78Class-IX - U-III+T-II Assignment Work 2015-16 (Part-I)

TYNDALE-BISCOE & MALLINSON SOCIETY
U-III + T-II ASSIGNMENT WORK FOR CLASS-IX (2015-16)

Note: Any query that arises may be noted down. It will be clarified once school reopens.
MATH
AREAS OF PARALLELOLGRAMS AND TRIANGLES
FIGURES ON THE SAME BASE AND BETWEEN THE SAME PARALLELS
Two figures are said to be on the same base and between the same parallels if they have a common side as base
of the two figures and the vertices opposite to the common base lie on a line parallel to the base.
Two 's ABC & DBC on the same base BC and

between the same parallels & BC.
B
C
D
Two figures i.e. ABC & trapezium BDEC lying on the same
base BC & between the same parallels BC and .
B
Two figures i.e. parallelograms ABCD & ABFE lying on

the same base AB & between the same parallels & AB.
A
Two figures i.e. ABC & gm BDEC lying on the same

base BC & between the same parallels and BC.
B
NOTE:
1.
Parallelograms on the same base and between same parallels are equal in area.
2.
Triangles on the same base and between the same parallels are equal in area.
3.
Area of a triangle is half the area of a parallelogram if they lie on the same base and between the same
parallels.
4.
Median divides a triangle into 2 's of equal areas.
Sol. Q1.
/F-16/
Solutions of Exercise 9.2

Given: A gm ABCD in which AE DC and CF AD.
Also, AB = 16 cm, AE = 8 cm and CF = 10 cm.
To find:
AD.
Method:
DC = AB = 16 cm
[ Opp. Sides of a gm are equal ]
Now, Area of a gm ABCD= DC AE
A
16cm
=
16 8
=
128 cm2
8cm
F
Area of gm ABCD is also equal to
10cm
AD CF
=
AD 10cm
AD CF
=
128cm2
D E
AD 10
=
128
Class-IX (U-III & T-II Assignment)
Page 1 of 95
128 2
Sol. Q2.
AD
=
= 12.8 cm
10
Given: E, F, G & H are the mid - points of the sides
of a gm ABCD
To Prove:
area of (EFGH ) = area of ( gm ABCD )
Construction: Join HF.

Proof: ABCD is a gm
AD BC
&
AD = BC
AD
BC &
AD =
BC
AH
BF
&
AH = BF
ABFH is a gm
[ A quad. having one pair of opp. sides and = is a gm. ]
Similarly DHFC is also a gm
Now, HEF and gm ABFH are on the same base HF & between the same parallels AB & HF.
area of ( HEF ) =
area of ( gm ABFH)
Similarly area of ( GHF ) = area of ( gm DHFC)
Adding equations (1) & (2), we get

area of ( HEF ) + area of ( GHF ) =
area of ( EFGH ) =
area of ( EFGH ) =
Sol. Q3.
(1)
area of ( gm ABFH) +
(2)
area of (gm DHFC)
[area of ( gm ABFH) + area of (gm DHFC)]

area of ( gm ABCD)
Given: A gm ABCD in which P & Q are two points lying on DC & AD.
To Prove:
area of ( APB ) = area of ( BQC )
Proof: area of ( APB ) =
Also, area of ( BQC ) =
area of ( gm ABCD)
area of ( gm ABCD)
(1)
Both lie on the same base AB

& between the same parallels
AB and DC
(2)
Both lie on the same base BC

& between the same parallels
AD & BC.
From equations (1) & (2) , we get area of ( APB ) = area of ( BQC )
A
Sol. Q1.
Sol. Q2.
Solutions of Exercise: 9.3

Given: E is any point on median AD of a ABC
To Prove: area of ( ABE ) = area of ( ACE )
B
C
Proof: AD is a median of ABC
D
area of ( ABD) = area of ( ACD) (1)
[ Median divides a into 2 's of equal areas]
ED is a median of BEC
area of ( BED) = area of ( CED) (2)
Subtracting equation (2) from equation (1) , we get
area of ( ABD) area of ( BED) = area of ( ACD) area of ( CED)
area of ( ABE) = area of ( ACE).
Given: E is mid - point on median AD of a ABC.
To Prove:
area of ( BED ) = area of ( ABC).
Proof: AD is a median of ABC
area of ( ABD) = area of ( ACD) [A median divides a into 2 s of equal areas]
/F-16/
Page 2 of 95
area of ( ABD) = area of ( ABC)
E is a mid - point of median AD

BE is a median of ABD.
area of ( BED ) =
=
Sol. Q3.
Sol. Q4.
(1)
area of ( ABD)
area of ( ABC) (Using 1)
= area of ( ABC )
Given: A gm ABCD in which diagonals AC & BD intersect at O.
To Prove:
area of ( AOB ) = area of ( BOC ) = area of (DOC) = area of (AOD)
Proof: Diagonals of a gm bisect each other
AO = OC & BO = OD
BO is a median of ABC
area of ( AOB) = area of ( BOC) (1) [A median divides a into 2 s of equal areas]
CO is a median of BCD
D
C
area of ( BOC) = area of ( DOC) (2)
DO is a median of ADC
O
area of ( DOC) = area of ( AOD) (3)
AO is a median of ABD
area of ( AOD) = area of ( AOB) (4)
B
A
From equations (1), (2), (3) & (4),we get
area of ( AOB ) = area of ( BOC ) = area of ( DOC ) = area of ( AOD )
Given: ABC and ABD are two triangles on the same base AB.
Also, line segment CD is bisected by AB at O.
To Prove: area of ( ABC ) = area of ( ABD ).
Proof: AO is a median of ADC
area of ( AOC) = area of ( AOD) (1) [A median divides a
A
Again, BO is a median of BCD
area of ( BOC) = area of ( BOD) (2)
Adding equations (1) & (2), we get
area of ( AOC) + area of ( BOC) = area of ( AOD) + area of ( BOD)
area of ( ABC) = area of ( ABD)
Sol. Q5.
Given: D, E & F are respectively the mid - points of the sides

BC, CA and AB of a ABC.
To Prove:
(i) BDEF is a gm
(iii) area of (gm BDEF) =
FE BC & FE =
BC
area of ( ABC)
Proof: F & E are the mid - points of sides AB & AC of ABC
(ii) area of ( DEF) = area of ( ABC )
into 2 s of equal areas]
[ Mid - point Theorem]
i.e.
FE BC & FE = BD
BDEF is a gm
[ A quad. having one pair of opp. sides & = is a gm]
DF is a diagonal of gm BDEF
DEF BDF
[ A diagonal of a gm divides it into two congruent triangles]
area of ( DEF) = area of ( BDF) (1)

[ Congruent 's are equal in area]
Similarly, area of ( DEF) = area of ( DEC) (2)
& area of ( DEF) = area of ( AFE) (3)
From equations (1), (2) & (3), we get
area of ( DEF) = area of ( BDF) = area of ( DEC) = area of ( AFE) (4)
/F-16/
Page 3 of 95
Now, area of ( ABC) = area of ( BDF)+area of ( DEC)+area of ( AFE) + area of ( DEF)
area of ( ABC) = area of ( DEF) + area of ( DEF) +

area of ( DEF) + area of ( DEF)
[using equation (4)]
area of ( ABC) = 4 area of ( DEF)
area of ( DEF) =
Now, area of ( gm BDEF )
area of ( gm BDEF )
area of ( gm BDEF )
area of ( gm BDEF )
area of ( ABC) (5)

= area of ( DEF) + area of ( BDF)
= area of ( DEF) + area of ( DEF)
= 2 area of ( DEF)
1
= 2 4 area of ( ABC) [Using 5]
Sol. Q6.
=
area of ( ABC)
Given: Diagonals AC & BD of quad. ABCD intersect at O

such that OB = OD. Also, AB = CD.
D
To Prove:
(i) area of ( DOC) = area of ( AOB )
(ii) area of ( DCB) = area of ( ACB )
(iii) DA CB or ABCD is a gm.
Construction: Draw DM OC & BL OA
C
Proof: In 's OLB and OMD
OB = OD
(Given)
LOB = MOD (vert. opp. 's)
OLB = OMD
(each 90)
OLB OMD (A A S congruence)
OL
=
OM
(1)
and
BL
=
DM
(2) c.p.c.t
Now, In 's ALB and CMD, we get
AB = CD
(Given)
BL = DM
(Proved above)
ALB = CMD
(each 90)
ALB CMD
(R H S congruence)
Hence, AL = CM
(3)
Adding equations (1) & (3), we get OL + AL = OM + CM
OA = OC
(4)
Multiplying equations (2) & (4), we get
OA BL = OC DM
Sol. Q7.
OA BL =
A
L
o
M
B
OC DM
area of ( AOB) = area of ( DOC)

Adding area of ( BOC) on b/s
area of ( AOB) + area of ( BOC) = area of ( DOC) + area of ( BOC)
area of ( DCB) = area of ( ACB)

Also, diagonals AC & BD bisects each other at O.
ABCD is a gm.
DA
CB.
Given: area of ( DBC ) = area of ( EBC)
To Prove:
DE BC
Proof: Since area of ( DBC ) = area of ( EBC)
D
and both of these 's lie on the same base BC
They must lie between the same parallels.
B
i.e.
DE
BC.
A
E
Theorem 9.1 : Parallelograms on the same base and between same parallels have the same area.
/F-16/
Page 4 of 95
Given: ABCD and PBCQ are two parallelograms

on the same base BC and between the same s and BC.
To Prove: area of (gm ABCD) = area of (gm PBCQ)
Proof: PB
CQ [opp. sides of a gm PBCQ]
1 =3
[corresponding angles]
A
Q
P
D
similarly, 2 = 4
3 4
1 2
Now, In 's APB and DQC, we have
3
1 =3
[ proved ]
2 =4
[ proved ]
PB = CQ
[opp. sides of a gm PBCQ]
B
C
APB DQC
(AAS congruence)
area of ( APB ) = area of ( DQC)
(1) [Cong. 's are equal in area]
Now, area of (gm PBCQ) = area of ( APB ) + area of (Trap. ABCQ)
= area of ( DQC ) + area of (Trap. ABCQ) [Using equation (1)]
= area of (gm ABCD)
Example 2:
If a triangle and a parallelogram are on the same base and between the same parallels, then the
area of triangle is equal to half the area of the parallelogram.
Given: PBC and gm ABCD are on the
A
Q
P
D
same base BC and between the same
parallels and BC.
To Prove: area of ( PBC ) =
area of (gm ABCD).
Construction: Draw CQ BP such that a gm PBCQ is

completed.
Proof: area of (gm ABCD) = area of (gm PBCQ)
(1) both lie on the same

base BC and between the
same parallels and BC.
Now, PBC QCP [diagonal PC divides the parallelogram PBCQ into two congruent triangles]
area of ( PBC) = area of (QCP)
[Cong. 's are equal in area]
area of ( PBC ) = area of ( QCP ) =
area of ( PBC ) =
area of (gm PBCQ).
area of (gm PBCQ) =
area of (gm ABCD). [Using equation (1)]
Theorem 9.2: Two triangles on the same base and between the same parallels are equal in area.
A
G
F
D
Given: ABC and FBC are on the
same base BC and between the same
parallels BC and .
To Prove:
B
C
area of ( ABC ) = area of ( FBC)
Construction: Complete the parallelograms ABCD and FBCG.
Proof: area of (gm ABCD) = area of (gm FBCG)
(1) both gms lie on the same
area of (gm ABCD) =
base BC and between the

same parallels and BC.
area of (gm FBCG).
area of ( ABC) = area of (FBC)
diagonal AC divides gm ABCD into two s of equal

area and diagonal FC divides gm FBCG into
two s of equal area.
/F-16/
Page 5 of 95
CIRCLES
A circle is a closed figure in a plane and it is the collection of all those points in the plane which are at a
constant distance from a fixed point in the plane. The fixed point is called the centre of the circle and the
constant distance is called the radius of the circle.
The circumference of a circle is the length of the complete circular curve constituting the circle.
Circumference = 2 or
A chord is a line segment having its end points on the circle. A diameter of a circle is the longest chord.
An arc of a circle is a part of the circumference between the two points. The larger part is called the major arc
and the smaller part is called minor arc. In case both the parts are equal, then each one is called semi - circle.
A segment is a portion of a circle between the chord and the corresponding arc. The major portion is called
major segment and the minor portion is called minor segment.
A sector of a circle is a portion of a circle between the two radii and the corresponding arc. The larger portion is
called major sector and the smaller portion is called minor sector.
A
centre
O is centre
r = radius
d = diameter
A
Chord
Arcs
B
Segments
Sectors

Sol Q1.
(i) Interior
(iv) Semi circle
(ii) Exterior
(v) The chord
(iii) Diameter
(vi) Three
Sol Q2.
(i) True
(iv) True
(ii) False
(v) False
(iii) False
(vi) True
Sol Q1.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
In (i) and (ii), the number of common points = 0

In (iii), the number of common points = 1
In (iv), the number of common points = 2
Thus, the maximum number of common points are 2.
Sol Q2.
o
A
/F-16/
Page 6 of 95
Construction:
1.
Take any three points A, B and C on the circle.
2.
Join AB and BC.
3.
Draw the right bisectors of line segments AB and BC, meeting each other at O.
O is the centre of the circle.

A
Sol Q3.
Given : Two circles with centers O and O' intersect at
two points A and B such that AB is common chord
M
O'
O
To Prove :- OO' is the bisector of common
chord AB .
Construction :- Join OA, O'A, OB & O'B.
Proof :- In s OO'A & OO'B
B
OA = OB ( Radii of the same circle)
O'A = O'B ( Radii of the same circle)
OO' = OO' ( common )
OO'A OO'B ( SSS Cong. )
Hence, AOM = BOM ( c. p. c. t )
Now , In s AOM & BOM
OA = OB ( Radii of the same circle )
AOM = BOM (Proved above)
OM = OM ( common )
AOM BOM ( SAS Cong. )
Hence , AM = BM
& AMO = BMO
c.p.c.t.
But AMO + BMO = 180 ( Linear Pair )
AMO + AMO = 180 [Using 3]

2 AMO = 180
180
AMO =
= 90

2
From equation 1 & 2 , we get OO' is the bisector of the common chord AB.
Sol Q1, 2.
Sol Q3.
Sol Q4.
/F-16/

Try yourself.
Given: Two equal chords AB & CD of a circle with centre O intersect at P.
To Prove: 1 = 2
Construction: Draw OM AB and OL CD
B
D
Proof: AB = CD (Given)
O
OL = OM [ Equal chords are equidistant from the centre]

2
Now , In s OLP & OMP
M
L
1
OL = OM (Proved)
OLP = OMP ( Each 90)
p
C
A
Hyp. OP = Hyp. OP ( common )
OLP OMP ( RHS Cong. )
Hence , 1 = 2 ( c . p . c . t )
Given: A line intersects two concentric circles with centre O at A, B, C and D.
To Prove: AB = CD
Construction: Draw OM
Proof: Since OM
BM = MC [ from the centre to the chord bisects the chord]
Also, OM AD
O
AM = DM [ Same reason]
D
C
Subtracting equation (1) from equation (2)
M
AM BM = DM MC
B
AB = CD
A
Page 7 of 95
Sol. Q2.

