood, helping to push
the blood forward. The blood
moves along the length of the
artery as each section in series
stretches and recoils this way.
By the time the blood reaches
the arterioles and capillaries,
there is a steady flow of blood. It
is the capillaries that allow
exchange between the blood and
the one cell thick capillary walls.
The network of capillaries that
lies close to every cell ensures
that there is rapid diffusion between the blood and surrounding cells.
The heart has a less direct effect on the flow of blood in the veins. In the veins,
blood flow is assisted by the contraction of skeletal muscles during movement of
limbs and breathing. Low pressure developed in the thorax when breathing also
helps draw blood back in to the heart from the veins. Backflow is prevented by

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valves in the veins. Steady flow without pulses of blood means that the blood is
under low pressure in the veins.
The heart itself cannot directly use any blood within the chambers of the heart.
Instead, the heart muscle is supplied with blood though two vessels called the
coronary arteries.
The chambers of the heart alternately contract (systole) and relax (diastole) in a
rhythmic cycle. One complete filling and pumping blood is called a cardiac cycle.
During systole, the cardiac muscle contracts and the heart pumps blood out of
the aorta and pulmonary arteries. During diastole, cardiac muscle relaxes and
the heart fills with blood. The cardiac cycle can be simplified into three phases:
atrial systole, ventricular systole and diastole.

PHASE 1: ATRIAL SYSTOLE Blood returns to the heart due to action of skeletal
and gaseous exchange muscles and you move and breathe. Blood under low
pressure flows into the left and right atria from the pulmonary veins and vena
cava. As the atria fill, the pressure of blood against the atrioventricular valves
pushes them open and blood begins to leak into the ventricles. The atria walls
contract, forcing more blood into the ventricles. This is known as atrial systole.
PHASE 2: VENTRICULAR SYSTOLE Atrial systole is immediately followed by
ventricular systole. The ventricles contract from the base of the heart upwards,
increasing the pressure in the ventricles. This pushed blood up and out though
the arteries. The pressure of blood against the atrioventricular valves forces
them shut, preventing back flow into the atria.
PHASE 3: DIASTOLE The atria and ventricles then relax during diastole. Elastic
recoil of the relaxing heart walls lowers the pressure in the atria and ventricles.
Blood under high pressure in the arteries is drawn back down, closing the semilunar valves. The coronary arteries fill during diastole. Low pressure in the atria
helps draw blood back into the heart from the veins.

5. Explain the course of events that leads to atherosclerosis (endothelial

damage, inflammatory response, plaque formation, raised blood
pressure).
Atherosclerosis is the disease that leads to coronary heart disease and strokes. In
atherosclerosis, fatty deposits can either block an artery directly or increase its
chance of being blocked by a blood clot (thrombosis). The blood supply can be
blocked completely. If this happens for a long time, the affected cells are

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permanently damaged. In the arteries supplying the heart this results in a heart
attack (myocardial infarction); in the arteries supplying the brain, this results in a
stroke. The supply of blood to the brain is either restricted or blocked, causing
damage or death to the brain cells. Narrowing of the arteries in the legs can
result in tissue death and gangrene. An artery can burst were blood builds up
behind an artery narrowed as a result of atherosclerosis.
The events of atherosclerosis follow:
-

The endothelium a delicate layer of cells that line the inside of an artery,
separating the blood that flows along the artery from the muscular walls,
becomes damaged by high blood pressure for example.
Once the inner lining of the artery has been breached, this triggers an
inflammatory response. White blood cells leave the blood vessel and move
into the artery wall. These cells accumulate chemicals from the blood,
particularly cholesterol. A deposit builds up called atheroma.
Calcium salts and fibrous tissue also build up at the site, resulting in a
hard swelling called a plaque of the inner wall of the artery. The build-up of
fibrous tissue means that the artery loses some of its elasticity/ it hardens.
Plaques cause the arteries to become narrower, making it more difficult for
the heart to pump blood around the body, leading to a higher blood
pressure. This causes a dangerous positive feedback to build up. Plaques
lead to raised blood pressure and raised blood pressure makes it more
likely that other plaques will form.

6. Describe the blood clotting process (thromboplastin release, conversion of

prothrombin to thrombin and fibrinogen to fibrin) and its role in CVD
When blood vessel walls are damaged or blood flows very slowly, a blood clot is
much more likely to form. When platelets (a type of blood cell without a nucleus)
come into contact with the damaged vessel wall, they change from flattened
discs to long thin projections. Their cell surfaces change, causing them to stick to
the exposed collagen in the wall and to each other to form a temporary platelet
plug. They also release substances that activate more platelets.
The direct contact of blood with collagen within the damaged artery walls also
triggers a complex series of chemical changes in the blood. A cascade of
changes results in the soluble plasma protein called prothrombin being
converted into thrombin. Thrombin is an enzyme that catalyses the conversion of
other soluble plasma protein called fibrinogen, into long soluble strands of the
protein called fibrin. The fibrin strands form a tangled mesh that traps the blood
cells to form a clot.
7. Describe the factors that increase the risk of CVD (genetic, diet, gender,
age, high blood pressure, smoking and inactivity.
GENETIC Some people inherit alleles that make them more likely to suffer from
CHD. There are some single gene genetic disorders that increase the likelihood of

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early development of coronary heart disease. For example familial
hypercholesteroleamia (FH), resulting in high blood LDL levels with early onset of
CHD. However, even with these gene mutations, the development of CHD will
still be dependent on other environmental factors such as lifestyle and diet.
DIET Raised blood cholesterol levels increase risk of CVD. Like all lipids,
cholesterol is not soluble in water and in order for it to be transported in the
bloodstream, insoluble cholesterol is combined with proteins to form soluble
lipoproteins. There are two major transport lipoproteins:
-

Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs): the main cholesterol carrier in the blood.

The triglycerides from saturated fats in our diet combine with cholesterol
and protein for form LDLs. These circulate in the blood stream and bind to
receptor sites on cell membranes before being taken up by the cells.
Excess LDLs in the diet overload the membrane receptors, resulting in
high cholesterol levels in the blood. Saturated fats may also reduce the
activity of LDL receptors so the LDLs are not removed from the blood,
thus further increasing blood cholesterol levels. This cholesterol may be
deposited in the artery walls forming atheromas.
High-density lipoproteins (HDLs): have a higher percentage of protein
compared with LDLs, hence their higher density. HDLs are made when
triglycerides from unsaturated fats combine with cholesterol and proteins.
HDLs transport cholesterol from the body tissues to the liver where it is
broken down. This lowers blood cholesterol levels and helps remove the
fatty plaques of atheromas.

AGE With an increasing age, the risks associated with other factors may
increase, causing a rise in the number of cases of disease.
HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE elevated blood pressure, known as hypertension, is
considered to be one of the most common factors in the development of CVD.
High blood pressure increases the likelihood of atherosclerosis forming.
SMOKING Smoking cigarettes is one of the major risk factors for the
development of CVD. The constituents in smoke affect the circulatory system in
the following ways:

The haemoglobin in red blood cells carries carbon monoxide from the
smoke instead of oxygen. This reduces the supply of oxygen to the cells.
Any narrowing of the arteries due to atherosclerosis will reduce blood flow
through the arteries in the heart and brain, further reducing the oxygen
supply to the cells of the heart and brain. This will result in an increased
heart rate as the body tries to provide enough oxygen for the cells.
Nicotine in smoke stimulates the production of the hormone adrenaline.
This hormone causes an increase in heart rate and also causes arteries
and arterioles to constrict, both of which raises blood pressure.
The numerous chemicals that are found in smoke can cause damage to
the lining of the arteries, triggering atherosclerosis.
Smoking has also been linked with a reduction in HDL cholesterol level.

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INACTIVITY moderate exercise, such as walking, cycling and swimming helps
prevent high blood pressure and can help to lower it. Exercise not only helps
maintain a healthy weight but it also seems to raise HDL cholesterol without
affecting LDL cholesterol levels. It also reduces the chance of developing type-2
diabetes and helps in controlling the condition.
8. Analyse and interpret quantitative data on illness and mortality rates to
determine health risks (including between correlation and causation and
recognising conflicting evidence).
To determine the risk factors for a particular disease, scientists look for
correlations between potential risk factors and the occurrence of the disease.
Two variables are positively correlated when the increase in one is accompanied
by an increase in the other. If the variables decrease while the other decreases,
there is a negative correlation. Large amounts of data are needed to ensure that
the correlation is statistically significant; in other words, not just an apparent
correlation due to chance.
It is important to realise that a correlation between two variables does not
necessarily mean that the variables are casually linked. Two variables are
casually linked when a change in one is responsible for a change in the other. It
is easy to think of variables that are correlated when there is no causation. For
example, speaking English as your first language correlates quite well with
having greater than average life expectancy. This though is simply because
countries like the UK, US, Australia and Canada have a higher-than-average
standard of living. It is this that causes increased life expectancy through better
care and nutrition rather than the spoken language.
It is because of this logical gap between correlation and causation that scientists
try, whenever they can to carry out experiments in which they can control
variables, to see if altering one variable really does have the predicted effect. To
do this, scientists often set up a null hypothesis. They assume for the sake of
argument that there is no difference between an experimental group and a
control group, and then test this hypothesis using statistical analysis.

