America as a Model for the World?

A Foreign Policy Perspective

Author(s): Kenneth N. Waltz
Reviewed work(s):
Source: PS: Political Science and Politics, Vol. 24, No. 4 (Dec., 1991), pp. 667-670
Published by: American Political Science Association
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Americaas a Model fortheWorld?

fromWorld
8. Mycalculations
Resources
1990-91:
A ReportbyTheWorld
Resources
Institute
Press,
(NewYork:OxfordUniversity
1990),table16.3.
intheUS
9. Morethan90% ofhomicides
areintra-racial.
On trends
anddifferentials
in
ratesseemy"Historical
Trendsin
homicide
Violent
Crime:EuropeandtheUnitedStates,"
inAmerica:The
inT. R. Gurr,ed., Violence
Park,CA: Sage,
History
ofCrime(Newbury
1989):21-54.

AbouttheAuthor
Ted RobertGurr
Ted RobertGurr,whoformerly
at
taught
Northwestern
andtheUniversity
University
of Colorado,joinedtheUniversity
of Marylandfaculty
in 1989as professor
of governmentandpoliticsand Distinguished
Scholar
of theCenterforInternational
Development
and Conflict
Management.
Amonghis15

booksandmonographsare WhyMen
Rebel,whichwon
theAPSA's WoodrowWilsonPrizeas
thebestbookof
1970,andtheforthMinorities
at
coming
Risk:Dynamics
and
Outcomes
ofEthnoin
politicalConflict
theContemporary

World.

Americaas a Model forthe World?

A Foreign Policy Perspective
Kenneth
N. Waltz,University
of California,
Berkeley
If theUnitedStates,or ifany
couldserveas a modelfor
country,
theworld,we wouldhaveto believe
thatmostoftheimpetus
behind
foreign
policiesis internally
Butiftheforeign
generated.
policies
ofnationsareaffected
in important
of countries
waysbytheplacement
in theinternational-political
system,
ormoresimply
bytheirrelative
can adepower,thenno country
quatelyserveas a modelforothers.

I. How thePlacement
of
StatesAffects
TheirPolicies
Becausethroughout
mostof the
yearssincethesecondWorldWar
theUnitedStatesandtheSoviet
Unionweresimilarly
placedbytheir
behaviors
power,theirexternal
shouldhaveshownstriking
similarities.
Did they?Yes,more
thanhasusuallybeenrealized.The
behavior
of statescan be compared
on manycounts.Theirarmament
policiesandtheirinterventions
abroadaretwoofthemost
On theformer
revealing.
count,the
UnitedStatesin theearly1960s
undertook
thelargest
and
strategic
conventional
peace-time
military
theworldhas yetseen.We
build-up
didso evenas Khrushchev
wastrying
at onceto carrythrough
a major
reduction
intheconventional
forces
andto followa strategy
ofminimum
andwe didso even
deterrence,

thoughthebalanceofstrategic
theUnited
favored
weaponsgreatly
States.As one shouldhaveexpected,
theSovietUnionsoonfollowed
in
America'sfootsteps,
thusrestoring
thesymmetry
ofgreat-power
behavior.
Andso itwasthrough
mostoftheyearsoftheCold War.
Advancesmadebyonewerequickly
followed
bytheother,withthe
UnitedStatesalmostalwaysleading
theway.Allowing
forgeographic
theoverallsimilarity
of
differences,

theirforceswasapparent.
The
groundforcesoftheSovietUnion
werestronger
thanthoseofthe
UnitedStates,butinnavalforces
the
balanceof advantage
wasreversed.
The SovietUnion'slargely
coastal
becamemoreofa
navygradually
blue-water
fleet,butoneoflimited
reach.Itsnavyneverhadmorethan
halfthetonnage
of ours.Yearafter
year,NATO countries
spentmoreon
defense
thantheWarsawTreaty
countries
did,buttheir
Organization

Thebattleof QuasiniasnearSantiago,June1898.Lithograph
byKurz& Allison,1898.
of Congress.
Library