Given : Chord AB = Radius OA
To find: ACB & ADB
O
Method: OA = AB = OB ( Given )
AOB is equilateral
AOB = 60
A
D
Now, AOB = 2 ACB
60 = 2 ACB
Angle at the centre is double the angle at the circle.
60
ACB =
= 30
2
Now, ACB + ADB = 180 [ Opp. 's of a cyclic quad are supplementary]
30 + ADB = 180
ADB = 180 30 = 150
D
Sol Q4.
Sol Q6.
Sol Q7.
Sol Q8.
/F-16/
Given : ABC = 69, ACB = 31

To find: BDC
Method: ABC + ACB + BAC = 180
69 + 31 + BAC = 180
69
31
B
C
100 + BAC = 180

BAC = 180 100 = 80
Now, BDC = BAC = 80 [ Angles in the same segment of a circle are equal]
Given: ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral where diagonals AC & BD intersect at E.
Also, DBC = 70, BAC = 30 & AB = BC
To find: BCD and ECD
C
D
Method: DAC = DBC = 70 (Angles in the same segment)
DAB = 70 + 30 = 100
E
Now, In cyclic quad. ABCD
70
BCD + DAB = 180
30
BCD + 100 = 180
B
A
BCD = 180 100 = 80
When AB = BC
BCA = BAC = 30, i. e BCE = 30 [Equal sides have equal angles opposite them]
ECD = BCD BCE = 80 30 = 50
Given: ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral O is the centre of the circle. Diagonals AC & BD of
quad. ABCD are diameters of the circle.
C
D
To prove: ABCD is a rectangle.
Proof: BAD = BCD = 90
and ABC = ADC = 90 { Angles in a semi - circle }
O
Also, AO = OC and BO = OD
Diagonals of a quad. ABCD bisect each other.
ABCD is a gm
Also, Angles of this gm are right angles.
A
B
ABCD is a rectangle.
C
DB
Given: ABCD is a trapezium such that AB CD and AD = BC
To Prove: ABCD is cyclic
O
Construction: Draw DL AB and CM AB.
3
4
Proof :- In s ALD & BMC
1
2
1 = 2
(Each 90)
AD = BC
(Given)
M
A L
B
and
DL = CM
(Perpendicular distance between parallel lines AB & CD)
B
ALD BMC
( RHS Cong. )
Hence, 3 = 4
(c . p . c . t)
Now, 3 + LDC = 4 + MCD [ LDC = MCD = 90]
Page 8 of 95
Sol Q12.
1.
2.
3.
D = C
(1)
Also, AB CD
A + D = 180
or
A + C = 180 [ Using equation (1)]
Similarly, B + D = 180
Hence, trapezium ABCD is cyclic.
Given: ABCD is a cyclic parallelogram.
To Prove: ABCD is a rectangle.
Proof : A = C
(1)
[ opp. angles of a gm are equal]
and A + C = 180 [ ABCD is cyclic ]
A + A = 180
[Using equation (1)]
2 A = 180
180
A=
= 90
2
One of the angles of a gm ABCD is a right angle.
C
O
B
B
Surface Areas & Volumes

FORMULAE RELATED TO SURFACE AREAS AND VOLUMES OF SOLIDS:
CUBE:a) Lateral surface Area of a cube = 42
b) Total surface Area of a cube = 62

3
c) Volume of a cube =
d) Length of edges of a cube = 12
CUBOID:a) Lateral surface Area of a cuboid

or Area of 4 walls = 2( + )
b) Total surface Area of a cuboid
= 2 + +
c) Volume of a cuboid =
d) Length of edges of cuboid
=4 ++
= edge of cube
Here = length, b = breadth & = height
CYLINDER:a) Curved Surface Area of a cylinder = 2

b) Total Surface Area of a Cylinder = 2( + )
c) Volume of a cylinder = r 2 h
r = radius
h = height
4.
CONE :a) Curved Surface Area of a cone = where = 2 + 2

b) Total Surface Area of a Cone = ( + )
1
c) Volume of a cone = 3 2
r= radius
h= height
= slant height
r
/F-16/
Page 9 of 95
5.
SPHERE:a) Surface Area of Sphere = 4 2

4
b) Volume of a Sphere = 3 3
6.
HEMI-SPHERE:a) Curved Surface Area of a Hemis-sphere = 2 2

b) Total Surface Area of a Hemi-sphere =3 2
2
c) Volume of a Hemi-sphere = 3 3

Sol. Q1.
Sol. Q2.
Sol. Q3.
Sol. Q4.
/F-16/
i) = 1.5m, b = 1.25m, h = 0.65m

Area of Sheet required for making box which is open at the top
= 2( + b) + b
= 2(1.5 + 1.25) 0.65 + 1.5 1.25
= 2(2.75) 0.65 + 1.875
= 3.575 + 1.875
= 5.45 m2
ii) Cost of sheet for it = 5.45 20
= Rs 109
= 5m, b = 4m, h = 3 m
Area of walls and ceiling = 2( + b) + b
= 2(5 + 4) 3 + 5 4
= 2(9) 3 + 20
= 54 + 20
= 74 m2
Cost of white washing @ Rs 7.50/m2
= 74 7.50
= Rs 555
Perimeter of a rectangular hall = 250 m
Area of 4 walls = (Perimeter)
= 250 2
Cost of painting the walls @ Rs 10/m2 = Rs 15000
(250 ) 10 = 15000
2500 = 15000
15000
=
2500
= 6 m.
Height of the hall = 6 m
Let the number of bricks be equal to .
Area of one brick = 2( + bh + )
= 2(22.5 10 + 10 7.5 + 7.5 22.5)
= 2(225 + 75 + 168.75)
= 2(468.75) = 937.5 2
No. of bricks that can be painted out of the container can be obtained from
937.5 = 9.375 10000
93750
=
937.5
= 100 bricks
Page 10 of 95
Sol. Q1.
Sol. Q2.
Sol. Q3.

Curved surface area of a cylinder = 88cm2
Height of the cylinder = 14cm
2 = 88
2
22
=2
r 14 = 88
7
88 r = 88
88
r=
88
r = 1 cm
Diameter of the cylinder = 2 1 = 2
For a closed cylindrical tank diameter, d = 140 cm r =

= 70 cm = 0.7m, h=1 m.
Sheet required for the tank = Total surface area of the closed cylindrical tank.
= 2 +
0.1
22
=2
0.7 (1 + 0.7)
7
= 44 0.1 1.7
= 4.4 1.7 = 7.48 2
For a metal pipe (cylinder)
Inner diameter, d = 4cm
Inner radius , r =
4
2
= 2cm
Outer diameter, D = 4.4cm

Outer radius , R =
Sol. Q4.
4.4
2
= 2.2cm, h=77cm
Inner curved surface area = 2

22
=2
2 77 11
7
= 88 11
= 968 2
() Outer curved surface area = 2
11
22
=2
2.2 77
7
= 4.4 22 11
= 1064.8 2
Now, Area of 2 circular ends of a pipe
= 2(2 - 2 )
= 2 (22 )
22
=2
{ 2.2 2 2 2}
7
44
=
(4.84 4)
7
0.12
44
=
0.84
7
= 44 0.12 = 5.28 2
() Total surface area = 968 + 1064.8 + 5.28 = 2038.08 2
For a roller (cylinder)
d = 84 cm r = = 42cm, Length = height, h=120 cm
Curved surface area of a roller

= 2
6
22
=2
42 120
7
= 44 720 = 31680 2
Area of play ground levelled in 1 revolution = 31680cm2

Area of the play ground = 500 31680
= 15840000 2
= 1584 2
/F-16/
Page 11 of 95
Sol. Q5.
For a cylindrical pillar
Sol. Q1.
d = 50 cm r = = 25cm = 0.25 m
h=3.5 m
Curved surface area of the pillar
= 2
0.5
22
=2
0.25 3.5
7
= 22 0.25
= 5.5 2
Cost of painting the pillar @ ` 12.50/m2
= 5.5 12.50
= ` 68 . 75
For a cone
d = 10.5 cm r =
Sol. Q2.
Sol. Q4.
/F-16/
= 5.25cm
=10 cm
Curved surface area =
0.75
22
=
5.25 10
7
= 22 7.5
= 165c2
For a cone
d = 24 m r =
Sol. Q3.
= 12 m
=21 m
Total surface area = ( + )
22
=
12(21+12)
7
221233
=
7
8712
=
7
= 1244.57 2
Curved surface area of a cone = 308 cm2 , slant height (l) = 14cm
= 308cm2
2
22
r 14 = 308
7
44 r = 308
308
r=
44
r = 7 cm
Total surface area = ( + )
22
=
7 (14+7)
7
= 22 21
= 462 cm2
For a conical tent
h = 10 m , r = 24 m
Slant height, = 2 + 2
= 242 + 102
= 576 + 100
= 676
= 26 m.
Area of canvas =
Page 12 of 95
22
13728
7
Sol. Q3.
Sol. Q4.
4 (7)2
4 (14)2
77
Sol. Q6.
m2
Cost of canvas required to make the tent @ ` 70 2

13728 10
= 7 70
= ` 137280
For a hemisphere
r = 10 cm
Total surface area of a hemisphere
= 32
= 3 3.14 10 10
= 3 314 = 942 2
Ratio of the surface areas of the spherical balloon in the two cases
=
Sol. Q5.
24 26
14 2 14 2
1
4
i. e., 1 : 4
For a hemispherical bowl

.
Inner diameter, d = 10.5cm r = = 5.25 cm
Inner surface area of the bowl
= 2r2
0.75
22
= 2 7 5.25 5.25
= 44 5.25 0.75
= 173.25 cm2
cost of tin - plating it on the inside @ `16 100 2
16
= 173.25
100
= 1.7325 16 = ` 27.72
Surface area of a sphere = 154 cm2
4 2 = 154
22
4 7 2 = 154
2 = 154
77
r2 =
154 7
88 44 .
7 7
4
49
r =
r =
4.
= 12.25
r = 12.25 = 3.5 cm
Sol. Q7.
Let the diameter of the earth be 'd'

Radius of the earth = 'd/2'
Diameter of the moon =
Radius of the moon =

=
Now, surface area of moon
= 4 ( 8 )2
= 4
1
/F-16/
64
16
Page 13 of 95
2
16
2
2
Surface area of the earth = 4 ( )
= 4
Sol. Q1.
Sol. Q2.
Sol. Q3.
4
2
= 2
16
Ratio of the surface area of the moon and earth = 2
2
1
=
2
16
1
=
or 1 : 16
16
Volume of a match box =
= 4 2.5 1.5 = 153
Volume of a packet containing 12 such match boxes = 12 15 = 180 3
Capacity of the tank =
= 6 5 4.5
= 30 4.5 = 135 3 = 135 1000 = 135000
For a cuboid vessel = , b = 8 m , h = ?
Volume of a vessel = 380 m3
Height =
Sol. Q4.
Sol. Q1.
380
10 8
= 4.75 m
Internal space of the pit =

= 8 6 3 = 1443
Cost of digging such a pit @ ` 30 / m3
= 144 30 = ` 4320
For a cylindrical vessel
Circumference of the base = 132 cm
2 = 132
2
22
7
Sol. Q2.
= 132
66 6 3
132 7
= 3 7 = 21
2 22 11 1
Height of the vessel, h = 25cm

Volume of the cylindrical vessel = 2h
3
22
= 7 21 21 25
1
= 66 21 25
= 34650 cm3
= 34.65 litres
{ 1000 3 = 1 litres }
For a cylindrical wooden pipe
Inner diameter = 24 cm
Inner radius, r =
= 12 cm.
Outer diameter = 28 cm
Outer radius , R =
= 14 cm.
Length i. e., height of the pipe, h = 35 cm.