9. Evaluate the design of studies used to determine health risk factors

(including sample selection and sample size used to collect data that is
both valid and reliable.
CLEAR AIM a well-designed study should include a clearly stated hypothesis or
aim. The design of that study must be appropriate to the stated hypothesis or
aim and produce results that are valid and reliable.
REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE a representative sample must be selected from the
wider population that the studys conclusions will be applied to. Selection bias
occurs when those who participate in a study are not representative of the target
population. Differences between people asked to take part in a study and those

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who actually take part should be considered before generalising findings to
target the population. Non-participants can differ in important respects from
participants. For example, if a study involves interviewing people at home during
the day then those employed outside of the home may be less likely to
participate. The proportion of people who drop out of a study should be kept to a
minimum. This is particularly important in cohort studies which follow people
over a long period of time. People who drop out of studies often share common
features. It is important to monitor the characteristics of the remaining
participants to ensure that they are still representative of the target population.
Larger sample means more reliable estimates for the wider population.
VALID AND RELIABLE RESULTS any method used must produce valid data, from
measurements that provide information on what the study set out to measure. If
studying the effect of blood pressure on CVD, valid blood pressure
measurements would be made using an appropriate blood pressure monitor. A
survey to study the effect of alcohol consumption on the development of CHD
could introduce problems with validity if it relied on the participants recalling the
quantity of alcohol they consumed. Participants may not recall correctly because
they were intoxicated or may underestimate because they are reluctant to reveal
their true consumption. The method used to collect results must be reliable. A
reliable mothed used at different times or by different people, will produce
similar results. A reliable test will also give similar results for repeated
measurements. If measuring blood pressure, the same type of equipment and
same procedure must be used each time the measurement is made. Any
variables that can affect the measurement should be controlled or taken into
account.

10.Explain why peoples perceptions of risks are often different from the
actual risks (including underestimating and overestimating risks due to
diet and other lifestyle factors in the development of heart disease).
The significance of the perception of risk can be illustrated by a decision in
September 2001 made by the American Red Cross, which provides about half of

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the USAs blood supplies. They decided to ban all blood donations from anyone
who had spent six months or more in any European country since 1980. Their
reason was the risk of transmitting variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD), the
human form of BSE, through blood transfusion. Experts agreed that there was a
chance of this happening. Yet there wasnt a single known case of it actually
having happened. Indeed, as the USA is short of blood for blood transfusions, it is
possible that more people may have actually died from this safety precaution
than would have been the case without it.
So why did American ban European blood donations? The likely reason was
public perceptions of the risk of contracting vCJD. People will overestimate the
risk of something happening if the risk is:

Involuntary (not under their control)

Not natural
Unfamiliar
Dreaded
Unfair
Very small

There is a tendency to overestimate the risks of sudden imposed dangers where

the consequences are severe and to underestimate a risk if it has an effect in the
long term future, for example the health risks associated with smoking or a poor
diet.
A useful distinction is sometimes made between risk and uncertainty. When we
lack the data to estimate a risk precisely, we are uncertain about the risk.
11.Analyse data on energy budgets and diets so as to be able to discuss the
consequences of energy imbalance, including weight loss, weight gain and
development of obesity.
We have to be aware that we need both carbohydrates and fats in our diets for
good health, but there are consequences if we get it wrong by consuming too
much energy or if the percentage supplied by the various components differs
greatly from the guidelines. You need a constant supply of energy to maintain
your essential body processes, such as the pumping of the heart, breathing and
maintaining a constant body temperature. These processes go on all the time,
even when youre completely at rest. The energy needed for these essential
processes is called the basal metabolic rate (BMR) and varies between
individuals. BMR is higher in:

Males
Heavier people
Younger people
More active people

The average person may require between 8000 and 10000 kJ per day, but an
athlete may require double this quantity. Some cyclists consume four times this
amount.

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If you eat fewer kilojoules per day than you use, you will have a negative energy
balance and energy stored in the body will be used to meet the demand. A
regular shortfall in energy intake will result in weight loss. If you routinely eat
more energy than you use, you have a positive energy balance. The additional
energy will be stored and you put on weight.
12.Distinguish between monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides
(glycogen and starch amylose and amylopectin) and relate their
structures to their roles in providing and storing energy (beta glucose not
required in this topic)
Sugars are either: monosaccharides, single sugar units or disaccharides, in which
two single sugar units have combined in a condensation reaction. Long straight
or branched chains of sugar units form polysaccharides.
MONOSACCHARIDES Are single sugar units with the general formula (CH 2O)n,
where n is the number of carbon atoms in the molecules. Monosaccharides have
between three and seven carbon atoms, but the most common number is six. For
example, the monosaccharides glucose, galactose and fructose all contain six
carbon atoms and are known as hexose sugars.
A hexose sugar molecule has a ring structure formed of five carbons and an
oxygen atom; the sixth carbon projects above or below the ring. The carbon
atoms in the molecule are numbered, starting with one on the extreme right of
the molecule. The side branches project above or below the ring and their
position determines the type of sugar molecule and its properties.

Glucose is important as it is the main sugar used by all

cells in respiration. Starch and glycogen are polymers
made up of glucose subunits joined together. When
starch or glycogen is digested, glucose is produced.
This can be absorbed and transported in the
bloodstream to the cells.
Galactose occurs in our diet mainly as part of the
disaccharide sugar lactose. Notice that the OH group
on carbon 4 lie on the opposite side of the ring
compared to its position in glucose.

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Fructose is a sugar which naturally occurs in fruit, honey and some
vegetables. Its sweetness attracts animals to eat the
fruits and so help with seep dispersal.

DISACCHARIDES two single sugar units can join together and form a
disaccharide in a condensation reaction. A condensation reaction is so called
because a water molecule is released when the two sugars combine in the
reaction.

as
stores to use for

Maltose is formed from two

glucose molecules. It is the
disaccharide produced
when amylase breaks down
in starch. It is found in
germinating seed such as barley
they break down the starch
food.

Sucrose, formed of glucose and

fructose, is the usual form in which
sugar is transported around the plant.

Lactose, formed of glucose and

galactose; it is the sugar found in milk.

POLYSACCHARIDES are made up from simple sugar monomers joined by

glycosidic links into long chains.

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There are three main types of polysaccharide found in food: starch and cellulose
in plants and glycogen in animals. Although all three are polymers of glucose
molecules, they are sparingly soluble and do not taste sweet.
Starch and glycogen act as energy storage molecules within cells. These
polysaccharides are suitable for storage because they are compact molecules
with low solubility of water. This means they do not affect the concentration of
water in the cytoplasm and so do not affect the movement of water into or out of
the cell by osmosis.
Starch the storage carbohydrate found in plants, is made up of a mixture of two
molecules, amylose and amylopectin.

Amylose is composed of a straight chain of between 200 and 5000

glucose molecules with 1.4 glycosidic links between adjacent glucose
molecules. The position of the bonds causes the chain to coil into a spiral
shape.
Amylopectin is also a polymer of glucose but it has side branches. A 1,6
glycosidic link holds each side branch on the main chain.

The compact spiral structure of starch and its insoluble nature make it an
excellent storage molecule. It does not diffuse across cell membranes and has
very little osmotic effect within the cell.
Bacteria, fungi and animals store glycogen instead of starch. Glycogen is another
polymer composed of glucose molecules. Its numerous side branches mean it
can be rapidly hydrolysed, giving easy access to stored energy. In humans,
glycogen is stored in the liver and muscles.

13.Describe how monosaccharides join to form disaccharides (maltose,

sucrose and lactose) and polysaccharides (glycogen and amylose) through
condensation reactions forming glycosidic bonds, and how these can be
split up through hydrolysis reactions.
SEE ABOVE FOR CONDENSATION REACTIONS.
The glycosidic link between two sugar units in a disaccharide can be split by
hydrolysis. This is the reverse of condensation: a water molecule is added to the
bond and the molecule splits into two. Hydrolysis of carbohydrates takes place
when carbohydrates are digested in the gut and when carbohydrate stores in the
cells are broken down.
14.Describe the synthesis of a triglyceride by the formation of ester bonds
during condensation reactions between glycerol and three fatty acids and
recognise differences between saturated and unsaturated lipids.

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Lipids are organic molecules found in every
type of cell; they are insoluble in water but
soluble in organic solvents such as ethanol.
The most common lipids that we eat are
triglycerides, used as energy stores in plants
and animals. Triglycerides are made up of three
fatty acids and a glycerol molecule linked by
condensation reactions. The bond that forms
between each fatty acid and the glycerol is
known as an ester bond.

Saturated fats If the fatty acid contains the maximum number of hydrogen
atoms, they are said to be saturated. In a saturated fatty acid the hydrocarbon
chain is long and straight. There are no double bonds in a saturated fatty acid
chains and no more hydrogens can be added to it. Animal fats from meat and
dairy products are major sources of saturated fats.
Straight, saturated hydrocarbon chains can pack closely together. The strong
intermolecular bonds between triglycerides made up of saturated fatty acids
results in fats that are solid at room temperature.