December1991

667

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InFocus
interventionist
liberalism
inthe
behavior,
requires
duty:interventionist
somediscussion
becauseourconvic- onecountry,
international
tionthattheUnitedStateshas been
communism
intheother.Neither,
thestatusquo, andtheSovietUnion however,
itsideology
widely
exported
theinterventionist,
distorts
earlier.Thepostwarforeign
country
policies
ourviewofreality.
TheUnited
of neither
canbe understood
country
asidefromthechangedstructure
of
States,liketheSovietUnion,has
oftenintervened
in others'affairs
international
its
politics,
exercising
and has spenta fairamountof time
andproviding
itsopporpressures
wars.Most
tunities.
Moreso thantheSoviet
fighting
peripheral
Americans
sawlittleneedto explain
Union,theUnitedStateshasacted
ouractions,assumedto havebeenin
all overtheglobein thenameofits
thepursuit
oflegitimate
national
ownsecurity
andtheworld'swellinterests
and of international
andKaplan
justice, being.Thus,Blechman
and littledifficulty
in explaining
the
foundthatin roughly
30 years
SovietUnion's,assumedto have
1946thegovernment
ofthe
following
beenaimedat spreading
communism UnitedStatesusedmilitary
meansin
acrosstheglobebyanymeansavailonewayor another
to intervene
in
able.Americans
ofothercountries
about
usuallyinterpreted theaffairs
theSovietUnion'sbehavior
in terms twiceas oftenas didtheSoviet
Decatur's conflictwiththe Algerineat
of
its
Intentions
Union.2
intentions.
presumed
Tripoli. Illustrationby Chappel. Libraryof
aside,ourandtheiractionshave
Congress.
beensimilar.
TheUnitedStates,for
to
example,intervened
militarily
II. The Implicationsof
troopsremained
roughly
equalin
defendclientstatesand supported
UnbalancedPower
numbers.
theirambitions
to expandin China,
Themilitary
forcesof theUnited
Francoise
wholived
The Soviet
Korea,andVietnam.
Fen6lon,
StatesandtheSovietUnion
from1651to 1715,wasa French
actedin
Union,forexample,
in roughbalance,and,as
remained
andpolitical
adviserand
as wedidin Vietnam
theologian
Afghanistan
we shouldhaveexpected,
theirmilito understand
and intervened
or indirectly oneofthefirst
directly
We accused in Angola,Mozambique,
tarydoctrines
converged.
balanceof poweras a general
and
themof favoring
over
war-fighting
rather
thanas merely
a
phenomenon
Ethiopia.
deterrent
whilewe
doctrines,
condition.
He arguedthat
BeforeWorldWarII, boththe
particular
a war-fighting
doctrine
in
developed
a country
ofgreater
UnitedStatesand theSovietUnion
disposing
power
thenameof deterrence.
Fromthe
had developed
than
others
do
cannot
that
could
longbe
ideologies
1960sonward,critics
of ourmilitary easilypropelthemto unilateral
to behavewithdecency
and
expected
the
United
Statesto
policyurged
His theorem
hasbeen
actionin thenameofinternational moderation.3
itsusablewar-fighting
"reconstitute
Beforehe becameSecrecapability."
taryof Defense,MelvinR. Laird
wrotethat"American
must
strategy
aimat fighting,
and
winning,
a strategy
thatrequires
recovering,"
theability
to wagenuclearwarand
thewillingness
to strike
first.
One
can multiply
andcivilian
military
statements
to similar
effect
overthe
inthe1970sand
decades.Especially
1980s,we accusedtheSovietUnion
of striving
formilitary
In
superiority.
of
turn,theRepublican
platform
1980pledgedthata Republican
administration
wouldreestablish
American
"superiority."'
strategic
RonaldReaganas president
softened
theaspiration
it
without
eliminating
ithisgoalto establish
a
bymaking
"marginof safety"fortheUnited
Statesmilitarily.
Military
competitionbetween
thetwocountries
itsexpected
result:the
produced
of forcesand doctrines.
similarity
on thesecondcount,
Vietnam1967: OperationBaker. Photo by SSG. Breedlove,USAPA.
Comparison
668

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Americaas a Model fortheWorld?

wellillustrated
bysuchpowerful
rulersas CharlesV, LouisXIV,
II.
Napoleon,and KaiserWilhelm
Therewasnotnecessarily
something
of those
wrongwiththecharacter
rulersor of theircountries.
At a
itwasa surplusof power
minimum,
themto arbitrary
thattempted
and
behavior.
arrogant
So longas theworldwasbipolar,
theUnitedStatesandtheSoviet
Unionheldeachotherin check.
Withthecrumbling
of theSoviet
or setof countries
Union,no country
canpresently
a balance.One
restore
tworesults
to follow.Despite
expects
abundant
theUnited
goodintentions,
Stateswilloftenactin accordance
theorem.
Balanceof
withF6n6lon's
leads
one
to
powertheory
predict
thatotherstates,iftheyhavea
choice,willflockto theweakerside,
foritis thestronger
sidethat
threatens
them.
In recent
yearshavewe seenwhat
leadsus to expect?A few
theory
willhelpto answerthe
examples
question.President
Reagan,when
askedat a pressconference
howlong
we wouldcontinue
to support
the
Contra'seffort
to overthrow
the
Nicaraguan
government,
beganto
answer.Then,
givea fumbling
withhimself,
he said:Oh
impatient
well,untiltheysay"uncle."Vice
President
Bushin February
of 1985
themeaning
of "uncle."
explained
He laidsevenstipulations
uponthe
whichin
Nicaraguan
government,
sumamounted
to sayingthatuntil
a government
Nicaraguadeveloped
and society
muchlikeourswe would
continue
to support
theopposition.4
Seniorofficials
in theReagan
administration
elevated
theright
to
intervene
to thelevelofgeneral
As one of themsaid,we
principle.
"debatedwhether
we had theright