Now, outer volume = 2
Inner volume = 2
Volume of wood in the pipe = 2 2
= ( 2 2 )
5
/F-16/
Page 14 of 95
Sol. Q3.
22
35 14)2 12)2}
7
= 110 ( 196 144 )
= 110 52 = 5720 cm3
Mass of the pipe @ 0.6 g / cm3
= 5720 0.6 = 3432 g
= 3.432 kg
Volume of a tin can with a rectangular base
=
= 5 4 15 = 20 15 = 300 cm3
Volume of a plastic cylinder with a circular base = 2
=
11
Sol. Q4.
Sol. Q6.
5
22 7 7
= 7 2 10 = 77 5 = 385 cm3
1 2
Plastic cylinder has greater volume or capacity and by ( 385 300) = 85 cm3
Lateral surface area of a cylinder = 94.2 cm2
Height = 5 cm.
2 = 94.2
2 5 = 94.2
2 3.14 5 = 94.2
31.4 = 94.2
94.2 3
r =
= 3 cm
31.4
Volume of a cylinder = 2
= 3.14 3 3 5 = 141.3 3
Volume of a right circular cone = 9856 cm3
Diameter of the base = 28 cm
Radius of the base =

1
= 14 cm
Now, r2h = 9856

1
3
22
7
14 14 h = 9856
Sol. Q7.
r = 5cm, h = 12cm, = 13cm

Volume of solid obtained
1
= r h
2
13 cm
44 14 = 9856 3
616 = 9856 3
169856 3
h=
= 16 3 = 48 cm.
616
Slanting height of the cone
= 2 + 2
= 142 + 482
= 196 + 2304
= 2500
= 50 cm
Curved surface area of the cone =
2
22
=
14 50
7
= 22 100 =
2200 cm2
12cm
= 5 5 12
3
= 100 3
/F-16/
5cm
Page 15 of 95
Sol. Q8.
r = 12cm, h = 5cm, = 13cm

Volume of solid obtained
=
r2h
13 cm
4
= 12 12 5
5 cm
= 4 60
= 240 3
Ratio of volumes of the two solids obtained in Q7. and Q8.
100
100
=
=
= 5 : 12
240
Sol. Q9.
240
For a conical heap
d = 10.5 m
1
Sol. Q7.
12cm
r=
= 5.25 m,
h=3 m.
Volume = r h
3
0.75
1
22
=
5.25 5.25 3
3
7
= 86.625 m3
Now, slant height, = 2 + 2
= (5.25)2 + (3)2
= 27.5625 + 9
= 36.5625
= 6.046 m.
Area of canvas =
0.75
22
=
5.25 6.046
7
2
= 16.5 6.046 = 99.759
Surface area of a sphere = 154 cm2
4 2 = 154
22
4 7 2 = 154
2
7 14
r2 =
154 7
88
r2 =
84
49
4
49
= 3.5 cm
7
2
Volume of a sphere =
4
22
4
3
0.5
3.5 3.5 3.5

3
7
88 0.5 12.25
=
3
44 12.25
=
3
539
= 3
= 179.6cm3
/F-16/
Page 16 of 95
Sol. Q8.
For a hemispherical dome

Cost of white washing the inside of the dome @ Rs 2 per m2= ` 498.96
Let the inside area of the dome be 'S'
S 2 = 498.96
498.96
S=
= 249.48 m2
2 2
Now, 2
= 249. 48
2
22
7
r2
2 = 249.48
124.79
249.48 7
44 22
873.53
22
= 39 . 70
= 39.70
r2
r
= 6.3 m
Volume of air inside the dome = 3

3
2.1
0.9
2
22
=
6.3 6.3 6.3
31
71
= 442 222 2.1 0.9 6.3 = 523.9 m3
Sol. Q9.
(i)
Let r be the radii of twenty seven solid iron spheres and r' be the radius of the new sphere.
4(r')3
=
27 4r3
( )3
= 27
3
( )3
(ii)
33
r' = 3r
Ratio of S and S' =
4 r 2
4 (r )2
=(
=(
=
Sol. Q10.
/F-16/
2
9 2
)2
1
= 9
)2
or 1 : 9
.
mm
4
Volume of spherical capsule =
r3
3
1
0.5
2
4
22
3.5
3.5
3.5
=

3
7
2
2
2
1
1
11 12.25
=
32
134.75
=
6
= 22 . 46 mm3
For a spherical capsule r =
Page 17 of 95
QUADRILATERALS
Introduction:
We have already observed that when three non collinear points on a sheet of paper are joined in pairs, the
closed figure so obtained is a Triangle.
Now, let us consider four distinct points on a sheet of paper & join these points in pairs. The possible types of
figures made are as below.
A
C
D
(i)
Case (1):
Case (2):
Case (3):
C
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
When all the four points are collinear, we get a line segment (fig i)
When three points out of the four points are collinear, we get a Triangle (fig ii)
When no three points out of the four points are collinear, we get a closed figure with four sides,
four angles and four vertices (fig iii & iv) such closed figures are called
C
D
quadrilaterals.
A closed figure having four sides, four angles, and four vertices
is called a quadrilateral.
The line segments joining the opposite vertices of a quadrilateral
are called the diagonals of the quadrilateral.
Here AC and BD are two diagonals of the quadrilateral.
B
A
1.
Trapezium:
TYPES OF QUADRILATERALS
If one pair of opposite sides of a quadrilateral
is parallel, then the quadrilateral is called a Trapezium.
Here, AB CD
A
2.
Parallelogram: If both pairs of opposite sides of a quadrilateral

are parallel, then the quadrilateral is a
Parallelogram
Here, AB CD
Also, AD BC
3.
Rectangle:
B
D
B
D
Rectangle is a gm, whose opp. sides are equal and

each angle is a right angle.
Here AB = CD & AB CD
AD = BC & AD BC
Also, A = B = C = D = 90
B
C
D
4.
Rhombus:
In a gm, if all the four sides are

equal then the quadrilateral is a rhombus.
Here, AB CD, AD BC
AB = BC = CD = DA
A
5.
Square:
/F-16/
A square is a gm, having all the sides equal

and each angle is a right angle.
Here, AB = BC = CD = DA
& A = B = C = D = 90
Page 18 of 95
Note:
1.
2.
3.
4.
A square, a rectangle and a rhombus are parallelograms.

A square is a rectangle.
A square is a rhombus.
A parallelogram is a trapezium.
Theorem 8.1
Given:
To prove
Proof:
Theorem 8.2
Given:
To Prove:
Const:
Proof:
Theorem 8.3
Given:
To prove:
Const:
Proof:
Theorem 8.4
Given :
To prove:
Proof:
Properties of a Parallelogram
A diagonal of a gm divides it into two congruent triangles.
AC is a diagonal of a gm ABCD.
ABC CDA
we have, ABCD
1 = 2 (Alt. Int. s)
Again, BC AD
3 = 4 (Alt Int. )
In 's ABC & CDA, we have
1=2 (proved)
AC= AC (common)
3 =4 (proved)
ABC CDA (ASA Cong.)
In a parallelogram, opposite sides are equal.
A gm ABCD
AB=CD & AD=BC
Join AC.
ABC CDA (ASA Cong)
(From Theorem 8.1)
Hence, AB=CD
& AD= BC
(C.P.C.T)
4
1
C
2
3
4
1
If each pair of opposite sides of a quadrilateral is equal, then it is a parallelogram.

A quadrilateral ABCD in which AB=DC & AD=BC.
Quad. ABCD is a parallelogram
Join AC
D
In 's ABC & CDA
AB=DC (Given)
AD=BC (Given)
AC=AC (Common)
4
ABC CDA (SSS Cong)
1
Hence, 1= 2
A
c. p. c. t
& 3 = 4
Now, 1 = 2 (Alt. Int. )
AB DC
& 3 = 4
(Alt. Int. )
AD BC
Quad. ABCD is a gm as its opposite sides are equal and parallel.
In a parallelogram, opposite angles are equal.
A gm ABCD.
D
= & =
+ B = 180 ( Adjacent s of a parraleogram are supplementry )

Also, + = 180 ( )
From equations &,we get
A
+ = +
=
D
Similarly, =
Theorem 8.5: If in a quadrilateral, each pair of opposite angles is equal, then it a gm.
Given:
A quadrilateral ABCD in which = & =
To prove:
ABCD is a gm
/F-16/
C
2
3
C
2
3
B
C
B
Page 19 of 95
Proof:
Now,
A = C &
B = D
(Given)
A + B + C + D = 360 (angle sum property of a quad)
A + B + A + B=360 ( A = C & B = D)
2A + 2B = 360
2(A + B)=360
+ =
360
2
= 180
+ = 180
But this forms a pair of adjacent angles made by the lines AD & BC & are supplementary.
ADBC
Similarly, AB DC
Hence, ABCD is a gm.
Theorem 8.6: The diagonals of a gm bisect each other.
Given:
A gm ABCD in which diagonals AC & BD intersect at O.
To prove:
AO=OC & BO =OD
Proof:
In 's AOB & COD
1 = 2 ( . s)
AB=DC (opp. sides of a gm are equal)
3=4 (Alt. Int. )
AOB COD (ASA Cong)

Hence, AO=OC
c. p. c. t
& BO=OD
Theorem 8.7:
Theorem 8.8:
Given:
To prove:
Const.
Proof:
C
2
4
O
1
Converse of theorem 8.6 (try yourself)

A quadrilateral is a gm if a pair of opposite sides is equal and parallel.
A quad ABCD in which AB=DC & AB DC
ABCD is a gm
D
Join AC
In s ABC & CDA
AB=CD (Given)
1 = 2 (Alt. int s)
4
AC=AC (common)
1
ABC CDA (SAS Cong)
A
Hence, BC=AD
c. p. c. t
3 = 4
But this forms a pair of alternate interior
angles made by the lines BC & AD
ADBC
In quad. ABCD
AB DC (Given)
AD BC (Proved)
ABCD is a gm ( both pairs of opp. Sides are )
C
2
3

Sol. Q1.
/F-16/
Let the four angles of a quadrilateral be 3x, 5x, 9x & 13x.

Sum of 4 angles =360
3x+5x+9x+13x=360
30x=360
360
x=
30 = 12
x=12
1st angle = 3x = 312 = 36
2nd angle = 5x = 512 = 60
3rd angle = 9x = 912 = 108
4th angle = 13x = 1312 =156
Page 20 of 95
Sol. Q2.
To prove:
Proof:
Sol. Q3.
To prove:
Proof:
Sol. Q4.
To prove:
Proof:
Sol. Q5.
/F-16/
Given a gm ABCD in which diagonal AC = diagonal BD

In 's DAB & CBA
D
DA=CB
( opp sides of a gm)
AB=AB
(common)
DB=CA
(Given)
DAB CBA
(SSS Cong)
Hence, = CBA (C.P.C.T)
A
But, DAB + CBA=180 ( s of a gm are supplementary)
+ DAB=180 (using =n)
2 DAB =180
180
=
=90
2
one of the angles of a gm ABCD is a right angle.
gm ABCD is a rectangle.
Given diagonals AC & BD of a quad. ABCD bisect each other at right angles at o i.e.
AO=OC & BO=OD
Also,AOD=90
D
C
ABCD is a Rhombus.
In 's AOB & AOD, we have
AO=AO
(common)
AOB=AOD
(Each 90)
OB=OD
(Given)
O
AOB AOD
(SAS Cong)
AB=AD
(c.p.c.t)
B
A
Similarly, we can prove that
AB=BC
BC=CD
CD=DA
AB=BC=CD=DA
ABCD is a Rhombus.
Given A square ABCD in which diagonal AC & BD intersect each other at O.
Diagonals AC & BD bisect each other at right angles i.e. AO=OC & BO=OD
Also AOB=90
In 's AOB & COD
AB=CD
(sides of a square)
AOB=COD
(vert. opp.s)
ABO=CDO
(alt Int s)
AOB COD
(AAS cong)
D
Hence, AO = OC
c. p. c. t
& BO=OD
Now In 's AOB & COB
AB=BC
(sides of a square)
O
OB=OB
(common)
AO=OC
(proved above)
AOB COB
(S.S.S.cong)
A
Hence, AOB= COB (c.p.c.t)
Also. AOB + COB =180 (linear pair)
AOB+AOB=180 (using =n )
2AOB=180
180
AOB=
=90
2
Similarly
AOD=COD =90
Hence, AC and BD bisect each other at right angles at the point O.
Converse of Q4 (try yourself)
Page 21 of 95
Sol. Q6.
To prove:
Proof:
Sol. Q7.
Sol Q 8.
To Prove:
Proof:
Sol. Q9.
To prove:
Proof:
/F-16/
Given diagonal AC of a gm ABCD bisects A i.e, 1=2

(i) It bisects C also i.e, 3=4
(ii) ABCD is a Rhombus.
ABCD is a gm.
BCA=DAC
D
i.e.,3= L2 (Alt. Int. s)
& DCA=BAC
i.e.,4=1 (Alt. Int. s)
2
Also, 1=2 (given)
1
From =ns, & ,we get
A
3 =4
i.e. AC bisects C.
From = ns & we get
1=3
AB = BC [ Sides opp. to equal s in a triangle are equal.}
Also , we have, AB = CD and BC=AD ( opp. Sides of a gm)
AB = BC = CD = DA
Hence , ABCD is a rhombus.
Proof similar to question 6. (Try yourself).
Given: A rectangle ABCD in which
Diagonals AC bisects A as well as C.
i) ABCD is a square
ii) diagonal BD bisects B as well as D.
In s ABC and ADC,
AC = AC (common)
1 = 2 (Given)
3 = 4 (given)
ABC ADC (ASA Cong.)
Hence, AB = AD (c.p.c.t)
Also AB = CD and AD = BC [opp. Sides of a rect. ABCD]
AB = BC=CD=AD.
ABCD is a square.
In ABD, AB = AD
5=7 [Angles opp. to equal sides in a are equal].
Also, 6 = 8
& 5 = 8 (Alt. Int. 's)
From equations, & ,we get
5=6 & 7=8
BD bisects B as well as D.
C
4
3
C
4
O
2
6
1
Given: A gm. ABCD where P & Q are two points taken on a diagonal BD such that DP = BQ.
i) APD CQB
ii) AP= CQ
iii) AQB CPD
iv) APCQ is a gm.
A
D
In APD and CQB, we have
DP=BQ (Given)
AD = CB (opp. Sides of a gm ABCD)
P
ADP = CBQ (Alt. Int. s)
APD CQB(S.A S Cong. Rule)
Q
Hence, AP = CQ (c.p.c.t)
B
C
Similarly, we can prove AQB CPD
Then, AQ = CP (c.p.c.t)
Now, In quad. APCQ
AP = CQ & AQ = CP
APCQ is a gm.[A quad. Is a gm.if its opp. sides are equal]
Page 22 of 95
Sol. Q10.
Sol.Q.11.
To prove:
Proof:
Sol. Q12.
To Prove:
Const:
Proof:
Very simple (Try yourself).

Given:AB=DE,ABDE,
BC = EF and BC EF.
(i) Quad. ABED is a gm.
(ii) Quad. BEFC is a gm.
(iii) AD CF and AD = CF
(iv) Quad. ACFD is agm
(v) ABC DEF
(i) AB = DE & AB DE (Given)
ABED is a gm [A quad. having one pair of opp .sides & = is a gm.]
(ii) BC = EF & BC EF (Given)
BCEF is a gm [same reason]
(iii) ABED is a gm
BEAD and BE = AD
A
Also, BEFC is a gm
BECF & BE = CF
B
Then, from & ,we get
AD = CF & AD CF
(iv) Now, AD = CF & ADCF
ACFD is a gm.
(v) ACFD is agm
AC = DF
(vi) In ABC and DEF,
AB = DE (given)
BC = EF (Given)
AC = DF (proved)
Hence, ABC DEF(SSS cong.)
Given: ABCD is a trapezium in
Which ABCD and AD = BC.
(i) A = B
(ii) C = D
(iii) ABC BAD
(iv) diagonal AC = diagonal BD
Draw CE AD and extend AB to intersect CE at E.
AEDC and AD CE
ADCE is a gm.
A
AD = CE
Also, AD = BC
From & we get.
CE = BC CEB = CBE [s opp. to = sides]
D
Now , A + D=180 (Co. Int . s)
A + E = 180 [D = E as ABCD is a gm.]
A + CEB = 180
A + CBE = 180[CEB = CBE ]
A =180CBE = CBA
A =B
Now, A + D = 180 (Co.int. s)
D
C
E
B + C = 180
/F-16/
From &, we get.