Unsaturated fats
monosaturated fats have
one double bond
between two of the carbon atoms in each fatty acid chain.
Polyunsaturated fats have larger numbers of double bonds. A double bond
causes a kink in the chain; these kinks prevent unsaturated hydrocarbon chains
form packing closely together. The weaker intermolecular bonds between
unsaturated triglycerides results in oils that are liquid at room temperature. Olive
oil is particularly high in monosaturated fats. Most other vegetable oils, nuts and
fish are good sources of polyunsaturated fats.

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15.Analyse and interpret data on the possible significance for health of blood
cholesterol levels and levels of HDLs and LDLs. Describe the evidence for
a causal relationship between blood cholesterol levels (total cholesterol
and LDL cholesterol) and CVD.
POINT 7.

16.Describe how the effect of caffeine on the heart rate in Daphnia can be
investigated practically, and discuss whether there are ethical issues in
the use of invertebrates.
****
17.Describe how to investigate the vitamin C content of food and drink.
** **

18.Discuss how people use scientific knowledge about the effects of diet
(including obesity indicators), exercise and smoking to reduce their risk of
CHD
BMI is a conventionally used method of classifying body weight relative to a
persons height. To calculate BMI, body mass (kg) is divided by height (metres)
squared.

BMI =

body mass/kg
height ( m ) squared

There is evidence that a waist to hip ration is a better measure of obesity than
BMI and shows a highly significant association with risk of heart attack. Waist-to-

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hip ratio is calculated by dividing waist circumference by hip circumference. The
waist is measured unclothed at the narrowest point between the rib margin and
top of the hip bone. The hip circumference is measured in light clothing at the
widest point around the buttocks. A non-stretchable tape measure is used
attached to a spring scale with a tension of 750g.
Refer back to other points for effects of exercise and smoking.
19.Describe the benefits and risks of treatments for CVD (antihypertensives,
plant statins, anticoagulants, and platelet inhibitory drugs).
ACE inhibitors are effective antihypertensive drugs. It prevents the ACE
hormone from being produced from an inactive form, angiotensin I, thus reducing
vasoconstriction and lowering blood pressure. Some people experience side
effects, including dry cough, dizziness due to rapid lowering of blood pressure,
abnormal heart rhythms and a reduction in the function of the kidney.
Calcium channel blockers are antihypertensive drugs that block the calcium
channels in the muscle cells in lining of arteries. For the muscles to contract,
calcium must pass through these channels into the muscle cells. Failure of
calcium to enter the cell prevents contraction of the muscle, blood vessels do not
constrict and this lowers blood pressure. Side effects include headaches,
dizziness, swollen ankles due to build of fluid in the legs, abnormal heart
rhythms, flushing in red in the face and constipation.
Diuretics increase the volume of urine produced by the kidneys and thus rid
the body of excess fluids and salts. This leads to decrease in blood plasma
volume and cardiac output, lowering blood pressure. Side effects include
dizziness, nausea and cramps.
Statins individuals diagnosed with high cholesterol may also be prescribed
cholesterol-lowering drugs. Statins work by inhibiting an enzyme involved in LDL
cholesterol production. A risk of using statins is that they can reduce the
absorption of vitamins from the gut.
Anticoagulants such as warfarin and heparin reduce blood clotting. This means
that blood clots are less likely to form at the sites of damaged artery walls, so
theres less chance of a vessel being blocked by a blood clot. Anticoagulants can
be used to treat people who already have blood clots or CVD and prevent any
existing clots from growing larger, however they cant get rid of any existing
clots. Risks include excessive and possibly fatal bleeding if the patient is injured
as they will have reduced blood clotting. Other risks include allergic reactions,
osteoporosis, swelling of tissues and damage of foetuses.
Platelet inhibitory drugs e.g. aspirin are another type of anticoagulant. They
work by preventing platelets from clumping together to form a blood clot thus
reducing the chance of a vessel becoming blocked by a clot. As with
anticoagulants, these can be used to treat people who already have blood clots
or CVD. Risks include allergic reactions, diarrhoea, nausea, liver function
problems and excessive bleeding.

Ella Stephen

Ella Stephen

TOPIC 2: GENES AND HEALTH

1. Describe the properties of gas exchange surfaces in living organisms
(large surface area to volume ratio, thickness of surface, difference in
concentration) and explain how the structure of the mammalian lung is
adapted for rapid gaseous exchange.
The lungs allow rapid gas exchange between the atmosphere and the blood. Air
is drawn into the lungs via the trachea due to low pressure in the lungs, created
by the movement of the ribs and diaphragm. The trachea divides into two
bronchi which carry air to and from each lung. Within each lung there is a treelike system of tubes ending in narrow tubes, bronchioles, attached to tiny
balloon-like alveoli. The alveoli are the sites of gas exchange.
There is a thin coating of mucus in the tubes of the gas exchange system,
produced continuously by goblet cells in the walls of the airways. Any dust,
debris or microorganisms that enter the airways become trapped in the mucus.
This is continually removed by the wave-like beating of cilia that cover epithelial
cells lining the tubes of the gas exchange system. However people with CF have
mucus that is drier than usual, resulting in a sticky mucus layer that the cilia find
difficult to move. In the trachea, bronchi and bronchioles, there are ciliated
epithelial cells on the free surface.
Within the lungs, alveoli provide a large surface area for exchange of gases
between the air and the blood. Features of the gas exchange surface include:

Large surface area of the alveoli

Numerous capillaries around the alveoli
Thin walls of the alveoli and capillaries meaning a short distance between
the alveolar air and blood in the capillaries

The bodys demand for oxygen is enormous, so diffusion across the alveolar wall
need to be rapid. The rate of diffusion is dependent on three properties

Surface area rate of diffusion is directly proportional to the surface area.

As the surface area increases, the rate of diffusion increases.
Concentration gradient rate of diffusion is directly proportional to the
difference in concentration across the gas exchange surface. The greater
the concentration gradient, the faster the diffusion.
Thickness of the gas exchange surface rate of diffusion is inversely
proportional to the thickness of the gas exchange surface. The thicker the
surface, the slower the rate of diffusion. This is known as Ficks law.

The large surface area of the alveoli, the steep concentration gradient between
the alveolar air and the blood (maintained by ventilation of the alveoli) and the
thin walls of the alveoli and capillaries combine to ensure rapid diffusion across
the gas exchange surface.

Ella Stephen

2. Explain how models such as the fluid mosaic model of cell membranes are
interpretations of data used to develop scientific explanations of the
structure and properties of cell membranes
CF is caused by faulty transport proteins in the surface membranes of the
epithelial cells. It is so thin that under a light microscope, a cross section of the
cell surface membrane looks like a single line. However, closer examination
under an electron microscope reveals it is in fact a bilayer, about 7nm wide,
appearing as two distinct lines.
A bilayer has a basic structure of two layers of phospholipids. The phosphate
head of the molecule is polar; one end is slightly positive, the rest is slightly
negative. This makes the phosphate head attract other polar molecules like
water and it is therefore hydrophilic. The fatty acids tails are non-polar and
therefore hydrophobic. When added to water, the phospholipids arrange
themselves to avoid contact between the hydrophobic tails and the water. They
may form a layer with their tails directed out of the water or arrange themselves
into spherical clusters called micelles. The bilayer is favoured as the fatty acids
are too bulky to fit into the interior of a micelle. Cells are filled with a watery or
aqueous cytoplasm and are surrounded by aqueous tissue fluid. The cell surface
membrane tends to adopt the most stable arrangement, the bilayer. This
arrangement avoids the hydrophobic fatty acid from having any contact with the
water on any side of the membrane, but the hydrophilic heads do.
THE FLUID MOSAIC MODEL the cell surface membrane is not simply a
phospholipid bilayer. It also contains proteins, cholesterol, glycoproteins (protein
molecules with polysaccharides attached) and glycolipids (lipid molecules with
polysaccharides attached). Some of the proteins span the membrane. Other
proteins are only found within the inner layer or only within the outer layer.
Membrane proteins have hydrophobic areas that are positioned within the
membrane bilayer.
It is thought that some
proteins are fixed
membrane but
others are not and can
move around in the fluid
phospholipid bilayer.
This arrangement is
known as the fluid
mosaic model of
membrane structure.

of the
with the

Ella Stephen

EVIDENCE FOR THE FLUID MOSIAC MODEL the most widely accepted membrane
model up until the 1970s was a three layer protein lipid sandwich, based on the
evidence of electron micrographs in which the dark outer layers were thought to
be proteins and the light inner regions were lipids. However, the protein-lipid
sandwich does not allow the hydrophilic heads to be in contact with water, nor
does it allow the non-polar hydrophobic amino acids on the outside of the
membrane proteins to be kept away from water. Consideration of how lipids
behaved in water forming a bilayer because it was the most stable arrangement
was used to refine the model. Interpretation of the electron micrograph evidence
changed to support the new model of the membrane structure. Phosphate heads
are more electron dense and show up as the darker part of the structure, with
the tails forming the inner part of the sandwich.
Experiments showed that there were two types of protein those that could be
dissociated from the membrane quite easily by increasing the ionic strength of
the solution and those (the majority) that could only be removed more drastically
such as adding detergents. This evidence supported the fluid mosaic model were
some peripheral proteins are loosely attached on the outside of the membrane
whilst integral proteins are fully embedded within the phospholipids.
3. Describe how membrane structure can be investigated practically, e.g. by
the effect of alcohol concentration or temperature on membrane
permeability
Beetroot cells contain a coloured pigment, the higher the permeability of the
membrane, the more pigment leaks from the cell. For investigating how
temperature affects beetroot membrane permeability, you can:

Cut five equal sized pieces of beetroot and rinse them to get rid of any
pigment released during cutting.
Place each of the five pieces in different test tubes, each with 5cm 3 of
water.
Place each test tube in water baths of different temperatures varying from
10-50C for the same length of time.
Remove the pieces of beetroot, just leaving the coloured liquid.
Use a colorimeter to measure the absorbance. The higher the absorbance,
the more pigment released so the higher the permeability.