to dictatethe formof another

The bottom
country'sgovernment.
line was yes,thatsome rightsare
morefundamental
thantherightof
nationsto nonintervention,
like the
rightsof individualpeople .... [W]e
don't have therightto subverta
democraticgovernment
but we do
have therightagainstan undemocraticone."5 In managingso much
of theworld'sbusinessforso long,
theUnitedStatesdevelopeda rage to
rule,whichour positionin theworld
now enablesus to indtulge.
Thus,
CharlesKrauthammer
looks forward

to an overwhelmingly
powerful
America"unashamedly
layingdown
therulesof worldorderandbeing
to enforce
them."6Seeming
prepared
to reflect
thesamespirit,
President
Bush,in a speechof August2, 1990,
a speechlostin theexcitement
of
Iraq's invasionof Kuwait,
announced
thatwe wouldprepare
forregional
threats
"in whatever
cornerof theglobetheymayoccur."
Buthowdo threats
in odd
arising
corners
of theglobeconstitute
dangersforus, andhowmany
threats
of whatsortwouldwe need
to prepareto meetifourconcern
wereto protect
onlyourvital
interests?

Withbenignintent,
the
UnitedStateshas
behaved,and untilits
intoa
poweris brought
semblanceof balance,will
continueto behavein
waysthatannoyand
others.
frighten

UnitedNations'resolutions,
when
to give
manyotherstatespreferred
theembargo
moretimeto work.The
UnitedStateschosethedaywhenthe
warshouldbeginand determined
howit shouldbe fought,
well
raining
moredestruction
fromtheairthan
immediate
military
objectives
required.
Manystatesreactedas onewould
the
expectto America'smaking
decisions.
I giveonlya fewexamples.
minister
Raul
Philippine
foreign
ManglapuscalledtheUnitedStates
"constableof theworld"and
wondered
whether
"it wasnecessary
or evenifitis just" forAmericato
imposea newworldorder.Professor
of WasedaUniverSakujiYoshimura
hisdistress
thisway:
sityexpressed
"Americais a mighty
country-and
a frightening
one .

..

forbetteror

worsetheGulfwarbuilta newworld
orderwithAmericaat thehead...
thiswillbe fineas longas therestof
theworldacceptsitsroleas
America'sunderlings."
An oppositionmember
of theDiet,Masao
observed
thatthe"feeling
Kunihiro,
thatAmericais a fiercesome
country
is growing
in Japan."'7In France,
fearsof American
were
imperialism
and debated.In
widelyexpressed
of 1991foreign
earlySeptember
minister
RolandDumasremarked
that"American
The powerful
statemay,andthe
mightreignswithout
UnitedStatesdoes,thinkof itselfas
balancing
weight,"and Jacques
of theEuropean
Delors,president
actingforthesakeof peace,justice,
in theworld.But
and well-being
cautioned
Commission,
Community
thattheUnitedStatesmustnottake
thesetermswillbe defined
to the
whichmay
chargeof theworld.Bothof them
likingof thepowerful,
conflict
withthepreferences
andthe
calledon theUnitedNationsand the
interests
of others.In international EuropeanCommunity
to counterbalanceAmerican
influence."
politics,
powerrepels
overwhelming
Professor
and leadsothersto tryto balance
MichaelDoylehas
it.
With
the
shown
that
intent,
against
rarelydo democracies
benign
UnitedStateshas behaved,anduntil fight
butaddsrightly
democracies,
itspoweris brought
intoa semblance thattheyfight
of warsagainst
plenty
ofbalance,willcontinue
to behavein undemocratic
states.The first
others. generalizationis not as strongas
waysthatannoyand frighten
America'smanagement
of thewar
manyhave thoughtit to be. Not only
was Germanya democracyin 1914
againstIraq,and thesubsequent
of others,
reaction
but also its beinga democracyhelped
providetelling
TheUnitedStatesskillfully to explainthe outbreakof war. As
examples.
a widecoalitionof statesin
ChancellorBethmannHollweg
forged
to Iraq's invasionof
lamentedbeforetheevent,interests
opposition
Kuwait,buttheUnitedStates
supportingtherulingmajority
of Franceand
opposedtheefforts
pushedforpoliciessureto
othersto finda peacefulsettlement accumulateenemiesforGermany.
Junkersin the east demandeda tariff
alongtheway.TheUnitedStates
pressedotherstatesto agreethatthe
againstRussiangrain.Industrial
in thenorthwest
interests
embargowouldexpireon January
supported
withthe
the Berlinto Baghdad railroadand
15,unlessIraq complied