A + D = B + C
But A = B
C = D
(iii) In s ABC & BAD
BC = AD (Given)
AB = BA (Common)
ABC = BAD i.e. , B = A (Proved)
ABC BAD (SAS Cong.)
Page 23 of 95
Hence, AC = BD (c.p.c.t)
Theorem 8.9: The line segment joining the mid-points of two sides of a triangle is
parallel to the third side and equal to half of it. (MID-POINT THEOREM]
Given:
E & F are the mid points of the sides
AB and AC respectively of the ABC.
To Prove:
EF BC and EF = BC.
Const.
Draw CG AB, meeting EF produced in G.
Proof:
In s AEF and CGF, we have
AF = CF (F is the mid point of AC)
AFE =CFG (vert. opp. s)
A
EAF = GCF (Alternate s)
AEF CGF (ASA Cong.)
AE =CG (c.p.c.t.)
F
Also, AE = BE (E is mid- point of AB)
G
E
From & , we get
BE = CG
Also, By construction BE CG
C
B
BCGE is a gm
EG BC EF BC
Also, EF = GF (c.p.c.t.)
Now, EG = BC [Opp. Sides of agm are =]
EG = BC
EF = BC
Theorem 8.10: The line drawn through the mid-point of one side of a , parallel to another side,
bisects the third side.
Given:
A ABC in which E is midpoint of AB & EF BC.
To Prove:
F is the mid - point of AC
A
Const.:
Draw CM BA, meeting EF
M
produced at D such that a gm BCDE is completed
3
Proof:
AE = BE [E is mid point of AB]
1
F
Also, BE = CD (opp. sides of a gmBCDE)
E
2
AE = CD
D
4
1 =2 (Alt. Int. s)
3 =4(Alt. Int. s)
C
B
AEF CDF (ASA Cong.)

Hence, AF = CF (c.p.c.t)
F is mid-point of AC.
Sol. Q1.
Given: A quad. ABCD in which P,Q,R,& S are the mid-points of the sides AB, BC, CD, DA
To Prove:
(i) SRAC and SR = AC
R
D
C
(iii) PQRS is a parallelogram.
Proof:
(i) In DAC , S & R are the mid-points of the sides AD & DC
SR AC & SR= AC [Mid-point Theorem]

S
Q
In ABC, P & Q are the mid-points. of AB & BC.
PQ AC & PQ = AC [Mid Point Theorem]

A
B
P
From & , we get
PQ SR & PQ = SR.
PQRS is a gm [A quad. Is a gm if one pair of opp. sides is & =]

Sol. Q2.
Given:- ABCD is a rhombus and P,Q,R,& S are the mid points Of AB,BC,CD & DA respectively
To Prove:
Quad. PQRS is a rectangle.
R
D
C
Proof:In DAC , S & R are the mid-points of AD & DC
SR AC & SR = AC[mid - point theorem]

In ABC, P & Q are the mid-points of AB & BC
Q
S
PQ AC & PQ = AC[Mid-point Theorem]

4
3
From equations& we get
PQ SR & PQ = SR
1
2
PQRS is a gm.
A
B
P
/F-16/
Page 24 of 95
Similarly, 2 2 = 180 B
Adding & , we get
21 + 22 = 180 A + 180 B
2( 1+ 2) = 360 A B
2( 1+ 2)= 360 ( A + B)
2(180 P) = 360 180 [ A + B = 180 ]
2(180 P) = 180
180 P =
180 90 = P
P = 90
Therefore, PQRS is a rectangle as one of the s is a right angle.
Given: A Rect. ABCD in which P,Q,R,S are the mid-points of AB, BC,CD & DA respectively.
PQRS is a Rhombus.
PQRS is a parallelogram
R
As proved in Q1 & Q2.
D
C
Now, PQ = SR & QR = PS
Now, In PAS & PBQ
S
PA = PB(each = AB)
Q
AS = BQ [ [AS = AD, BQ = BC & AD = BC]
PAS =PBQ (each 90 )
A
B
PAS PBQ (SAS cong.)
P
PQ = PS
The adjacent sides of a parallelogram are equal.
PQ = QR = SR= PS
Hence, PQRS is a Rhombus.
Given: A trapezium ABCD in which AB DC. Also E is the mid point of AD. Also, EF AB,
intersecting BC at F.
D
C
F is the mid-point of BC
In ABD, E is mid-point of AD and EG AB
E
F
G is midpoint of BD [Converse of Mid-Point Theorem]
Also EF AB and ABCD EF CD
G
F is mid-point of BC,[Converse of Mid-Point Theorem)
as G is mid point of BD.
A
B
Given:- A gm ABCD, E & F are the mid-points of sides AB and CD
AF & EC trisect the diagonal BD i.e., DP = PQ = BQ
ABCD is a gm.
AB = DC & AB DC
AB = DC & AB DC
AE = FC & AE FC
AECF is a gm.[ [A quad. having one pair of opp. Sides & = is a gm.]
D
F
C
In ABP, E is mid-point of AB & EQ AP
P
Q is mid-point of BP
i.e., BQ = PQ ( Converse of mid- point theorem)
Again in DQC, F is mid point of DC & FP CQ
Q
P is mid-point of DQ
i.e., DP = PQ [Converse of Mid-point Theorem]
A
B
E
From, & we have
DP = PQ = BQ
BD is trisected by AF & EC.
Sol. Q3.
To Prove:
Proof:
i.e.
Sol. Q4.
To Prove:
Proof:
Sol. Q5.
To prove:
Proof:
/F-16/
In APS, AP = AS [ AB = AD]
1=3 [s opp. to = sides are =]
Similarly, 2 =4
Also, A + 1 + 3 = 180 (Angle sum property of a )
1 + 3 = 180 A
1 + 1 = 180 A [1= 3]
21 =180 A
180
2
= 90
Page 25 of 95
Sol. Q6.
To prove:
Const.
Proof:
Given:- P,Q,R,S are the mid-points of the sides AB, BC, CD & AD of the quad. ABCD
PO = OR & SO = OQ
Join PQ, QR, RS & SP
PQRS is a gm as proved in Q1 & Q2
Now, PR & QS are the diagonals of a gm PQRS and the diagonals of a gm bisect each other.
PO = OR & QO = OS.
R
D
C
A
Sol. Q7.
To Prove:
Proof.
Given: A rt. d ABC, rt. d at C. Also M is mid-point of AC and MD is parallel to BC

(i) D is the mid-point of AC
(ii) MD AC
(iii) CM = MA = AB
(i) M is mid point of AB & MD BC
A
D is mid point of AC. [Converse of Mid-Point Theorem ]
(ii) ADM = ACB = 90 (Corresponding angles)
M
ADM = 90
D
MD AC
(iii) In CMD & AMD
CD = AD, MD = MD
C
B
& CDM = ADM (each 90)
CMD AMD (SAS Cong.)
CM = AM
Also, AM = AB
CM = AB.
ENGLISH
SECTION 1
[Prose/Short Story]
Fill in the blanks that appear in the given passages with appropriate words. Refer to the
concerned lessons if necessary.
a)
In the meantime, the King of Naples, Antonio, Gonzalo and others _________________ on the
island. ________________ tired and hungry, they sat down to rest. Ariel put inviting food
before them but when they tried ___________________ it, it disappeared suddenly. It was with
thunder and lightning that Ariel made his ____________________________ before them. They
stood in utter ____________________________ at the sight.
b)
Suddenly Sue heard Johnsy ____________________________ something. Quickly
_________________________ to the bed, she could ___________________ her counting
backwards. She counted Twelve as she ____________________ out of the window. Following
her gaze, Sue looked out of the window in _________________________.
Answer the following questions in your own words:
a)
What did Miranda and Ferdinand think when they saw each other for the very first time?
b)
How was Ferdinand surprised by Miranda on their first meeting?
c)
How did Prospero feel about the meeting of these two young people? Why did he conceal his
true feelings?
d)
What actions and words of Miranda prove that she had fallen madly in love with Ferdinand?
e)
What did Antonio do and say to prove that he was truly sorry for what he done in the past?
Answer the following questions in your own words:
a)
Who were Sue and Johnsy and where did they live?
b)
Why was Sue very worried about her dear friend Johnsy? What was the doctors opinion about
her?
Q1.
Q2.
Q3.
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Page 26 of 95
c)
What did Sue do to try and make Johnsy take an interest in things around her? What did she do
to make her take her mind off her illness?
d)
Why do you think Johnsy was not getting well despite all of Sues care and treatment by the
doctor?
e)
Who was Mr. Behrman and what was his dream in life? What do you feel about Mr. Behrmans
character as reflected in the story?
Q4. Make interesting sentences of your very own with the following words and phrases:
to make up ones mind/by leaps and bounds/pour out ones worries/gaze/reluctant/in favour of/in the
midst of/perish/tempest/to keep ones head
Q5. Write a brief character sketch on any two selecting atleast one character from each of the two
lessons:
a)
Prospero or Miranda
b)
Sue or Mr. Behrman
(Taken from the lessons Tempest II and the Last Leaf)
SECTION 2
[Poetry]
Q6. Attempt paraphrasing the following lines taken from the poem, The Childs Prayer:
May I adorn my land, to me so dear
Even as the blossoms make the the garden fair!
As the moth goes round the shining light in zest
So let me love the candle of knowledge best.
Q7. Attempt answering the following questions in your own words:
a)
For what reasons do you feel the child desires to be a Candle/a Moth/a Blossom?
b)
How does the child, in the last four lines of the poem, express his mission in life? What does this
tell you about him?
c)
Define the literary terms Metaphors and Similes, giving two examples of each from the poem
The Childs Prayer.
d)
Attempt writing a short summary of the poem, The Childs Prayer, as understood by you?
SECTION 3
[Grammar]
Q8. Write an interesting composition on any one of the following topics:
a)
An outing with my friends that I will never ever forget in my life.
b)
The importance of discipline in our lives.
c)
Swachch Bharat Abhiyaan may be a great idea but not a very practical one. Mention your
views, for or against, the topic.
Q9. Write a paragraph on any one of the following Proverb:
a)
Rome was not built in a day
b)
Where theres a will, theres a way
c)
All that glitters is not gold
Q10. Write appropriate letters as per the following topics:
a)
Write a letter to the Commissioner of Police complaining about the inaction of the local police in
the face of a series of thefts that have quite recently taken place in your locality, explaining to
him, the growing feeling of insecurity among the families that live in the area. Request him to
look urgently into the matter and take necessary and urgent steps to ensure the safety of the said
families living in the area.
b)
You and a close friend of yours studying in Mumbai, have been selected from your respective
schools to participate in a company sponsored Adventure Camp to be held in Shimla in the
coming week. Write a letter to your friend advising him about the trip and at the same time
clarifying some of your doubts about the said Camp.
Q11. Complete the following conversation between a doctor and his patient:
Patient: Good Morning, doctor. May I come in.
Doctor: Good Morning. Of course
Patient: I have a very serious problem.
Doctor: Yes, go ahead.
Patient: Doctor, I cant seem to .
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Page 27 of 95
Q12.
Q13.
Q14.
Q15.
Q16.
Doctor: Well, I think I know.

Patient: What .
Doctor: Your problem is ..
Patient: What do you advise me, doctor?
Doctor: Do not ..
Patient: I will not forget your advice, doctor, thank you.
Rewrite these sentences in Indirect Speech:
a)
Raj said, I met Kumar two days ago.
b)
The Teacher asked Ashok, Will you listen to such a fool?
c)
The Captain ordered his men, Stand at ease!
d)
What a terrible storm it is! Said Miranda.
e)
Would you all like to go on a trip to Mumbai? the Teacher asked her students.
Rewrite these sentences in Direct Speech:
a)
Hamlet exclaimed as to what a piece of work man is.
b)
The doctor instructed Iqbal to wait there till he returned.
c)
Jerry demanded of me why I had insulted his brother.
d)
Sheena admitted that she had acted foolishly in what she did.
e)
The Principal opined that virtue is its own reward.
Rewrite these sentences using the word too
a)
Mary is so clever so that she will not make such a silly mistake.
b)
The bear was so huge that it could not enter the cave.
c)
It was so hot that no one could work.
d)
I am so tired that I cannot walk any further.
e)
The news is so good that it cannot be true.
Rewrite these sentences using the word unless
a)
If you do not apologize, you will face harsh punishment.
b)
You must work very hard or you will fail in the Examination.
c)
You must take quinine regularly or you will catch Malaria.
d)
I can open this box only if you give me the key.
e)
You will miss your flight if you do not hurry.
Write down correct sentences after re-arranging the words in the following jumbled sentences:
a)
an, died, in, Tim, instant
b)
low, Mr. Chopra, a, voice, in, spoke
c)
deep, still, run, waters
d)
free, best, country, the, tried, best, their, French, to
e)
happily, night, girls, the, all, danced.
Portions:
The Tempest 1 (Prose)