With temperatures below 0C the phospholipids dont have much energy so

cannot move as much. Theyre packed closely together and the membrane is
rigid. But the channel proteins and carrier proteins in the membrane deform,
increasing the permeability of the membrane. Ice crystals may form and pierce
the ice, making the membrane highly permeable once thawed.
With temperatures between 0-45C, the phospholipids can move around and are
not tightly packed together so the membrane is partially permeable. As the

Ella Stephen
temperature increases, the phospholipids move more because they have more
energy, this increases the permeability of the membrane.
With temperatures above 45C the phospholipid bilayer starts to break down and
the membrane becomes more permeable. Water inside the cell expands putting
pressure on the membrane. Channel proteins and carrier proteins deform so they
cant control what leaves the cell. Permeability increases.
You can also test the effect of alcohol concentration on membrane permeability.
As alcohol concentration increases, the permeability of the cell membrane
increases because the alcohol dissolves the lipids in the cell membrane so the
membrane loses its structure.

4. Explain what is meant by osmosis in terms of the movement of free water

molecules through a partially permeable membrane (consideration of
water potential is not required)
Osmosis is the net movement of water particles from a solution with a lower
concentration of solute to a solution with a higher concentration of solute
through a partially permeable membrane.
5. Explain what is meant by passive transport (diffusion, facilitated
diffusion), active transport (including the role of ATP), endocytosis and
exocytosis and describe the involvement of carrier and channel proteins in
membrane transport.
DIFFUSION is the net movement of molecules or ions from a region where there
are at a higher concentration to a region of their lower concentration. Diffusion
will continue until equilibrium, when the substance is evenly spread throughout
the whole volume. Small uncharged particles diffuse across the cell membrane,
passing between the lipid molecules as they move down the concentration
gradient.
FACILITATED DIFFUSION hydrophilic molecules and ions that are bigger than
carbon dioxide cannot simply diffuse through the bilayer. They are insoluble in
lipids; the hydrophobic tails of the phospholipids are impenetrable barrier to
them. Instead, they cross the membrane with the aid of proteins in a process
called facilitated diffusion. They may diffuse through water filled pores within
channel proteins that span the membrane. There are different channel proteins
for transporting different molecules; each type of channel protein has a specific
shape that permits the passage of one particular molecule or ion. Some channels
can be opened or closed depending on the presence or absence of a signal which
could be a specific molecule like a hormone or a change in potential difference.
These channels are called gated channels.
Some proteins that play a role in facilitated diffusion are not just simple channels
but carrier proteins. The ion or molecule binds onto a specific site on the protein.
The protein changes shape and as a result the ion or molecule crosses the

Ella Stephen
membrane. The movement can occur in either direction, with the net movement
being dependent on concentration difference across the membrane. Molecules
move from high to low concentrations due to more frequent binding to carrier
proteins on the other side of the membrane where the concentration is higher.
Passive transport refers to the fact that no metabolic energy is needed for the
transport.
ACTIVE TRANSPORT if substances need to be moved against a concentration
gradient then energy is required. As with facilitated diffusion, specific carrier
proteins are also needed. The energy comes from respiration and is supplied by
the energy transfer molecule ATP. The substance to be transported binds to the
carrier protein. Energy from ATP changes the shape of the carrier protein,
causing the substance to be released on the other side of the membrane.
EXOCYTOSIS is the release of substances, usually proteins or polysaccharides
from the cell as vesicles fuse with the cell membrane.
ENDOCYTOSIS is when substances are taken into the cell by the creation of a
vesicle. Part of the cell membrane engulfs the solid or liquid material to be
transported.

6. Describe the basic structure of monosaccharides (as a deoxyribose or

ribose linked to a phosphate and a base, i.e. thymine, uracil, adenine and
guanine) and the structures of DNA and RNA (as polynucleotides
composed of mononucleotides linked through condensation reactions) and
describe how complementary strands are involved in the formation of the
DNA double helix
DNA is one type of nucleic acid, called deoxyribonucleic acid. It is a long chained
molecule made up of many nucleotides or mononucleotides. A mononucleotide
contains three molecules linked together by a condensation reaction:
deoxyribose (a 5-carbon sugar), a phosphate group and an organic base
containing nitrogen.
Mononucleotides link together by condensation reactions between the sugar of
one nucleotide and the phosphate group of the next one, producing a long chain
of nucleotides, a polynucleotide. The nitrogen-containing bases are the only part
of the nucleotide that is variable. There are four bases adenine, thymine,
guanine and cytosine (ATGC).
In a DNA molecule there are two long strands of nucleotides twisted around each
other to form a double helix. The sugars and the phosphates form the backbone
of the molecule and are on the outside. The bases point inwards horizontally like
the rungs of a ladder. The two strands which run in opposite directions are known
as antiparallel strands held together by hydrogen bonds between the pairs of
bases

Ella Stephen
7. Outline the process of protein synthesis, including the role of transcription,
translation, messenger RNA, transfer RNA and the template (antisense)
DNA strand
TRANSCRIPTION takes place in the nucleus. The DNA double helix unwinds and
hydrogen bonds between the bases break, allowing the two strands to partly
separate. The sequence on one of the strands, the template strand, is used in
the production of a messenger RNA molecule. This mRNA is built from free RNA
nucleotides which line up alongside the DNA template strand. Because of
complementary base pairing, the order on the bases of DNA exactly determines
the order of the bases on the RNA. In other words, every triplet code on DNA
gives rise to a complementary codon on mRNA. The template strand is also
known as the antisense strand because once transcribed it makes an mRNA
molecule with the same base sequence as the DNA coding strand. This process
of synthesising involves a number of enzymes such RNA polymerase. The
completed mRNA molecule now leaves the nucleus through a pore in the nuclear
envelope and enters the cytoplasm. This is where translation takes place.
TRANSLATION takes place on the ribosomes. Ribosomes are small organelles
made of ribosomal RNA and protein. Ribosomes are found free in the cytoplasm
or attached to endoplasmic reticulum, a system of flattened, membrane-bound
sacs. A transfer RNA molecule carrying an amino acid molecule has three bases
called an anticodon and these pair with complementary bases on the mRNA
codon. Then the amino acids that the tRNA carry join by means on peptide
bonds.

8. Explain the nature of the genetic code (triplet code only; non-overlapping
and degenerate not required at AS)
In the genetic code, one base does not simply code for one amino acid. There are
only four bases so if there were the case, proteins would only contain four amino
acids instead of the 20 amino acids found commonly in proteins. The code
carried by the DNA is a triple code. Each adjacent group of three bases codes for
an amino acid. Several triplets code for the same amino acids; others area start
or stop signals.
9. Describe a gene as being a sequence of bases on a DNA molecule
coding for a sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain
10.Describe the basic structure of an amino acid and the formation of
polypeptides and proteins (as amino acid monomers linked by peptide
bonds in condensation reactions) and explain the significance of a
proteins primary structure in determining its three dimensional structure
and properties (globular and fibrous proteins and types of bonds involved
in three dimensional structure)
PRIMARY STRUCTURE two amino acids join in a condensation reaction to form a
dipeptide, with a peptide bond forming between the two subunits. This process

Ella Stephen
may be repeated many times to form polypeptide chains which may contain
thousands of amino acids. A protein is made up of one or more of these
polypeptide chains. The sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide structure is
known as the primary structure.
SECONDARY STRUCTURE the chain of amino acids may twist to form an a-helix,
a shape like an extended spring. Within the helix, hydrogen bonds from the C=O
of the carboxylic acid and the NH of the amine group of the different amino
acids, stabilising the shape. Several chains may link together, with hydrogen
bonds holding the parallel arrangement known as a b-pleated sheet. With one
protein molecule, there may be sections with a-helices and other sections that
contain b-pleated sheets.
TERTIARY AND QUATERNARY STRUCTURE a polypeptide chain often folds and
bends to produce a precise tertiary three dimensional shape. Chemical bonds
and hydrophobic interactions between R groups maintain this final tertiary
structure of the proteins. An R group is polar when the sharing of electrons is not
quite even. The polar R groups attract other polar molecules like water and are
therefore hydrophilic. The non-polar groups are hydrophobic. The non-polar
groups are arranged so they face the inside of the protein, excluding water from
the centre of the molecule.
GLOBULAR AND FIBROUS PROTEINS proteins can be divided into two distinct
groups:

Globular proteins - In globular proteins, the polypeptide chain is folded into

a compact spherical shape. These proteins are soluble due to the
hydrophilic side chains that project from the outside of the molecules and
are therefore important in metabolic reactions. Enzymes are globular
proteins. Their three-dimensional shape is crucial to the ability to form
enzyme-substrate complexes and catalyse reactions within cells. The
three-dimensional shapes of globular proteins are critical to their roles in
binding other substances.
Fibrous proteins do not fold up in a ball shape, but remain as long chains.
Several polypeptide chains can be cross-linked for additional strength.
These insoluble proteins are important structural molecules. Keratin in hair
and skin, and collagen in the skin, tendons, bones, cartilage and blood
vessel walls are examples of fibrous proteins.
11.Explain the mechanism of action and specificity of enzymes in terms of
their three-dimensional structure and explain that enzymes are biological
catalysts that reduce activation energy, catalysing a wide range of
intracellular and extracellular reactions
Enzymes are globular proteins that act as biological catalysts. They speed up
chemical reactions that would otherwise occur very slowly at the temperature
within the cells. The precise three dimensional shape adopted by the enzyme
includes a depression on the surface of the molecule called the active site.