December1991

669

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In Focus

that
thebuilding
of a battlefleet
couldchallenge
theBritish
navy.
wereannoyedand
RussiaandBritain
frightened
byGermanpoliciesthat
the
helpedto forgeand strengthen
whichin turnmade
TripleEntente,
leaders
Germanpoliticalandmilitary
a
entertain
of fighting
thoughts
of
warbeforetheenemies
preventive
wouldbecomestill
Germany
add thatin 1812
One might
stronger.
a
theUnitedStateschoseto fight
waragainsttheonlyothercountry
thatcouldthenbe calleddemocratic,
andthatlaterin thecentury
the
northern
American
democracy
thesouthern
one.
fought
much
Still,peacehasprevailed
morereliably
amongdemocratic
thanelsewhere.
On external
countries
I
as wellas on internal
grounds,
willbecome
hopethatmorecountries
democratic.

III. Conclusion
Yet forall ofthereasonsgiven
above,we cannottakeAmericaor
as a modelforthe
anyothercountry
world.We might
remind
ourselves

thatin thepastdecadealonewehave
with
initiated
threewarsbeginning
theoneagainstGrenadaandending
withtheoneagainstIraq. In the
waragainstPanama,we
intervening
law
notonlyviolatedinternational
butweviolatedlawsthatwe had
thecharter
written:
namely,
largely
ofAmerican
of theOrganization
States.I believethatAmericais
better
thanmostnations,I fearthat
it is notas muchbetter
as many
believe.In international
Americans
unbalanced
powerconstipolitics,
tutesa dangerevenwhenitis
American
powerthatis outof
balance.

Notes
1. MelvinR. Laird,A HouseDivided:
America's
Gap (Chicago:Henery
Strategy
Regney,
1962),pp. 53,78-79.
2. BarryBlechman
andStephen
S. Kaplan,
Forcewithout
War:U.S. ArmedForcesas a
PoliticalInstrument
Brookings
(Washington:
Institution,
1978).
"TheBalanceof
3. Herbert
Butterfield,
andMartinWight,
Power,"inButterfield
eds.,Diplomatic
Investigations
(London:

GeorgeAllen& Unwin,1966),p. 140.

from
Remarks
4. "Excerpts
byVicePresidentGeorgeBush,"PressRelease,Austin,
Texas,February
18,1985.
W. Tucker,
Interven5. QuotedinRobert
tionandtheReaganDoctrine,
(NewYork:
andInternational
Councilon Religion
Affairs,
1985),p. 5.
6. In Christopher
Layne,"TheUnipolar
Illusion:American
Foreign
PolicyinthePost
to the
ColdWarWorld."Presented
Seminar,
Washington
Strategy
April25,1991,
p. 21.
arefromibid.,pp. 21-22.
7. Quotations
8. New YorkTimes,"Franceto U.S.: Don't
Rule,"September
3, 1991,p. A8 (no byline).

AbouttheAuthor
N. Waltz
Kenneth
N. Waltz
Kenneth
is theFordProfessor
of International
at theUniRelations
ofCalifornia
versity
He was
at Berkeley.
of
thepresident
APSA, 1987-88.

Politics, Political Science and the

Public Interest
NortonE. Long, University
of Missouri-St.Louis

Editor'sNote:NortonE. Long,
Marx saidup to nowthephilosothe
Emeritus,
Professor
University
of
interpreted
phershavemerely
St. Louis,wasawardedthe world.Theimportant
Missouri,
thingis to
1991JohnGausAwardhonoring
a
and
changeit. We thinkpolitics
in
are
institutions
lifetime
ofexemplary
important
scholarship
political
thejointtradition
of studybecauseto an
ofpoliticalscience andworthy
to recognize
and,moregenerally,
degreetheycan forgood
important
andencourage
achievement
scholar- or ill changetheworldwelivein.
The studyof politicsonemight
hope
shipinpublicadministration.
waschaired wouldyieldknowledge
Theawardcommittee
thatmight
andencourage
byJohnA. Rohr,Virginia
Polychangeinthe
permit
technic
Institute
and StateUniversity,practice
of politics
thatwould
and included
thehumancondition.
HarryBailey,Temple
improve
In thetwenties
JeaneJ.Kirkpatrick,
thestudyof politics
University;
wasjust
American
Institute
and
and political
institutions
Enterprise
as a separate
Georgetown
University.
discipline
emerging
Thefollowing
is theannualGaus
law andphilosophy.
fromhistory,
lecture
at Columbiaand
byNortonE. Long The departments
presented
the87thAnnualMeeting.
Harvardwerenamedpubliclawand
during

Norton
E. Long
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