The Tempest 2 (Prose)
To The Cuckoo (Poetry)
The Cart Driver (Poetry)
The Childs Prayer (Poetry)
Old Man At The Bridge (Short Story)
The Last Leaf (Short Story)
Grammar
THE TEMPEST I
William Shakespeare
Thinking about the Text:
1.
Ariel was a spirit. A witch named Sycorax who lived on the island before Prospero, had imprisoned him
in the heart of a pine tree. Unfortunately, Sycorax died before releasing him and therefore he remained
imprisoned in the tree. It was only when Prospero landed on the island he discovered Ariels plight,
finally freed him with the help of his magical powers. Since then, Ariel became his faithful servant.
2.
Caliban was the ugly son of the witch, Sycorax. His appearance was more like a fish than a man.
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Page 28 of 95
3.
Seeing the ship caught in the fierce waves of the tempestuous sea, Miranda who had an inkling that it
was the work of her father, requested him to put an end to it as she could not tolerate the helpless cries
of the sailors as they were drowning in the angry sea.
4.
Prospero confessed to Miranda that he had caused the storm. He said that he had done it for the sake of
Miranda herself. However, he does not explain as to how she was going to benefit from it.
5.
Prosperos chief desire in life was not power, position, wealth or other worldly possessions. Al that he
wanted to acquire was knowledge. It was for this reason that without doubting his brother, Antonio, he
left the management of the dukedom entirely to him.
6.
Antonio not only won over the Ministers by bribing them but also extended the hand of friendship to the
King of Naples who was Prosperos chief enemy. It was with their help that he ultimately seized the
throne.
7.
One dark night, the soldiers dragged Prospero with his baby daughter, Miranda, in his hands, out of his
palace. Baby Miranda was crying but they had no mercy. The soldiers then put them in an old and
damaged ship believing that they would sooner or later drown and die at sea.
8.
Gonzalo, a kind and faithful old Lord, helped Prospero by secretly storing the ship with food, water and
clothes. He had also loaded the ship with books which were more valuable to Prospero than his entire
dukedom.
9.
All of Prosperos enemies, his brother, Antonio, the King of Naples, his son, Ferdinand and others were
aboard the ship caught in the fierce tempest. Gonzalo was also on board the ship.
10.
Ariel reminded Prospero of his promise to set him free after he had completed the tasks that had been
assigned to him.
THE TEMPEST 2
William Shakespeare
1.
What did Miranda at first think Ferdinand was and why? Was Ferdinand and Mirandas love a love at
first sight?
On laying her eyes on Ferdinand, Miranda instantly felt that he was a spirit as he had immensely noble
and beautiful looks and appeared extremely handsome. This was only natural as Miranda had never
seen a young man before, with the exception of her father and Caliban.
Yes, the love between Ferdinand and Miranda was indeed a love at first sight.
2.
Why did Prospero pretend to think that Ferdinand was a spy?
Prospero pretended to think that Ferdinand was a spy because he wanted to test whether he genuinely
loved Miranda and even went on to imprison him in order to to make it look authentic.
3.
What was the task that Prospero had given to Ferdinand?
The task that Prospero gave Ferdinand to do was to pile up heavy logs.
4.
What made Ferdinands labour seem light?
Since Ferdinand was deeply in love with Miranda, her sheer presence made his labour seem light.
5.
What were the King and his party doing in the meantime?
The King and his party were lost and wandering around on the island. Finally, they got tired and hungry
and sat down to rest.
6.
Why were they amazed to see Prospero?
It was only natural that they were extremely amazed to see Prospero because they believed him to have
been drowned at sea years ago.
7.
Prospero told the King that he had lost his daughter in the tempest and in a sense he was right. Can you
say in what sense?
What Prospero meant when he told the King that he had lost his daughter in the tempest was that she
had become a victim of the tempest of love from which there was no escape. She had madly fallen in
love with Ferdinand.
8.
Why did Prospero give up his magic powers?
Prospero gave up his magic powers because he had achieved what he desired from life and had no
further use of them.
9.
What was Ariels last service to his master?
Ariels last service to his master was to cause favourable winds to blow as Prospero, Ferdinand and
Miranda, the King, Antonio and the others set sail for Naples.
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LANGUAGE WORK:
Nouns from Adjectives:

Loyal
- Loyalty
Favourite
- Favour
Performing
- Performance
Struggle
- Struggle
Magical
- Magician
Plot
- Plot/Plotter
One word Substitution:

Without companions, a long way from men and life Lonely
Nothing more than, only Mere
Cause to rise or appear, bring about Raise
Set free Released
Try hard against difficulties, fight Struggle
A phrase meaning in the middle part of In the midst of
Be destroyed, lose life Perish
Thing that one owns Possession
During that time In the meanwhile
Be bold or brave enough to do something Dare
Spoiled or broken so made less useful Damaged
Cause to remember, bring to mind Remind
That is to say, the same as Just as
A phrase meaning to, for the purpose of In order to
A person who tries to get secret information about an enemy country Spy
Examine two things side by side, see how they are different or like each other - Compare
Any more, to a greater distance At a distance
A hard test Trial
An Adjective meaning having done wrong, having done a crime or a sin Guilty
Bad, wicked, sinful Evil
An action of any kind or a thing that has been done Deed
An action as murder or stealing, a very bad action Crime
To be sorry for something one has done Repent
Destruction of ship by storm etc. Shipwreck
That can be seen Visible
Antonyms:
Good fortune
Misfortune
Far
Near
Innocent
Guilty
Evil
Noble
Loss
Gain
Coward
Brave
Perish
Survive
Remember
Forget
Loyal
Disloyal
Forming Nouns from the following Words:

Lose Lost
Guilty Guilt
Reconcile Reconciliation
Try Trial
Amaze Amazement
Give Gift
Imagine Imagination
Pretend Pretence
Repent Repentance
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Page 30 of 95
Treat Treatment
Writing Work:
Write briefly how Antonio tried to get rid of Prospero and how Prospero escaped death.
With an intention of taking over the Dukedom for himself, Antonio first of all began bribing some of
Prosperos ministers and giving them gifts. Next, he joined hands with Prosperos enemy, the King of Naples
and began plotting against him. On a dark night, Antonios soldiers drove Prospero and his little daughter,
Miranda who was crying, out of their palace. They were placed in an old damaged ship and put out to sea, left
to ultimately drown. However, Gonzalo who was a kind old Lord of Prospero helped Prospero by secretly
storing the ship with food, water, clothes and Prosperos books. Fortune smiled on the helpless father and
daughter. They were driven by favourable winds and managed to reach a lonely island. This was the way in
which Prospero and his daughter, Miranda finally escaped certain death.
How did Prospero test Ferdinand? How did Ferdinand stand the test?
The task that Prospero set Ferdinand was the job of piling up heavy logs of wood. However, no matter how
hard the task seemed, Ferdinand agreed to take it keeping Miranda in mind. Miranda offered to help him but he
bravely insisted on doing the work himself. The very presence of Miranda made his arduous task appear light.
Secretly watching all this, Prospero was absolutely convinced that Ferdinands love for Miranda was genuine.
It was in this way that Ferdinand passed the test with flying colours.
SUMMARY OF THE CART DRIVER
By Padma Sachdev
This beautiful poem depicts the intense and selfless love of a mother for her children, whether she may be
human, a bird or an animal. The intensity of love remains the same.
The poem opens with a bulbul setting out in search of food for her hungry little fledglings, back in the safety of
its nest. It is night time in the forest and the poet describes the bulbul moving about in extreme darkness. The
silence is so deep that the poet says she can hear its footfalls. She further describes the bulbul to be fearful and
therefore moving around rather cautiously.
Since she is extremely apprehensive of some unknown peril, it seems she does not want to be spotted by
anyone. On suddenly hearing some sound, she is immediately disturbed and anxious. Carrying a grain in her
beak and anticipating some mysterious danger, she wants to get back to her nest as soon as possible. She is
worried about the safety of her little ones. In the meanwhile, the fledglings, unaware of the apprehensions of
their mother, continue to loudly chirp in hunger.
The poet then reveals that the sound heard by the bulbul is that of a bullock cart passing through the forest. At
once, the bulbul hides herself behind some bushes. Although the bullock cart is moving along, the driver is fast
asleep and is snoring. He has the end of his turban pulled over his eyes. The bullocks, most probably used to
this road, continue to move on with their heads down. It is at this point that the bulbul begins to imagine a
forest fire caused by the overturning of the cart drivers hookah. Imagining such a fearful situation, the bulbul,
in utmost concern for her dear little fledglings, desires to fly straight away to her nest in order to save and
protect them. However, the intense fear in her heart paralyzes her and she finds herself unable to move her legs
in order to fly.
Through this simple yet emotionally powerful poem, the poet brilliantly attempts to portray the incredible depth
of love and concern a mother has for her children.
Question and Answers and Other Exercises
Thinking about the poem:
1.
The bulbul is extremely scared because it has heard some sound in the silence of the forest. Fearing that
some harm may come to her fledglings, she desires to hasten back to her nest.
2.
Frightened by the loud sound of the wheels of a bullock cart going over dry leaves and further not
wanting to be spotted, she hides herself in the bushes.
3.
Being extremely apprehensive, the bulbul begins to imagine a blazing forest fire that could be caused by
the overturning of the cart drivers hookah.
4.
The terrified bulbuls imagination invariably arouses the feelings of sympathy in the mind of the reader.
5.
The poem has been entitled The Cart Driver because it is only due to the cart drivers recklessness that
the poor bulbuls heart is filled with irrepressible fear. It is the poets intention to warn the reader not to
be as careless as the cart driver in her poem.
6.
Yes, on a particular occasion, I had a terrible dream in which I along with some of my friends were
trapped in a raging forest fire.
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7.
In order to create an atmosphere of fear and silence in the dark forest, the poet makes the utmost use of
the following images:
The fearful silence which pervades the dark forest
The pricked ears of the bulbul trying to pick up any sound
The description of the throes of fears being felt by the bulbul
The possibility of the drivers hookah turning over
The imagination of the forest catching fire
The bulbul being paralyzed by fear and therefore being unable to fly
8.
The emotions that emerge in the mothers heart, both for herself as a person and for her children as a
mother are normal and natural responses. Her wanting to get back to her nest instantaneously reveals
her desire not only for the safety for herself but also for her fledglings. Hence, there seems to be no
tussle in her mind at all as her reaction is but natural.
TO THE CUCKOO
William Wordsworth
SUMMARY OF THE POEM
The poet has heard the melodious singing of the Cuckoo in the past and is looking forward to hearing it sing
again. He refers to the bird as a cheerful and happy little bird and a new comer since it has migrated to this
place for the spring. The sweet and melodious song of the Cuckoo fills the poets heart with joy. The sweet
singing bird is warmly welcomed by the poet as he affectionately calls it various charming names a happy
new-comer and a wandering voice as its voice can sometimes be heard very far off and sometimes very near. It
could also mean the echoing of the Cuckoos voice as it pervades the entire valley.
On hearing the melody of the Cuckoos songs, the poet is transported to the memories of his boyhood days. He
vividly calls back to mind the futile attempts he made in order to catch a glimpse of this sweet singing bird in
the bushes, the trees and in the sky. He reflects that the Cuckoo to him is not a bird but an invisible thing, a
voice and a mystery. Calling it the Darling of the Spring and a Blessed Bird, the poet goes on to say that
through it beautiful singing, the Cuckoo transforms the world into a fairyland, meaning that the melodious
songs of the Cuckoo helps him to forget all the sorrows and suffering of the material world.
Thinking about the Poem:
1.
At the outset itself, the poet tells us that he rejoices on hearing the singing of the Cuckoo. His heart
overflows with pure joy on experiencing its extremely melodious songs.
2.
The poet refers to the Cuckoo as a wandering voice due to the fact that its voice can sometimes be
heard in very far off places and at times from somewhere very near. This could also be the effect of the
echoing of the Cuckoos songs as they pervade the entire valley. Further, since the pleasant song of the
Cuckoo is heard only in spring, he affectionately refers to it as the darling of the spring.
3.
On hearing the melodious songs of the Cuckoo, the poet fondly remembers his boyhood days. He
vividly calls back to mind the numerous futile attempts he had made in order to catch a glimpse of this
sweet singing bird in the bushes, the trees and in the sky. The Cuckoo, to the poet, had always remained
a mysterious voice.
4.
The Golden Time as seen in the poem refers to the childhood of the poet. He considers it a a golden
time because these were the glorious times of childhood during which he lived a carefree life devoid of
responsibilities and the simple, yet invigorating pleasures he derived from the sights and sounds of
nature around him.
5.
The sweet and melodious singing bird, the Cuckoo is most artistically personified in this poem.
6.
The Rhyme-Scheme in each of the stanzas of the poem is abab.
7.
William Wordsworth most beautifully uses pictorial imagery to describe the Cuckoo against the
background of the beauty of nature. He uses numerous word pictures to help the reader to imagine all
that he is describing. While reading the poem, one can visualize the Cuckoo, hopping around from bush
to bush and from tree to tree joyously singing its heart out to the pleasure of those listening to it.
8.
I have sometimes heard the Cuckoo singing sweetly in a mango grove close to my house during the
spring. It has a beautiful voice which fills my heart with joy.
9.
Music is sheer pleasure to the ears. It helps one to not only enjoy the melodies but goes on to further
relieve the tensions of the mind. It has an immensely soothing effect on the listener and raises his
spirits. As someone has rightly said, Music is food for the soul.
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THE CHILDS PRAYER