Ella Stephen
LOCK AND KEY THEORY either a single molecule with a complementary shape
or more than one molecule that together have a complementary shape can fit
into the active site. These substrate molecules form temporary bonds with amino
acids of the active site to produce an enzyme substrate complex. Each enzyme
will only catalyse one specific reaction because only one shape of the substrate
will fit into its precisely-shaped active site.
INDUCED FIT THEORY it has been found that the active site is often flexible.
When the substrate(s) enters the active site, the enzyme molecule changes
shape slightly, fitting more closely around the substrate. This is known as the
induced fit theory of enzyme action. Only a specific substrate will induce the
change in shape of the enzymes active site.
ACTIVATION ENERGY this is the energy needed to break bonds for the reaction
to start. Enzymes help reduce the activation energy as the specific shape of the
enzymes active site and of its complementary substrate(s) is such that
electrically charged groups on their surfaces interact. The attraction of oppositely
charged groups may distort the shapes of the substrate and assist in the
breaking or forming of new bonds. In some cases, the active site may contain
amino acids with acidic side chains; the acidic environment created within the
active site may provide favourable conditions for the reaction.
Many of the enzymes found in animals and plants work inside the cells. These
are known as intracellular enzymes e.g. DNA polymerase, DNA ligase. Other
enzymes are secreted by the cells to have an effect beyond the boundaries of
the cell membrane. These are extracellular enzymes e.g. lysozyme.
12.
Describe how enzyme concentrations can affect the rates of
reactions and how this can be investigated practically by
measuring the initial rate of reaction
13.Describe DNA replication (including the role of DNA polymerase) and
explain how Meselson and Stahls classic experiment provided new data
that supported the accepted theory of replication of DNA and refuted
competing theories
When a cell divides, an exact copy of the DNA must be produced so that each of
the daughter cells receives a copy. This process of copying of the DNA is called
replication.
The double helix unwinds from one end and the two strands split apart as the
hydrogen bonds between the bases break. Free DNA nucleotides line up
alongside each DNA strand and hydrogen bonds form between the
complementary bases. The enzyme DNA polymerase links the adjacent
nucleotides to form a complementary strand. In this way, each strand of DNA
acts as a template on which a new strand is built and overall, two complete DNA
molecules are form. These are identical to each other and the original DNA
strand. Each of the two DNA molecules contains one strand and one new strand.
This is process is therefore known as semi-conservative replication.

Ella Stephen
Meselson and Stahl used heavy and light strands of DNA. They did this by using
DNA from E.coli bacteria that had been grown in a medium containing only the
heavy isotope of nitrogen, N15. All the nucleotides in the bacteria at the start of
the experiment contained heavy nitrogen and made this DNA denser than usual.
Meselson and Stahl then moved the bacteria into a medium containing only
normal 14N. This meant all the new nucleotides incorporated into the replicated
DNA were light but the original DNA nucleotides were heavy. They allowed the
bacteria to divide and replicate once. They then extracted and centrifuged the
DNA. If a test tube containing DNA dissolved in a special density-gradient
solution, the heavy DNA (containing nitrogen 15 only) sinks to the bottom. Light
DNA (containing nitrogen 14 only) collects in a band near the top and DNA of
medium density is in the middle. Medium density DNA must contain some heavy
and light nucleotides. Meselson and Stahls result was a single band of medium
density DNA, so they were able to reject the conservative model of DNA
replication.
To check which of the two other models were correct, the bacteria was allowed to
undergo two rounds of replication. The DNA extracted and centrifuged after two
rounds of replication gave two bands, one medium and one light. The presence
of both medium and light bands confirmed the semi-conservative model and
ruled out the fragmentary model.
14. Explain how errors in DNA replication can give rise to mutations and
explain how cystic fibrosis results from one of a number of possible gene
mutations.
The genetic code carried on the DNA is translated into living cellular material
during proteins synthesis. The nucleic acids are central to the process, as both
the carriers and the translators of the genetic code. If a single codon is misread
during the process, then the amino acid in which it codes for may be different
and so the whole polypeptide chain and indeed the final protein may be altered.
A change like this is known as a mutation.
The cystic fibrosis (CF) gene is a section on chromosome 7 carrying the code to
make the CFTR protein. The CFTR protein contains 1480 amino acids and these
are arranged in a 3D structure.

In the CF gene, hundreds of different mutations have been identified that can
give rise to cystic fibrosis. The mutations affect the CFTR proteins in different
ways. In some cases ATP is unable to bind and open the ion channel; in other
cases the channel is open but the changes in the protein structure lead to
reduced movement of chloride ions through the channel. The most common
mutation is known as the DF508 mutation; is the deletion of three nucleotides.
This causes a loss of phenylalanine, the 508 th acid in the CFTR protein, which is
thought to result in misfolding of the protein.

Ella Stephen
15. Explain the terms: gene, allele, genotype, phenotype, recessive,
dominant, homozygote and heterozygote; and explain monohybrid
inheritance, including the interpretation of genetic pedigree diagrams,
in the context of traits such as cystic fibrosis, albinism, thalassaemia,
garden pea height and seed morphology.***
GENE a sequence of bases on a DNA molecule which codes for a protein, which
results in a characteristic.
ALLELE one of the different forms of a particular gene.
PHENOTYPE the characteristics of an organism which result from the genes
the organism possesses and the environment in which it lives .
GENOTYPE an organisms which has two different alleles of a particular gene.
RECESSIVE an allele whose characteristic appears in the phenotype if two
copies are present.
DOMINANT - An allele whose characteristic appears in the phenotype even
when there is only one copy.
HOMOZYGOTE An organism that carries two copies of the same allele
HETEROZYGOTE An organism that carries two different alleles.
Cystic fibrosis is an example of monohybrid inheritance, so called because the
characteristic is only controlled by one gene. Most human characteristics are
inherited in a much more complex way and are often influenced by
environmental factors. However, there are few that are controlled by a single
gene.
GO OVER PEDIGREE DIAGRAMS. PAGE 91
16.
Explain how the expression of a gene mutation in people
with cystic fibrosis impairs the functioning of the gaseous
exchange, digestive and reproductive systems.

17. Describe the principles of gene therapy and distinguish between somatic
and germ line therapy.
GENE THERAPY current treatments only reduce some of the effects of the
disease. Understanding the nature of the gene involved in cystic fibrosis has

Ella Stephen
raised the possibility of a future cure through gene therapy. Effective gene
therapy would treat the cause rather than the symptoms of the disease.
In gene, therapy, the genotype and hence the phenotype of target cells (those
affected by the disease) is altered. This is achieved as follows:
1. Normal alleles of the gene are inserted into the target cells, either using a
genetically modified virus to infect in the target cells or using liposomes
(spherical phospholipid bilayers).
2. The normal form of the gene is transcribed and translated.
3. A functioning protein is produced in the target cells.
HOW GENES ARE INSERTED USING VIRUSES
In the virus, the DNA sequence that allows it to replicate is removed. This is
replaced with the normal allele of the desired gene along with a promoter
sequence that initiates transcription and translation of the gene. When we are
infected with some viruses, the viral DNA becomes incorporated into our cells
DNA. With the other viruses, the viral DNA remains independent within the
nucleus of our cell walls. In trails with CFTR, the second type of virus is used. The
use of viruses is potentially an efficient use of gene transfer but it has been
found to produce an inflammatory response, with patients experiencing
symptoms such as headache, fatigue, fever and raised heart rate.
HOW GENES ARE INSERTED USING LIPOSOMES
First a copy of the normal allele is inserted into the plasmid. Plasmids are then
combined with liposomes (spherical phospholipid bilayers). The positively
charged head groups of the phospholipids combine with the DNA (a weak acid
and so negatively charged) to form a liposome-DNA complex. The CF patient
breathes in an aerosol containing these complexes using a nebuliser. The
liposomes fuse with epithelial cell membranes and carry DNA into the cells.