Sir Muhammad Iqbal
The poet presents his noble thoughts and feelings through this beautiful poem which is in the form of a childs
prayer to God. In this prayer, the child expresses his burning desire to be a lighted candle for others. It is his
chief desire to eradicate the darkness of ignorance from the world. He earnestly wishes to illuminate every
corner of the world with the light of knowledge and goodness. He craves to transform his land which he holds
very dear to his heart, into a paradise just as the blossoms in their extreme beauty, turn a garden into a heavenly
beautiful place. He seeks Gods assistance in instilling in him the love for knowledge as intense as the desire of
a moth for a brightly shining flame. The child very explicitly shows his willingness to even lay down his life
for the purpose of attaining knowledge. The child in his fervent prayer to God expresses the deep desire to
make the mission of his life to help the poor, the weak and the suffering, for whom his heart overflows with
sympathy. He implores God to protect him from all the traps of evil that will prevent him from carrying out his
desires. He further goes on to request God to give him a strong determination that he will not stray from the
paths of virtue.
Understanding the Poem:
1.
Who is the speaker in the poem and to whom is it addressed?
The speaker in this beautiful poem is a child. The poem is being addressed to God.
2.
What does the child wish to be? List them in the order they are found in the poem.
It is the childs earnest desire to be a bright candle light for the benefit of others. He wishes that
his life should be instrumental in eradicating all darkness from the world. His deep love for his
motherland compels him to wish to make her as beautiful as a garden full of brightly coloured
blossoms. Further, he expresses the longing to be of service to the poor, the weak and the
suffering. Finally, he wishes to keep himself far from all evil and live a good and virtuous life.
3.
Why does the child wish to be (a) a candle, (b) a moth and (c) a blossom?
(a)
The poet desires to be a bright candle because he wants to eradicate the darkness of
ignorance and evil completely from the world through his life.
(b)
He desires to be attracted to knowledge as fervently as the moth is drawn to the flame of
a candle.
(c)
He wants to be a beautiful blossom so that he can decorate his motherland in order to
make it a paradise.
4.
What is the childs mission?
The childs chief mission in life is to love and serve the poor and needy. His heart overflows with
sympathy for those who are weak and in pain.
5.
Identify the Metaphors and Similes in the following lines
My tender hopes arise to the lips I pray:
Kindly candle light may my life be!
As the moth goes round the shining light in zest
So let me love the candle of knowledge best!
Save me, my God, from all snares of evil.
The Metaphors and Similes as found in the above lines are as follows:
Metaphors: My tender hopes arise to the lips
Kindly candle light may my life be!
The candle of knowledge
Snares of evil
Similes: As the moth goes round the shining light in zest
OLD MAN AT THE BRIDGE
Earnest Hemingway
1.
Having travelled a long distance of twelve kilometers on foot, it was only obvious that the old mans
clothes were extremely dusty. As he was extremely tired of the twelve kilometer walk he had just
undertaken, he was absolutely exhausted and wasnt able to take another step. Above all, it is important
to remember that he was a man seventy six years and must have been quite feeble.
2.
The old man was informed that there was going to be a heavy artillery attack on San Carlos and was
therefore required to, like the others, evacuate the place at once. The old man chose to go to Barcelona
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because he had nowhere else to go. Further, being extremely exhausted, he decided to get on one of the
trucks that were heading towards Barcelona.
3.
Since the old man looked neither like a shepherd nor a herdsman, the narrator was utterly confused
when he spoke about looking after animals and wondered what kind of animals he must have been
looking after.
4.
The narrator probably expected the battle to take place somewhere beyond the bridge. He therefore
constantly kept his eyes on that particular area across the bridge even while conversing with the old
man.
5.
When the old man mentions the others, he is referring to his two goats and four pairs of pigeons that
he had left behind in San Carlos. He is not very concerned about his cat as he knows it is capable of
taking care of itself. He is however, very worried about the others. Knowing that there is nothing he can
do for them, he says that it is better for him not to think of them.
6.
It is very clear from the story that the old man loved his animals dearly and considered them as
members of his family. Apprehending a heavy artillery attack on San Carlos, the old man had to
evacuate the place, and leave his beloved animals behind. He had no idea as to what would become of
them and was worried that the artillery attack would harm them.
7.
On being asked by the narrator about politics, the old man has nothing to say. He, however, clearly
expresses the fact that he is in no way concerned about or connected to politics. Nothing that is going
on, matters more to him than the safety of his dear animals. It is evident throughout the story that the
old man repeatedly talks only about his animals.
8.
Wars do have an adverse effect on our lives. As we see in the story, the entire population of the town
has to be evacuated. Not only have they to abandon their homes and become refuges in some strange
land. In the given situation, they end up losing their land and property and all that they have acquired
through their hard earned money over the years. The seventy six year old man in this story, has had to
walk twelve kilometers and be deprived of his animals which are all that he has in this world to call his
own. Thus, was is an evil that gives us nothing but on the other hand, takes away from us even the little
we have.
THE LAST LEAF
O. Henry
1.
What was the cause of Johnsys illness? How could the illness be treated?
Johnsy was suffering from a terrible bout of pneumonia. More than physical, her illness was a
psychological one. She seemed to have lost all interest in life and was for some reason or the other
convinced that she was going to die. According to the doctor, medicine would be of no help to her if she
did not desire to live.
2.
Do you think that the fear that Johnsy has is common among teenagers?
Being extremely imaginative, teenagers find it a herculean task to take out of their minds what they
have already understood. They are therefore always advised to think positively. In the story we see that
Johnsy finds it very difficult to take the idea that she is going to die, out of her head. It is only the
sincere efforts of Sue that enables her to gradually begin thinking positively.
3.
What was Behrmans dream? Did it come true?
Behrmans earnest dream was to paint a masterpiece. His dream does come true but at the high cost of
his life. After visiting and seeing the state of Johnsy, he decides to paint the last leaf on the creeper so as
to help in keeping Johnsy from dying. He stays out the entire night in the cold wind and icy rain
painting what turned to be his masterpiece. It was so realistic that even the eye of Johnsy who was an
artist, couldnt make out that the last leaf that appeared on the creeper was not real but a painting.
4.
How is The Last Leaf the artists masterpiece? What makes you say so?
According to the story, Behrman, the old artist had painted the last leaf on a creeper on the wall outside
a window. It was the artists masterpiece because it was so realistic that even the eye of Johnsy who was
an artist, couldnt make out that the last leaf that appeared on the creeper was not real but a painting.
Further, it was due to this masterpiece that Johnsy changed her mind and decided to live.
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PHYSICS
GRAVITATION
Gravity: The gravitational force exerted by the earth on an object is known as gravity, or the force of earth
which pulls the objects towards the centre of earth is known as gravity or gravitational force of earth.
Gravitation: The force which pulls the objects towards each other in the universe is called as gravitation. All
objects in this universe attract each other with a force along the line joining their centres which is called as
gravitation.
Universal law of gravitation or Newtons law of gravitation: The universal law of gravitation was
discovered by Sir Isaac Newton. The law states that Everybody in this universe attracts every other body with
a force which is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between them.
Consider two bodies of masses m1 and m2 separated by a distance r, then according to the universal law of
gravitation.
F m1 x m2 (1)
and F 1/ r2 (2)
Combining (1) & (2)we get
Or
F m1.m2/r2
Or
F = G. m1.m2/r2
m1
m2
Where 'G' is constant of proportionality known as universal gravitational constant. The value of universal
gravitational constant is 6.6734 x 10-11 Nm2/kg2.
Universal gravitational constant: The universal gravitational constant G is defined as the force of attraction
between two point masses of 1 kg each kept at a distance of 1 metre.
If
m1 = 1 kg,
m2 = 1 kg
and
r=1m
Then according to universal law of gravitation
F = G. m1. m2 /r2
F=G
=>
F = G. 1 x 1/12
Thus numerically universal gravitational constant G is equal to the force of attraction acting between two
bodies of mass 1 kg each separated by a distance of 1 metre.
Unit of G = unit of force x unit of (distance)2/unit of (mass)2

= N. m2 /kg2 = Nm2kg-2
On the basis of various experiments, the value of G has been found to be equal to 6.6734 x 10-11 Nm2/kg2.
Gravitational force between objects of ordinary size: Suppose two balls of masses 1kg each are placed with
their centres 1 metre apart from each other, then the force of attraction between them is given by
F = G. m1. m2 / r2
=> F = 6.6734 x 10-11 x 1 x 1 / 12 Newton

=> F = 6.6734 x 10-11 Newton
Here, it is clear that the gravitational force of attraction between two bodies of 1 kg mass each 1m apart from
each other is 6.6734 x 10-11 Newton, which is very small in magnitude. Though the various objects on this earth
are attract constantly, they do not cause any mention because the force of attraction between them is very small.
(If however, at least one of the bodies is larger like the sun or the earth, then the gravitational force becomes
very large, that is why when objects thrown up fall back to the earth. The force of gravitation is a vector
quantity and it acts along the line joining the centres of mass of the two bodies.
Importance of universal law of gravitation: Universal law of gravitation has given the understanding as to
how artificial satellites will keep on moving in their orbit.
It has also given the understanding as to why the heavenly bodies do not have a random motion. The universal
law has explained the following things.
i.
The force that binds all living things and non-living things to the earth.
ii.
The motion of moon around the earth.
iii.
The motion of the planets around the sun.
iv.
The formation and occurrence of tides due to the moon and the sun.
v.
For holding the atmosphere near the surface of the earth.
Newtons third law of motion and gravitation: According to Newtons third law of motion, To every action
there is equal and opposite reaction. i.e. if an object exerts a force on another object, then the second object
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also exerts equal force on first object, but in opposite direction. According to the Newtons law of gravitation,
Every object in this universe attracts every other object. Now, we consider the condition of a stone and earth,
that a freely falling stone is attracted towards the earth, means earth attracts the stone but according to
Newtons third law of motion, the stone should attract the earth towards itself and really it is true that stone also
attracts earth with the same force and according to Newtons second law of motion.
F=mxa
or
a = F/m
But due to very less mass of stone, the acceleration (a) in its velocity is 9.8 m/s2, but the mass of the earth is 6 x
1024 kg. So the acceleration of the earth towards stone is 1.63 x 10-24 m/s2 which is very much negligible that we
cannot feel the motion of earth.
Free fall: The falling of a body (or orbit) from a height towards the earth under the gravitational force of earth
(with no other forces acting on it) is called free fall, and the body which is falling towards the earth on its own
we say that it is under free fall.
Acceleration due to gravity: The uniform acceleration produced in a freely falling object due to the
gravitational pull of the earth is known as acceleration due to gravity and is denoted by letter (g).
We consider a body of mass (m) lying on the surface of the earth.
m
The gravitational force acting on the body is given by

F = G. M. m / R2
----------(i)
Where M = mass of the earth, m= mass of the body, R= radius of the earth.
According to the Newtons second law of motion.
F = m. a
----------- (ii)
From equations (i) and (ii) we get
m. a = G. M. m / R2
=>
a = G.M /R2
Thus acceleration is known as acceleration due to gravity (g). i.e. a = g
=>
g = G.M /R2
24
Now, mass of earth is 6 x 10 kg and radius of earth is 6.4x 106 metre.
Therefore.
g= 6.6734x10-11 x 6x1024 / (6.4x106)2
=> g= 9.8 m/s2
R
M
O
Earth
The value of g on the moon is 1/6 times the value of g on the earth i.e. the gravitational force of earth is six
times greater than the gravitational force of moon.
Difference between acceleration due to gravity (g) and gravitational constant (G):
Acceleration due to Gravity (g)
1. Its numerical value is 9.8 m/s2 on the
surface of the earth.
2. Its value varies at various places.
3. Its unit is m/s2.
4. It is a vector quantity i.e. it has
magnitude as well as direction.
5. The value of g at the centre of the
earth is zero.
Universal Gravitational Constant (G)

1. Its value is 6.6734 x 10-11 Nm2/kg.2
2. Its value remains constant always and
everywhere.
3. Its unit is Nm2/kg.2
4. It is a scalar quantity i.e. it has only
magnitude but no direction.
5. The value of g is not zero at the centre of the
earth or anywhere else.
Mass: The mass of an object is the quantity of matter contained in an object. It is denoted by m and it remains
constant at any place of the universe. Mass is a scalar quantity and is measured by an ordinary arm balance
(common balance).
Weight: The weight of an object is defined as the force with which it is attracted towards the centre of the
earth.
We know that F=m x a
(By Newtons second law of motion)
In case of earth
a=g
Therefore,
F= m x g
But the force of attraction on an object is called as its weight (w). i.e. F=W
Therefore,
W= m x g
The weight is a vector quantity and its S.I. unit is Newton (N)
Show that weight of an object on the moon is one-sixth of its weight on earth: Let mass of an object is m,
its weight on the earth means the force by which earth attracts it towards the centre.
Therefore,
Fe = G. Me. m/Re2
--------------- (i)
By universal law of gravitation
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Where G= Gravitational constant, Me= Mass of earth, m = Mass of object,

Now, Weight of the object on the moon will be
Fm = G. Mm x m/Rm2
-------------- (ii)
Dividing equation (i) by equation (ii) we get.
Or,
=>
Fe =
Fm
G. Me. m
Re 2
Fe =
Fm
G. Me. m
Re 2
Fe =
Fm
100 Mm
Mm
Or,
Fe =
Fm
100 x 1 =
Mm
Re= Radius of earth.
G. Mm. m
Rm2
x
Rm2
G. Mm. m
Me
Mm
Rm
Re
Since mass of earth is 100 times the mass of moon. Therefore

And radius of earth is 4 times the radius of moon. Therefore
=>
&
Rm
4Rm
100 = 6.25
16
1
100
1
Or
1
4
Me = 100 Mm
Re = 4 R m
6
1
Fe : Fm = 6:1
Hence, weight of an object on earth is 6 times greater than that on moon. Or we say that weight of an
object on moon is 1/6th of its weight on earth.
Difference between mass and weight:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Mass
The total quantity of matter contained in
an object is called as its mass.
We can measure mass of an object by its
inertia.
Mass of the object remains constant at all
the places.
Measurement of mass can be done by a
beam balance.
Mass of the object does not change even
if value of g is zero at any place.
It is a scalar quantity.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Weight
The gravitational force with which an object is
attracted towards the centre of earth is called
as its weight.
Weight is measured by the product of mass and
acceleration.
Weight of the object is different at different
places.
Measurement of weight can be done by using a
spring balance.
Weight of an object becomes zero, if value of g
is zero at any place and can change.
It is vector quantity.
Equations of motion for freely falling bodies: Since the freely falling bodies with uniformly accelerated
motion, the three equations of motion derived for bodies under uniform acceleration can also be used to find the
motion of freely falling bodies.
For freely falling bodies, the acceleration due to gravity is g. So a is to be replaced by g in equations of
motion and vertical distance of freely falling bodies is known as height h in equations of motion for freely
falling bodies. i.e.
i.
v = u + at
changes to
v = u + gt.
2
ii.
S= ut + at changes to
h = ut + gt2.
iii.
v2 = u2 +2aS changes to
v2 = u2 +2gh.
The physical quantities having vertically upward motion are assigned positive values and written with a
positive sign (+), while as the physical quantities having downward motion are assigned negative values and
are written with a negative sign (-).
Keplers laws of planetary motion: In the beginning of 17th century a German Astronomer Johannes Kepler
established three laws which govern the motion of planets around the sun, and also describes the motion of
satellites around the planets. The three laws are
i. Law of Orbits (First law): It states that the planets in elliptical orbits around the sun, with the Sun at
one of the two foci of the elliptical orbit. This shows that orbit if a planet is elliptical and not a circle
and an elliptical orbit have two foci and sun is at one of the two foci.
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ii. Law of Areas (Second law): It state that each planet revolves
around the sun in such a way that the line joining the planet to
the sun sweeps over equal areas in equal intervals of time.
Since the line joining the planet and sun sweeps over equal
areas in equal intervals of time, it means that a planet moves
faster when it is closer to sun and moves slowly when it is
farther from the sun.
iii. Law of Periods (Third law): The square of the orbital period
of any planet about the sun is directly proportional to the cube
of its mean distance from the sun. This is called the law of
periods. If T is the period of a planet and r is the mean distance
of planet from the sun, then
T2 r3
Or T2 = kr3
Where k is a constant.
Textual Questions:
Q.1:
Ans:
Q.2:
Ans:
How does the force of gravitation between two objects change when the distance between them is
reduced to half?
According to the law of gravitation, the force of attraction acting between two bodies is given by,
Thus, when the distance between the objects is reduced to half the gravitational force increases by four
times the original force.
The gravitational force acts on all objects in proportion to their masses. Why, then, a heavy object does
not fall faster than a light object?
Let F be the gravitational force acting on a body of mass m, then it can be given by,
mg =
GM m
r2
From the above equations we can see that F m, although g (acceleration due to gravity) does not
depend on m. Hence, all bodies fall with the same acceleration provided there is no air or other
resistance.
Q.3:
Ans:
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What is the magnitude of the gravitational force between the earth and a 1 kg object on its surface?
(Mass of the earth = 6 x 1024 kg and radius of the earth is 6.4 x 106 m)
Given that,
Mass of the body (m) = 1 kg
Mass of the Earth (M) = 6 x 1024 kg
Radius of the earth (R) = 6.4 x 106 m
Now magnitude of the gravitational force (F) between the earth and the body can be given as,
Page 38 of 95
6.67 1011 6 1024 1