It is hoped that gene therapy will help in the treatment for thalassaemia,
haemophilia and sickle cell disease. But up to data, only limited progress has
occurred with these diseases. These treatments are all concerned with altering
somatic cells and are permitted under UK legislation. The alternative approach of
altering the germ cells so that every cell in the body contains the new gene is
not permitted. There are ethical objections to such germ line therapy because of
concerns about possible effects in the future generations when the new gene is
inherited.

18. Explain the uses of genetic screening: identification of carriers,

preimplantation genetic diagnosis and prenatal testing (amniocentesis
and chorionic villus sampling) and discuss the implications of prenatal
genetic screening.

Ella Stephen
Genetic testing can be formed on any DNA, so it is possible to take samples of
cheek cells, white blood cells or cells obtained from a foetus or embryo. The DNA
is tested to see whether it contains the known base sequences for the most
common mutations that cause cystic fibrosis.
HOW CAN GENETIC SCREENING BE USED?
To confirm a diagnosis genetic testing can confirm a diagnosis of CF.
however, since there are a larger number of different mutations that can cause
CF, a negative result must be treated with caution. It is currently not feasible to
test for all the hundreds of possible mutations that lead to CF.
To identify carriers - genetic testing can identify carriers. A sample of blood or
cells taken from inside the mouth can be used to detect abnormal alleles in
people without the disease who are heterozygous. Where the has been a history
of cystic fibrosis in a family, this can be of value in assessing the probability of
having a child with the disease. Counselling is now offered before testing and
after testing so parents can make informed decisions on how to proceed.
Currently there are two techniques used for obtaining a sample of cells from a
child before birth:
Amniocentesis This involves inserting a needle into the amniotic fluid to
collect cells that have fallen off the placenta and foetus. This can be carried out
at around 15-17 weeks of pregnancy and involves a risk of causing a miscarriage
of 0.5% and 1%.
Chorionic villus sampling - here, a small sample of placental tissues (which
includes the cells of the foetus) is removed, either through the abdomen or
through the vagina. This can be carried out earlier, between 8 & 12 weeks, since
theres no need to wait for amniotic fluid to develop. However, it carries a risk of
about 1% to 2% of inducing a miscarriage.
There are implications associated with having these tests which people should be
aware about when deciding to have the tests so they can make informed
choices. Both procedures present a risk of miscarriage to the possibly healthy
foetuses. If amniocentesis or CVS results in a positive test for a disease then one
possibility is for the woman to abort. Having an abortion is easier for the woman,
both physically and emotionally in the earlier weeks of pregnancy. This can mean
that the slightly higher risk of miscarriage associated with CVS is considered
worthwhile.
Testing before implantation (PIGD) genetic testing can enable preimplantation genetic diagnosis. When carrying out in vitro fertilisation (IVF), it is
possible to test an embryo before it has been implanted in the uterus. A cell can
be removed from an embryo growing in culture when it has only 8 -16 cells
without harming the embryo. The DNA of the cell can be analysed and the results
can be used to decide whether to place in the womb. IVF however is still an
expensive and fairly unreliable procedure, and although it avoids the need for a
possible abortion this approach is not routinely used.

Ella Stephen

19. Identify and discuss the social and ethical issues related to genetic
screening from a range of ethical viewpoints.
GENERAL ETHICAL FRAMEWORK
1 RIGHTS AND DUTIES : most us tend to feel that there are certain human
rights that should always be permitted. If you have right to something, then I
may have particular duties towards you. For example, suppose that you are a six
month old baby with a right to life and I am your parent. I have the right to feed
you wash you and keep you warm and so on. If I dont fulfil these duties, I am
failing to carry out my responsibilities so the police or social services may
intervene.
2- MAXIMISING THE AMOUNT OF GOOD IN THE WORLD: For example,
should I tell the truth? Usually yes as telling lies often ends up making people
unhappy and unhappiness is not good. But sometimes telling the truth can lead
to more unhappiness. If your friend asks you if you like the present theyve just
given you and you dont, would you tell the truth? Most of us would tell a white
lie, not wanting to hurt their feelings. This ethical approach is known
utilitarianism. Notice tha utilitarians have no moral absolutes beyond
maximising the amount of good in the world. A utilitarian would hesitate to state
anything is always right or always wrong. There might be circumstances when
something is normally right (e.g. keeping a promise) would be wrong or normally
wrong (e.g. killing someone) would be right.
3 MAKING DESCISION FOR YOURSELF: One of the key things about being
human is that we can make decisions for ourselves. People act autonomously
when they make up their own minds about things. Of course, it is perfectly
possible autonomously to decide to be selfish. A utilitarian would say we need to
weigh the benefits of someone acting autonomously with any costs of them
doing so. Only if the overall effects area greater than the overall costs is
autonomy desirable. Someone who believes in rights and duties might say that
each of us has the right to act autonomously but also has a duty to take account
of the effects of our actions on others.
4 LEADING A VIRTUOUS LIFE: this holds the good life (in every sense of the
term) consists of acting virtuously. Traditionally the seven virtues were said to be
justice, prudence (i.e. wisdom), temperance (acting in moderation), fortitude
(courage), faith, hope and charity. Precisely what leading a virtuous life means
can vary and isnt always straightforward.

Ella Stephen

VOICE OF THE GENOME:

Students will be assessed on their ability to:
1. Distinguish between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells in terms of their
structure and ultrastructure
PROKARYOTE CELLS prokaryotic cells lack much of the structure and
organisation of eukaryotic cells. They do not have a membrane bound nucleus
the genetic material is a single loop of genetic material within the cell called
plasmids. The cytoplasm contains enzymes, ribosomes and food-storage
granules but lacks other features of eukaryotic cells such as an ER, golgi body,
mitochondria and chloroplasts. Respiration takes place on a special piece of the
cell membrane called a mesosome and those prokaryotes that can
photosynthesise have a form of chlorophyll but no chloroplasts to hold it.
Main features:

Flagellum

Plasmid
Mesosome
Glycogen
granules and lipid
droplets
Nucleoid
Photosynthetic
membranes

Cell wall
Small ribosomes
Cell surface membrane

EUKARYOTIC CELLS are complex and include all animal and plant cells.

Ella Stephen
Main

features:
Cell membrane
Ribosome
rER
sER
Golgi apparatus
Cytoplasm
Mitchondrion
Nucleus

Nuclear

membrane
Nucleolus
Lysosome

2. Describe the ultrastructure of an animal (eukaryotic) cell (nucleus,

nucleolus, ribosomes, rER and sER, mitochondria, centrioles, lysosomes,
and Golgi apparatus) and recognise these organelles from EM images
ORGANELLE
Nucleus

Lysosome

DIAGRAM

DESCRIPTION

FUNCTION

A large
organelle
surrounded by
a nuclear
envelope
(double
membrane),
which contains
many pores.
The nucleus
often contains
chromatin and
often a
structure called
the nucleolus
A round
organelle
surrounded by
a membrane
with no clear
internal
structure.

Chromatin is
made from
protein and
DNA. The pores
allow
substances
(e.g. RNA) to
move between
the nucleus
and cytoplasm.
The nucleolus
makes
ribosomes.

Contains
digestive
enzymes.
These are kept
separate from
the cytoplasm
by the
surrounding
membrane, but

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Vesicle

A small fluidfilled sac in the

cytoplasm
surrounded by
a membrane

Ribosome

A very small
organelle that
floats free in
the cytoplasm
or is attached
to the rER.

Endoplasmic
reticulum

There are two

types of ER:
a) The sER
is a
system
of
membra
nes
enclosin
g a fluid
filled
space.
b) The rER
is similar
bit is
covered
in

can be used to
digest invading
cells or to
break down
worn out
components of
the cell.
Transports
substances in
and out of the
cell (via the
cell membrane)
and between
organelles.
Some are
formed by the
Golgi
apparatus or
the ER, while
others are
formed on the
cell surface.
The site where
proteins are
made.

The sER
processe
s lipids
The rER
folds
processe
s
proteins
that
have
been
made at
the
ribosom
es.

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ribosome
s

Golgi
apparatus

Centriole

Mitochondrion

A group of
fluid-filled
flattened sacs.
Vesicles are
often seen at
the edges of
the sacs.
Hollow
cylinders,
containing
microtubules
(tiny protein
cylinders).

It processes
and packages
new lipids and
proteins. It also
makes
lysosomes.

Usually oval
shaped. They
have a double
membrane
the inner one is
folded to form
structures
called cristae.
inside is a
matrix, which
contains
enzymes
involved in
respiration.

The site of
aerobic
respiration,
where ATP is
produced.
Theyre found
in large
numbers in
cells that are
very active and
require a lot of
energy.

Involved in the
separation of
chromosomes
in cell division.

Ella Stephen
3. Explain the role of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (rER) and the Golgi
apparatus in protein transport within cells and including its role in
formation with extracellular enzymes

The function of ribosomes is to make proteins and the rER isolates and
transports these proteins once they have been made. Some proteins such
as digestive enzymes and hormones are not used in the cell that makes
them, so they have to be secreted, that is moved out of the cell without
interfering with the cells activities. This is an example of exocytosis. Many
other proteins are needed within the cell. The rER has a large surface area
for synthesis of all these proteins and it stores and transports them both
within the cell and from the inside to the outside. Cells that secrete
digestive material such as those producing digestive enzymes in the lining
of the guy have a large amount of rER.
Proteins are brought to the GA in vesicles which have been pinched from
the rER where there were made. The vesicles fuse with the membrane
sacs of the Golgi body and the protein enters the Golgi body. Enzymes
may be transported through the Golgi body and then in vesicles to
the cell membrane where the vesicles fuse with the membrane to
release extra cellular enzymes.