6.4 6.4 1012
=
Q.4:
Ans:
Q.5:
Ans:
Q.6:
6.67 6 1011 1024 1012

6.4 6.4
The earth and the moon are attracted to each other by gravitational force. Does the earth attract the
moon with a force that is greater or smaller or the same as the force with which the moon attracts the
earth? Why?
The earth surface attracts the moon with the same force as the force with which the moon attracts the
earth. According to Newtons 3rd law, these two forces are equal and opposite.
Also by the universal law of gravitation, the force acting between earth and moon will be:
Where M1 = Mass (earth), M2 = Mass (moon), d = Distance between earth and moon. The magnitude of
force (F) is same for earth and moon.
If the moon attracts the earth, why does the earth not move towards the moon?
According to the Newtons 3rd law of motion, the moon also attracts the earth with a force equal to that
with which the earth attracts the moon. Since the earth is much larger than the moon so, the acceleration
produced on the earth surface (a 1/m) cannot be noticed.
What happens to the force between two objects, if
(i)
the mass of one object is doubled?
(ii)
the distance between the objects is doubled and tripled?
(iii) the masses of both objects are doubled?
Ans:
Q.7:
Ans:
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(i)
When the mass of either body is doubled, the force is also doubled as per the following
equation:
(ii)
When the distance between the objects is doubled, the force becomes one fourth of the original
force as per the following equation:
Similarly it can be shown that when the distance between the objects is tripled, the force
becomes one ninth of the original force.
(iii) In the same way as given in the answer (i) above this can be shown that when the masses of both
bodies are doubled, the force becomes four times the original force.
What is the importance of Universal Law of Gravitation?
There are many importance of Universal Law of Gravitation as with the help of this law we can explain
natural phenomena such as,
1.
The force of attraction that binds us to the earth.
2.
The motion of planets moving around the sun.
3.
The motion of the moon around the earth.
4.
The occurring of tides due to the sun and the moon.
Page 39 of 95
Q.8:
Ans:
Q.9:
Ans:
Q.10:
Ans:
Q.11:
Ans:
Q.13:
Ans:
Q.14:
Ans:
Q.15:
Ans:
Q.16:
What is the acceleration of free fall?

It is the acceleration produced when a body falls under the influence of the force of gravitation of the
earth alone. On the surface of the earth its value is 9.8 m/s2.
What do we call the gravitational force between the earth and an object?
Weight of that object.
Amit buys few grams of gold at poles as per the instruction of one of his friends. He hands over the
same when he meets him at equator. Will the friend agree with the weight of gold bought? If not, why?
His friend wont agree with the weight of gold bought. Since the value of g is less at the equator than
that at the poles so, the same gold weighed at the poles will measure less when taken to equator.
Why will a sheet of paper fall slower than one that is crumpled into a ball?
Because the sheet of paper will experience larger air resistance due to its larger surface area than its
surface area in ball form. Hence, a sheet of paper falls slower than one that is crumpled into a ball.
A ball is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity of 49 m/s. Calculate
(i)
the maximum height to which it rises,
(ii)
the total time it takes to return to the surface of the earth.
(i)
Given that, u = 49 m/s g = 9.8 m/s2 (upward motion)
At the heighest point v = 0
Utilizing the equation v2 u2 = 2gs, we get
0 492 = 2 (9.8)s
Maximum height s = 122.5m
(ii)
Let t be the time taken by the ball to reach the highest point, we know
v = u + gt
0 = 49 9.8t
t = 5 sec.
Since, time of ascent is equal to the time of descent so,
Total time taken by the ball to return to the earths surface
= 2t = 2 x 5 = 10
A stone is released from the top of a tower of height 19.6 m. calculate its final velocity just before
touching the ground.
Given that,
u = 0, g = 9.8 ms2, h = 19.6 m
Now, v2 - u2 = 2gh
or, v2 - 0 = 2 x 9.8 x 19.6 = (19.6)2
or, v = 19.6 ms1 (we will consider value of v only +ve since it is in the downward direction)
A stone is thrown vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 40 m/s. Taking g = 10 m/s2, find the
maximum height reached by the stone. What is the net displacement and total distance covered by the
stone?
Given that, u = 40 ms1, g = 10 ms2 maximum height, h = ?
At the highest point (h) the velocity (v) will be zero.
using the equation, v2 - u2 = 2gh
0 402 = 2(10)h
or, h = 80 m
or, the total distance covered = 2h = 160 m
Net displacement = 80 80 = 0
Calculate the force of gravitation between the earth and the sun, given that the mass of the earth = 6 x
1024 kg and of the sun = 2 x 1030 kg. The average distance between the two is 1.5 x 1011 m.
Ans:
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Page 40 of 95
Q.17: A stone is allowed to fall from the top of a tower 100 m high and at the same time another stone is
projected vertically upwards from the ground with a velocity of 25 m/s. Calculate when and where the
two stones will meet?
Ans:
U=25 m/s
Q.19:
Ans:
Q.20:
Ans:
Q.21:
Ans:
Q.22:
Ans:
or
80m from the top.
In what direction does the buoyant force on an object immersed in a liquid act?
The buoyant force acts on an object in the vertically upward direction through the center of gravity of
the displaced liquid.
Why does a block of plastic released under water come up to the surface of water?
It is because the upthrust or the buoyant force exerted by the water brings the plastic block to the
surface of water.
The volume of 50 gm of a substance is 20 cm3. If the density of water is 1 g/cm3, will the substance
float or sink?
Given the mass of the substance = 50 g
Volume of the substance = 20 cm3
Density of substance = Mass Volume = (50 20) g/cm3 = 2.5 g/cm3
Since the density of the substance is greater than the density of water (1 g/cm3), so the substance will
sink in the water.
The volume of a 50 gm sealed packet is 350 cm3 will the packet float or sink in water if the density of
water is 1 g/cm3 ? What will be the mass of the water displaced by this packet?
Mass of packet = 500 g
Volume of packet = 350 cm3
Density of packet = Mass Volume = (500 350) g/cm3 = 1.43 g/cm3
The sealed packet will sink in the water as its density is more than that of water.
The volume of water that will be displaced by the packet = 350 cm3
And mass of this displaced water = Volume x Density = 350 x 1 = 350 g.
SOUND
Sound: Sound is a form of energy that makes us to hear. i.e. it is the form of energy which produces the
sensation of hearing. Sound is a form of energy which is produced by vibrating bodies in the form of waves
(vibrations) received by ears and perceived by our brain.
Nature of sound waves: Sound is a form of energy that travels in the form of waves. A wave is a vibratory
disturbance in a medium which carries energy from one point to another without being a direct contact between
the two points. Sound waves are longitudinal in nature. i.e. Sound waves travel in a kind of wave motion in
which particles of the medium vibrate back and forth (to and fro) in the same direction in which the wave is
moving. These longitudinal waves produce compressions and rarefactions during their propagation. Sound
waves travel in straight lines and travels in a material medium.
Example: we consider a long, light spring kept on a smooth horizontal surface whose one end is fixed. Let us
push and pull the spring from the other end at regular intervals. We will find that alternative compressions and
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rarefactions in the spring are occurring. If we consider a point P of the spring, we will observe that the point P
vibrates back and forth about its mean position along the direction of propagation of wave. Such a wave is
called as longitudinal wave.
Compression
Rarefaction
Types of waves:
i.
Transvere waves: A wave motion, in which the
particles of the medium oscillate about their mean
positions at right angles to the direction of propagation
of the wave, is called transverse wave. In a transverse
wave, the medium has particles that vibrate in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of the propagation of
wave. Here the formation of crest and trough takes place.
The polarization of transverse wave is possible. These
waves can propagate through solids and liquids but not through gases, because gases do not possess
elastic properties. Examples of these waves are: vibrations in strings, ripples on water surface and
electromagnetic waves.
In a transverse wave, the particles of the medium oscillate in a direction perpendicular to the
direction of propagation as shown in the figure. For example if a given transverse wave moves in x
direction then the oscillations will occur in the plane. Particles of the medium oscillate in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of propagation
ii.
Longitudinal Waves: A wave motion in which the

particles of the medium oscillate about their mean
positions in the direction of propagation of the
wave, is called longitudinal wave. For longitudinal
wave the vibration of the particles of the medium
are in the direction of wave propagation.
A longitudinal wave proceeds in the form of
compression and rarefaction which is the stretch and
compression in the same direction as the wave
moves. For a longitudinal wave at places of compression the pressure and density tends to be
maximum, while at places where rarefaction takes place, the pressure and density are minimum. In
gases only longitudinal wave can propagate. Longitudinal waves are known as compression waves.
Characteristics of a sound wave: The various characteristic features of sound waves are:
i. Amplitude: The maximum displacement of the particles of a wave from their mean position in a wave,
when a wave passes through a medium is known as amplitude. It is actually the size of a wave. The S.I.
unit of amplitude if a wave is metre (m).
ii. Time Period: The time taken by a wave to complete one full vibration is known as its time period. In
other words the time taken by a wave to travel a distance equal to its wave length is known as its time
period. It is denoted by the letter t and its S.I unit is Second (S).
iii. Wavelength: In a sound wave, the combined length of a compression and an adjacent rarefaction is
called as its wave length, or the distance between the centres of two rarefactions is known as the
wavelength. It is denoted by a Greek letter (Lambda). Since wavelength is a distance, therefore its S.I.
unit is metre (m).
iv. Frequency: The number of vibrations (or cycles) produced by a wave in one second is known as its
frequency. It is denoted by the letter f or (nu). The S.I. unit of frequency is Hertz (Hz). The
frequency of a wave is fixed and does not change even when it passes through different substances. The
frequency of a wave is equal to the reciprocal of its time period.
i.e.
Frequency = 1/Time period or
f = 1/T
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v.
Velocity (or speed) of a wave: The distance travelled by a wave per second is known as its velocity. It is
represented by the letter V. The S.I. unit of velocity of wave is metre per second (m/s) or (ms-1).
Velocity of wave = Distance travelled by a wave / Time taken
Or,
Velocity = Wavelength / Time taken
=>
V = /T
Or,
V = (1/T) x
=>
V=fx
Or,
V=f
Where V = Velocity, f = Frequency and
vi. Compression: In case of longitudinal waves,