4. Describe how the cells of multicellular organisms can be organised into

tissues, tissues into organs and organs into systems
Tissues are a similar group of cells that all develop from the same kind
of cell. Although there are many different types of specialised cells, there are
only four main tissue types in the human body epithelial tissue, connective
tissue, muscle tissue and nervous tissue. Modified versions of these tissue types
carry out all the functions of the body, e.g. epithelial tissues.

Squamous epithelium is found lining the surfaces of blood vessels and

forms the walls of capillaries and the lining of the alveoli.
Cuboidal and columnar cells line many other tubes in the body.
Ciliated epithelia often contain goblet cells that produce mucus.
Compound epithelia are found where the surface is continually scratched
and abraded.

An organ is made up of a group of tissues that are grouped into a

structure so that they can work effectively together. There are many
organs in the human body and plants also have cells grouped in tissues and
organs. For example, the leaf is an organ that is composed of vascular tissue,
epithelial tissue and mesophyll tissues.
In animals, in many cases a number of organs work together as a
system to carry out large-scale functions in the body. For example the
digestive system includes the organs of the stomach, pancreas, small and large

Ella Stephen
intestines and the nervous system includes the brain, spinal cord and peripheral
nerves.

5. Explain the role of mitosis and the cell cycle for growth and asexual
reproduction
The cell cycle and mitosis allow asexual reproduction to happen as well as
growth in multicellular organisms.
division

cell
ready for

INTERPHASE functions, but

DNA is
double its
organelles are
content is
provides the

The cell cycle starts when a cell is produced by

and ends with the cell dividing to produce two
identical cells. The cell cycle consists of a period of
growth and DNA replication, called interphase,
and a period of cell division called mitosis.
Interphase (cell growth) is sub-divided into
three separate growth stages. These are
called G1, S and G2.
Mitosis is really one continuous process, but
its described as a series of division stages
prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase
(PMAT). Interphase comes before mitosis in the
cycle its when cells grow and replicate their DNA
division.

The cell carries out its normal

also prepares to divide. The cells
unravelled and replicated to
genetic content. The
also replicated so it has spare ones and its ATP
increased as it
energy for cell division.

PROPHASE The chromosomes condense getting

shorter and fatter. The centrioles start moving to
opposite ends of the cell, forming a network of
protein fibres across it called the spindle. The
nuclear envelope starts to break down and
chromosomes lie free in the cytoplasm.
METAPHASE the chromosomes (each with two chromatids) line up along the
middle of the cell and become attached to the spindle by the centromere.

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ANAPHASE The centromeres divide , separating the pair of sister chromatids.
The spindles contract, pulling the chromatids to opposite ends of the cell,
centromere first.
TELOPHASE The chromatids reach the opposite poles on the spindle. They
uncoil and become long and thin again. A nuclear envelope forms around each
group of chromosomes, so there are now two nuclei. The cytoplasm divides and
there are now two daughter cells that are genetically identical to the original cell
and to each other. Mitosis is finished and each daughter cell starts the interphase
part of the cell cycle to get ready for the next mitosis.

6. Describe the stages of mitosis and how to prepare and stain a root tip
squash in order to observe them practically
- Cut the tip from a growing root. The tip cut should be around 5mm long.
Place the root tip on a watch glass and add a few drops of hydrochloric
acid.
- Add a few drops of acetic orcein stain to make the chromosomes become
darker and waster to see under a microscope.
- Warm the watch glass by passing it slowly through a Bunsen burner flame.
- Place the root tip under the microscope slide and use a mounted needle to
break it open and spread the cells thinly.
- Add a few more drops of stain and place a cover slip over it.
- Squash the cover slip down gently.
- Warm the slide again for a few seconds to intensify the stain.
- Now the stages of mitosis can be viewed under the microscope.

7. Explain the role of meiosis in the production of gametes and

genetic variation through recombination of alleles and genes
including independent assortment and crossing over (details of
the stages of meiosis are not required
In meiosis two nuclear divisions give rise to four haploid daughter cells, each
with its own unique combination of genetic material. These four genetically
individual cells are a result of a process known as crossing over.
8. Explain how mammalian gametes are specialised for their functions
The male gametes of spermatozoa of most mammalian species are 50um long.
They have several tasks to fulfil. They must remain in suspension in the semen
so they can be transported through the female reproductive tract, and they must
be able penetrate the protective barrier around the ovum and deliver the male
haploid genome safely inside.
Acrosome membrane bound storage site for enzymes that digest the layers
surrounding the ovum and all the sperms head to penetrate.

Ella Stephen
Nucleus contains the highly condensed haploid chromosomes. The condensed
state reduces the amount of energy needed to transport.
Mitochondria tightly packed into the middle section of the sperm to
provide all the energy for the lashing of the tail.
Tail a flagellum which propels the sperm by its movement in a liquid
environment.
Although the spermatozoa of most animals are very similar, the same cannot be
said for the ova. These vary, from

9. Describe the process of fertilisation in mammals and flowering plants

(staring with the acrosome reaction in mammals and pollen tube in plants
and ending with the fusion of the nuclei) and plain the importance of
fertilisation in sexual reproduction
Fertilisation is the term used to describe the exact moment when the
nuclei of male and female gametes fuse.
MAMMALS

The sperm swims towards the egg cell in the oviduct

Once one sperm makes contact with the zona pellucida (a jelly like
layer) of the egg cell, the acrosome reaction occurs this is where
the digestive enzymes are released from the acrosome of the
sperm.
These enzymes digest the zona pellucida, so that the sperm can
move through the membrane of the egg cell.
The sperm head fuses with the cell membrane of the egg cell. This
triggers the cortical reaction the egg cell releases the contents of
the vesicles call cortical granules into the space between the cell
membrane and the zona pellucida.
The chemicals from the cortical granules make the zona pellucida
thicken, making it impenetrable to other sperm. This makes sure
only one sperm fertilises the egg.
Only the sperm nucleus enters the egg cell the tail is discarded.
The nucleus of the sperm fuses with the nucleus of the egg cell
this is fertilisation.

PLANTS

A pollen grain lands on the stigma of a flower. The grain absorbs water and
splits open.
A pollen tube grows out of the pollen grain down the style (the rod like
section that supports the stigma). There are three nuclei in the pollen tube
one tube nucleus at the tube tip and two male gamete nuclei behind it.

Ella Stephen
The tube nuclei makes enzymes that digest surrounding cells making way
for the pollen tube.
When the tube reaches the ovary, it grows a micropyle (a tiny hole in the
ovule wall) and into the embryo sac within the
ovule.
In the embryo sac, the tube
nucleus disintegrates and the tip
of the
pollen tube bursts, releasing two
male
nuclei.
One male nuclei fuses with the egg
nucleus to make a zygote. This divides by
mitosis to make an embryo.
The second male nucleus fuses with the two polar
nuclei at the centre of the embryo sac. This
produces a cell with a large nucleus, which
divides to become a food store (an endosperm) for
the mature seed.
So a double fertilisation has taken place as two male
nuclei have fused with female nuclei. This only happens in flowering
plants.
10.Explain what is meant by the terms stem cell, pluripotency and
totipotency and discuss the way society uses scientific knowledge to make
decisions about the use of stem cells in medical therapies (e.g. regulatory
authorities relating to human embryo research, ability of stem cell to
develop into specialised tissues, potentially source of stem cells, who
could benefit from the therapies, procedures to obtain stem cells and their
risks.
Stem cells are undifferentiated cells but have a potential to develop in
to many different specialised cells from the instructions in their DNA.

Multicellular organisms are made up from many different types of cells

that are specialised in their function e.g. liver cells, muscle cells, white
blood cells.
All these specialised cells originally came from stem cells.
Stem cells divide by mitosis to become new cells which then become
specialised
The process by which a cell becomes specialised is called differentiation
All multicellular organisms have some form of stem cell
In humans, stem cells are found from the embryo (where the differentiate
to become into the cells needed to form a foetus) and in some adult
tissues (where they the differentiate into specialised cells that need to be
replaced e.g. stem cells in bone marrow can differentiate into red blood
cells)
The ability of stem cells to differentiate into specialised cells is called
potency and there are two types:
i.
TOTIPOTENCY the ability to produce all cell types, including all
the specialised cells in an organism and extraembryonic cells.

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ii.

PLURIPOTENCY - is the ability of a stem cell to produce all the

specialised cells but not extraembryonic cells
Totipotent stem cells in humans are only present in the early life of an
embryo they differentiate into extraembryonic cells and pluripotent stem
cells. The pluripotent stem cells then differentiate into the specialised cells
in a foetus.

Stem cells become specialised through differential gene expression:

Stem cells all contain the same genes, not all of them are expressed
because not all of them are active
Under the right conditions, some genes are activated and other genes are
inactivated
mRNA is only transcribed from the active genes.
The mRNA from the active genes is then translated into proteins
These proteins modify the cell they determine the cell structure and
control cell processes
Changes to the cell produced by these proteins cause the cell to become
specialised. These changes are difficult to reverse

There are two possible sources of human stem cells:

-

Adult stem cells: these are obtained from the body tissues of an adult
e.g. the bone marrow. They can be obtained in a relatively simple
operation with very little risk involved but a lot of discomfort. The donor is
anaesthetised, a needle is inserted in the centre of the hip bone and a
small quantity of bone marrow is removed. Adult stem cells arent as
flexible as embryonic stem cells they can only develop into a
limited range of cells.
Embryonic stem cells: these are obtained from early embryos. Embryos
are created in a lab using IVF (egg cells are fertilised by sperm cells
outside of the womb). Once the embryos are 4-5 days old, the stem cells
are removed and the rest of the embryo is destroyed

STEM CELLS IN MEDICINE

Embryonic stem cells could be really useful in medicine, but research into their
uses raises many ethical issues. Society has to consider all the arguments for
and against stem cell research before allowing it to go ahead. The work of
regulatory authorities includes:

Looking at the proposals of research to decide if they should be allowed

this ensures that any research involving embryos is carried out for a good

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reason. It also makes sure that research isnt unnecessarily repeated by

different groups.
Licensing and monitoring centres involved in embryonic stem cell
research this ensures that only fully trained staff carry out the research.
These staff will understand the implications of the research and wont
waste precious resources, such as embryos. This also helps to avoid
unregulated research.
Producing guidelines and codes of practice this ensures all scientists are
working in a similar manner (to make their results comparable). It also
ensures methods of extraction are controlled.
Monitoring developments in scientific research and advances this
ensures that any changes in the field are regulated appropriately and that
all the guidelines are up to data with the latest scientific understanding.
Providing information and advice to governments and professionals this
helps to promote the science involved in embryo research and it helps
society to understand whats involved and why its important

11.Describe how totipotency can be demonstrated practically using plant

tissue culture techniques
Plants also have stem cells theyre found in areas where the plant is growing
(e.g. roots and shoots). All the stem cells in plants are totipotent so can produce
a whole new plant. Totipotency can be shown in plants using tissue culture, a
method use to grow a plant from a single cell.

A single cell is taken from a growing area on a plant (e.g. root or shoot)
The cell is placed in a growth medium (agar) that contains nutrients and
hormones. The growth medium is sterile so microorganisms cant compete
with the plant cells
The plant cell will grow and divide into a mass of unspecialised cells. If the
conditions are suitable (e.g. the plant cells are given the right hormones)
the unspecialised cells will differentiate into specialised cells
Eventually, the cells will grow and differentiate into an entire plant

Ella Stephen
Tissue culture shows totipotency because a single stem cell can
produce all the specialised cells to make a whole plant.

12. Explain how cells become specialised through differential gene

expression, producing active mRNA leading to synthesis of proteins, which
in turn control cell processes or determine cell structure in animals and
plants (details of transcription factors are not required at AS).
Stem cells become specialised through differential gene expression:

Stem cells all contain the same genes, not all of them are expressed
because not all of them are active
Under the right conditions, some genes are activated and other genes are
inactivated
mRNA is only transcribed from the active genes.
The mRNA from the active genes is then translated into proteins
These proteins modify the cell they determine the cell structure and
control cell processes
Changes to the cell produced by these proteins cause the cell to become
specialised. These changes are difficult to reverse

13.Explain how some phenotypes are affected by alleles at many loci

(polygenic inheritance) as well as the environment (e.g. height) and how
this can give rise to phenotypes that show continuous variation
The characteristics of an organism such as its height, shape, blood group or sex
are known as its phenotype. Differences in phenotype between the members of
a population are caused by differences in:

Genotype (genetic make-up)

The environment in which an individual develops

Some characteristics are controlled completely by the genotype of the organism,

with the environment having little or no effect. For example, the blood group a

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person has is controlled by the genes they inherit. The genes code for protein
antigens on the surface of their red blood cells. A persons blood group is not
affected by the environment in which they develop. Such characteristics are
controlled by genes at a single locus and show discontinuous variation. They
have phenotypes that fall into discrete groups with no overlap.
Characteristics that are controlled by the genotype and environment often show
continuous variation. Human height is a characteristic showing continuous
variation. This means that the person can be any height within the human range.
The most common height will be somewhere mid-way of the extremes of the
range.

TOPIC 4: BIODIVERSITY AND NATURAL RESOURCES

Students will be assessed on their ability to:
1. Compare the ultrastructure of plant cells (cell wall, chloroplasts,
amyloplasts, vacuole, tonoplast, plasmodesmata, pits and middle lamella)
with that of animal cells
A typical plant cell has many features in common with a typical animal cell. Plant
cells have many membranes with the same basic chemical make-up as those of
animal cells lipoproteins with protein pores and some carbohydrate surface
markers. They have similar properties and control whats moving through them
in a similar way.

Ella Stephen
Plant cells contain a cytoplasm and a nucleus. You will find a sER and rER
spreading throughout the cytoplasm , along with some active Golgi bodies.
Mitochondria produce ATP which is as vital to the working of a plant cell as it is to
the animal cell. However, there are several quite fundamental differences:
ORGANELLE

DESCRIPTION

FUNCTION

A rigid
structure that
surrounds
plant cells. It
is made
mainly of the
carbohydrate
cellulose.
The
outermost
layer of the
cell.

Supports plant
cells

Plasmodesmat
a

Channels in
the cell walls
that link
adjacent cells
together

Pits

Regions of the
cell where the
wall is very
thin. Theyre
arranged in
pairs. The pit
in one cell is
lined up with
the pit in the
adjacent cell.
A small,
flattened
structure
surrounded by
a double
membrane,
and also has
membranes
within called
thylakoid

Allows the
transport of
substances
and
communication
between cells.
Allows the
transport of
substances
between cells.

Cell wall

Middle lamella

Chloroplast

DIAGRAM

Acts as an
adhesive
sticking
adjacent plant
cells together,
giving the
plant stability.

The site where

photosynthesis
takes place.
Some parts
happen in the
grana others
happen in the
stroma

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Amyloplast

Vacuole and
tonoplast

membranes.
These
membranes
are stacked
up to form
grana
A small
organelle
enclosed by a
starch
membrane/
they contain
starch
granules
The vacuole is
a membrane
surrounded by
the tonoplast

Storage of
starch grains.
They also
convert starch
back to
glucose for
release when
the plant
requires it.
The vacuole
contains cell
sap, which is
made up of
water,
enzymes,
minerals and
waste
products.
Vacuoles keep
the cell turgid,
stopping the
plant from
wilting. Theyre
also involved in
the breakdown
and isolation of
unwanted
chemicals in
the cell. The
tonoplast
controls what
enters and
leaves the
vacuole.

Ella Stephen
2. Compare the structure and function of the polysaccharides starch and
glucose and cellulose including the role of hydrogen bonds between bglucose molecules in the formation of cellulose microfibrils
STARCH the main energy store in plants
Cells get energy from glucose. Plants store excess glucose as starch. When it
needs more glucose for energy, it breaks down starch to release the glucose.
Starch is a mixture of two polysaccharides of alpha-glucose amylose and
amylopectin:

Amylose is composed of a straight chain of between 200 and 5000

glucose molecules with 1.4 glycosidic links between adjacent glucose
molecules. The position of the bonds causes the chain to coil into a spiral
shape.
Amylopectin is also a polymer of glucose but it has side branches. A 1,6
glycosidic link holds each side branch on the main chain.

Starch is insoluble in water, so it doesnt cause water to enter the cells by

osmosis, making them good for storage.
CELLULOSE the major component of the cell walls in plants
Cellulose is made of long, unbranched chains of beta-glucose, joined by
glycosidic bonds. The glycosidic bonds are straight, so the cellulose chains are
straight. Between 50 and 80 cellulose chains are linked together by a
large number of hydrogen bonds to form strong threads called
microfibrils. The strong threads mean the cellulose provides structural
support for cells.

3. Explain how the arrangement of cellulose microfibrils in plant cell walls

and secondary thickening contribute to the physical properties of plant
fibres, which can be exploited by humans
Plant fibres are long tubes of plant cells e.g. sclerenchyma fibres are made up of
tubes of dead cells. Theyre strong, which makes them useful for loads of things
e.g. ropes or fabrics like hemp. Theyre strong for a number of reasons, but the
two main ones are:
THE ARRANGEMENT OF CELLULOSE MICROFIBRILS IN THE CELL WALL:

The cell wall contains cellulose microfibrils in a net-like arrangement.

The strength of the microfibrils and their arrangement gives the plant
fibres strength

THE SECONDARY THICKENING OF CELL WALLS:

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4.

When some structural plants cells (like sclerenchyma) have finished

growing, they produce a secondary cell wall between the normal cell wall
and the cell membrane
The secondary cell wall is thicker than the normal cell wall and usually has
more lignin
The growth of a secondary cell wall is called secondary thickening
Secondary thickening makes plant fibres even stronger