the particles of the medium move to and fro,
at certain regions they move closer to each
other, where both pressure and density of
particles is comparatively more, these regions
are called as compressions.
vii. Rarefactions: In case of longitudinal waves,
the particles of a medium are farther apart
from each other at certain regions of the
medium where both pressure and density
of particles are comparatively less are
referred as rarefactions.
= Wave Length.
Compression
rarefaction
F
Amplitude
R
D
viii. Pitch of sound: Pitch of sound is the feeling experienced by the brain of the listener. The pitch of sound
depends on the frequency of sound. Greater the frequency of sound higher will be the pitch and lesser the
frequency of sound lower will be the pitch of sound.We can say that the sharpness of sound is the pitch of
sound.
ix. Loudness of sound: The loudness of sound is the measure of the response of the ear to the sound waves.
The loudness of sound depends on the amplitude of sound wave. The sound wave with greater amplitude
has the high intensity or loudness. It is generally measured in decibels.
x. Intensity of sound: The amount of sound energy passing each second through unit area is called the
intensity of the sound.
xi. Quality (Timbre) of sound: Quality of sound is that characteristic of the sound by which we are able to
distinguish two sounds of the same frequency and intensity.
Propagation (or transmission) of sound: When an object vibrates (and makes sound), then the air layers
around it also start vibrating in exactly the same way and carry sound waves from the sound producing body
too our ears. e.g.
When we speak something, sound waves are formed, these sound waves propagate in air
to and fro by the formation of compression and rarefactions. When we speak, the particles of air near our mouth
are pushed and they are compressed, now they compress the other close part of air and the part of air near the
mouth expands and particles are far apart of each other and causes rarefaction. The process is repeated and
sound waves propagate to the ear of listener.
During the transmission of sound through air, there is no actual movement of air from the sound producing
body to our ear. The air layers only vibrate back and forth, and transfer the sound energy from one layer to the
next layer till it reaches our eyes.
Sound needs material medium for its propagation: Since sound waves propagate in the form of longitudinal
waves, so sound cannot travel in vacuum and needs any material medium for its propagation.
Example: We suspend an electric bell through electric connecting wires passing through a cork fitted on the
mouth of a bell jar. The bell jar is connected to vacuum pump and the electrical circuit is connected to the bell
with a switch S. The arrangement should be air tight. When switch S is pressed, we will be able to hear sound
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because air inside the jar propagates sound to the walls of the jar. The walls of the jar start vibrating and we
hear the sound. Now, we will start vacuum pump so that air inside the jar is evacuated. After some time, when
most of the air is out, stop the vacuum pump. Then again switch on the circuit, we will not be able to hear any
sound. This is because the medium (air) is not present between the bell and the wall of jar, therefore, sound
from the bell could not reach the walls of jar, and hence the bell didnt produce any sound. From this activity it
is clear that sound needs a material medium for propagation.
Switch
Battery
Cork
Bell Jar
Electric bell
Ear
sound waves
To vacuum Pump
Experiment to show that sound waves needs material medium for propagation.
Speed of sound: Since the sound waves are longitudinal in nature and needs material medium for propagation.
Therefore sound travels in solid, liquid and gaseous medium. The speed of sound is the rate at which sound
travels from sound producing bodies to the ears of the listener the speed of the sound depends on the following
factors.
1. The speed of sound depends on the nature of medium (material) through which it travels i.e. solid,
liquid and gases. In general sound travels slowest in gases, faster in liquids and fastest in solids
2. The speed of sound depends on the temperature, as the temperature of air rises, the speed of sound in it
increases.
3. The speed of sound depends on the humidity of air, as the humidity of air increases, the speed of sound
through it also increases.
The speed of sound in some common materials are
Material Medium
Dry air (at 00C)
Dry air
Water distilled (at200C)
Sea water (at 00C)
Iron (or steel) (at 200C)
Glass (20oC
Speed in m/s
332 m/s
344 m/s
1498 m/s
1531 m/s
5130 m/s
5170 m/s
Reflection of sound: Since sound waves are longitudinal in nature and travels in straight lines, hence it gets
reflected like light at the surface of solid or liquid substances. The bouncing back of sound when it strikes a
hard surface is called as reflection of sound. The hard surfaces reflect well while as soft surfaces are bad
reflectors of sound and absorbs sound. The sound waves also follows the law of reflection as light does and are
given by.
i.
ii.
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The incident sound wave, the reflected sound wave and the normal at the point of reflection of
sound all lie in the same plane.
The angle of incidence of sound wave with normal is equal to the angle of reflection of sound
wave with normal.
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Point of reflection of sound
Reflecting surface
Incident sound wave
Clock
Drawing hard board
cardboard tube
Normal (N)
Reflected sound wave
Ear
Applications of reflection of sound: Some of the important practical applications of reflection of sound are.
i.
Stethoscope: Doctors use stethoscope to hear heart beats of a patient. The sound of heart beats
passes through rubber tube by multiple reflections of sound waves and reaches the earpiece.
ii.
Designing of concert hall: In large concert halls large parabolic sound boards are fixed behind the
speaker with the speaker standing at the focus. The walls and the ceiling should be appropriately
curved so that, after reflection sound reaches all the corners of the hall, because curved surfaces
produce multiple reflections.
iii.
Megaphone: In order to send in a particular direction with spreading it, megaphone is used. It is a
cone shaped device which guides most of the sound waves in the desired direction. Since the sound
waves are focussed and do not spread and hence are directed towards audience and increases
loudness.
Textual Questions:
Q: How does the sound produced by a vibrating object in a medium reach your ear?
Answer: When an object vibrates, it forces the neighbouring particles of the medium to vibrate. These vibrating
particles then force the particles adjacent to them to vibrate. In this way, vibrations produced by an object are
transferred from one particle to another till it reaches the ear.
Q: Explain how sound is produced by your school bell.
Answer: When the school bell vibrates, it forces the adjacent particles in air to vibrate. This disturbance gives
rise to a wave and when the bell moves forward, it pushes the air in front of it. This creates a region of high
pressures known as compression. When the bell moves backwards, it creates a region of low pressure know as
rarefaction. As the bell continues to move forward and backward, it produces a series of compressions and
rarefactions. This makes the sound of a bell propagate through air.
Q: Why are sound waves called mechanical waves?
Answer: Sound waves force the medium particles to vibrate. Hence, these waves are known as mechanical
waves. Sound waves propagate through a medium because of the interaction of the particles present in that
medium.
Q: Suppose you and your friend are on the moon. Will you be able to hear any sound produced by your
friend?
Answer: No, I will not be able to hear sound, because Moon has no atmosphere. Therefore, no sound waves
can travel to my ears and therefore, no sound is heard.
Q: Which wave property determines (a) loudness, (b) pitch?
Answer: (a) The amplitude of the wave determines the loudness, more the amplitude of a wave, more is the
loudness produced.
(b) The pitch is determined by the frequency of the wave. Higher the frequency of a wave more is its pitch and
shriller is the sound.
Q: Guess which sound has a higher pitch: guitar or car horn?
Answer: Guitar has a higher pitch than car horn, because sound produced by the strings of guitar has high
frequency than that of car horn. Thus, high is the frequency higher is the pitch.
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Q: How are the wavelength and frequency of a sound wave related to its speed?
Answer: Speed, wavelength, and frequency of a sound wave are related by the following equation:
Speed = Wavelength Frequency
Q: Calculate the wavelength of a sound wave whose frequency is 220 Hz and speed is 440 m/s in a given
medium.
Answer:
Frequency of the sound wave = 220 Hz
Speed of the sound wave, v = 440 m s1
For a sound wave,
Speed of the sound wave = Wavelength Frequency
=>
V=x
440
= 220 = 2m
Hence, the wavelength of the sound wave is 2 m.

Q: A person is listening to a tone of 500 Hz sitting at a distance of 450 m from the source of the sound.
What is the time interval between successive compressions from the source?
Answer: The time interval between two successive compressions is equal to the time period of the wave. This
time period is reciprocal of the frequency of the wave and is given by the relation:
Q: Distinguish between loudness and intensity of sound.

Answer: The loudness depends on energy per unit area of the wave and on the response of the ear but intensity
depends only on the energy per unit area of the wave and is independent of the response of the ear.
Q: In which of the three media, air, water or iron, does sound travel the fastest at a particular
temperature?
Answer: The speed of sound depends on the nature of the medium. Sound travels the fastest in solids. Its speed
decreases in liquids and it is the slowest in gases. Therefore, for a given temperature, sound travels fastest in
iron.
Q: An echo returned in 3 s. What is the distance of the reflecting surface from the source, given that the
speed of sound is 342 m s1?
Answer:
Speed of sound, v = 342 m s1
Echo returns in time, t = 3 s
Distance travelled by sound = v t = 342 3 = 1026 m
In the given time interval, sound has to travel a distance that is twice the distance of the reflecting
surface and the source.
Hence, the distance of the reflecting surface from the source

Q: Why are the ceilings of concert halls curved?
Answer: Ceilings of concert halls are curved so that sound after reflection from it spreads uniformly in all
directions.
Q: What is the audible range of the average human ear?
Answer: The audible range of an average human ear lies between 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz. Humans cannot hear
sounds having frequency less than 20 Hz and greater than 20,000 Hz.
Q: What is the range of frequencies associated with (a) Infrasound? (b) Ultrasound?
Answer:
(a) Infrasound has frequencies less than 20 Hz.
(b) Ultrasound has frequencies more than 20,000 Hz.
Q: A submarine emits a sonar pulse, which returns from an underwater cliff in 1.02 s. If the speed of
sound in salt water is 1531 m/s, how far away is the cliff?
Answer:
Time taken by the sonar pulse to return, t = 1.02 s
Speed of sound in salt water, v = 1531 m s1
Distance of the cliff from the submarine = Speed of sound Time taken
= 1.02 x 1531 = 1561.62m
Distance of the cliff from the submarine
Distance travelled by the sonar pulse during its transmission and reception in water
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= 2 Actual distance = 2d
Distance
Actual distance, d =
1561 .62
of the cliff from the submarine

2
= 2 = 780.81m
Q: What is sound and how is it produced?
Answer: Sound is produced by vibration. When a body vibrates, it forces the neighbouring particles of the
medium to vibrate. This creates a disturbance in the medium, which travels in the form of waves. This
disturbance, when reaches the ear, produces sound.
Q: Describe with the help of a diagram, how compressions and rarefactions are produced in air near a
source of sound.
Answer: When a vibrating body moves forward, it creates a region of high
pressure in its vicinity. This region of high pressure is known as
compressions. When it moves backward, it creates a region of low
pressure in its vicinity. This region is known as a rarefaction. As the body
continues to move forward and backwards, it produces a series of
compressions and rarefactions as shown in the figure.
Q: Cite an experiment to show that sound needs a material medium for its propagation.
Answer: Take an electric bell and hang this bell inside an empty belljar fitted with a vacuum pump as shown in the figure.
Initially, one can hear the sound of the ringing bell. Now, pump out
some air from the bell-jar using the vacuum pump. It will be
observed that the sound of the ringing bell decreases. If one keeps on
pumping the air out of the bell-jar, then at one point, the glass-jar will
be devoid of any air. At this moment, no sound can be heard from the
ringing bell although one can see that the prong of the bell is still
vibrating. When there is no air present inside, we can say that a
vacuum is produced. Sound cannot travel through vacuum. This
shows that sound needs a material medium for its propagation.
Q: Why is sound wave called a longitudinal wave?
Answer: The vibration of the medium that travels along or parallel to the direction of the wave is called a
longitudinal wave. In a sound wave, the particles of the medium vibrate in the direction parallel to the direction
of the propagation of disturbance. Hence, a sound wave is called a longitudinal wave.
Q: Which characteristics of the sound help you to identify your friend by his voice while sitting with
others in a dark room?
Answer: Quality or Timbre of sound is that characteristic which helps us to identify a particular person. Sound
produced by two persons may have the same pitch and loudness, but the quality of the two sounds will be
different.
Q: Flash and thunder are produced simultaneously. But thunder is heard a few seconds after the flash is
seen, why?
Answer: The speed of sound is less than the speed of light. Sound of thunder takes more time to reach the Earth
as compared to light. Hence, a flash is seen before we hear a thunder.
Q: A person has a hearing range from 20 Hz to 20 kHz. What are the typical wavelengths of sound waves
in air corresponding to these two frequencies? Take the speed of sound in air as 344 m s1.
Answer: For a sound wave,
Speed = Wavelength Frequency
Given that the speed of sound in air = 344 m/s
(i)
For 1 = 20 Hz
(ii)
For 2 = 20 KHz = 20 x 1000 = 20,000Hz
[1KHz = 1000Hz
Hence, for humans, the wavelength range for hearing is 0.0172 m to 17.2 m.
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Q: Two children are at opposite ends of an aluminium rod. One strikes the end of the rod with a stone.
Find the ratio of times taken by the sound wave in air and in aluminium to reach the second child.
Answer:
Let length of the aluminium rod
=dm
Speed of sound in air
= 346 m/s
Time taken by sound in air (Tair)

= 346 s
Speed of sound in aluminium
= 6420 m/s
Time taken by sound in aluminium (TAl)

= 6420 s
Tair
6420
6420
Ratio of time taken by sound wave in air and in aluminium = T = 346 x = 346 = 18.55
Q: The frequency of a source of sound is 100 Hz. How many times does it vibrate in a minute?
Answer: Frequency is defined as the number of vibrations per second. It is given by the relation:
Number of vibrations = Frequency Total time
No .of vibrations
Frequency = Total time
Given, Frequency of sound = 100 Hz
Total time = 1 min = 60 s
Number of Vibrations = 100 60 = 6000
Hence, the source vibrates 6000 times in a minute, producing a frequency of 100 Hz.
Q: Does sound follow the same laws of reflection as light does? Explain.
Answer: Yes, sound follows the same laws of reflection as light does. The incident sound wave and the
reflected sound wave make the same angle with the normal to the surface at the point of incidence. Also, the
incident sound wave, the reflected sound wave, and the normal to the point of incidence all lie in the same
plane.
Q: When a sound is reflected from a distant object, an echo is produced. Let the distance between the
reflecting surface and the source of sound production remains the same. Do you hear echo sound on a
hotter day?
Answer: On the hotter day, the speed of sound increases. So, the reflected sound returns to source earlier than
1/10th i.e. 0.1 s. hence, a distinct echo cannot be heard.
Q: Give two practical applications of reflection of sound waves.
Answer: (i) Reflection of sound is used to measure the distance and speed of underwater objects. This method
is known as SONAR.
(ii) Working of a stethoscope is also based on reflection of sound. In a stethoscope, the sound of the patients
heartbeat reaches the doctors ears by multiple reflection of sound.
Q: What is reverberation? How can it be reduced?
Answer: Persistence of sound (after the source stops producing sound) due to repeated reflection is known as
reverberation. As the source produces sound, it starts travelling in all directions. Once it reaches the wall of a
room, it is partly reflected back from the wall. This reflected sound reaches the other wall and again gets
reflected partly. Due to this, sound can be heard even after the source has ceased to produce sound.
To reduce reverberations, sound must be absorbed as it reaches the walls and the ceiling of a room. Sound
absorbing materials like fibreboard, rough plastic, heavy curtains, and cushioned seats can be used to reduce
reverberation.
Q: What is loudness of sound? What factors does it depend on?
Answer: A loud sound has high energy. Loudness depends on the amplitude of vibrations. In fact, loudness is
proportional to the square of the amplitude of vibrations.
CHEMISTRY
ATOMS AND MOLECULES
Laws of chemical combination: The three important laws of chemical combination are law of conservation
of mass, law of constant proportion and law of multiple proportions.
i.
Law of conservation of mass: It was given by a French chemist, Antoine Lavoisier in 1774 and it states
that During any chemical change the total mass of the products is equal to the total mass of the reactants.
In other words, the law of conservation of mass means that mass can be neither created nor destroyed
during any chemical combination. It is also known as the law of indestructibility of matter. From certain
experiments, it is verified and concluded that although substances may undergo chemical changes, the total
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mass of the products of a chemical reaction is exactly equal to the total mass of reactants taking part in the
chemical reaction. e.g. Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is made up of 1 calcium atom, 1 carbon atom, and 3
oxygen atoms. The product of its decomposition, calcium oxide (CaO) and carbon dioxide (CO2) taken
together, also contain 1calcium atom, 1carbon atom and 3oxygen atoms. Now since the no. of various
types of atoms in the products (CaO and CO2) and reactants (CaCO3) remains the same, therefore, the mass
of products and reactants also remains the same, in the reaction. There is no change in mass during the
decomposition of calcium carbonate to form calcium oxide and carbon dioxide. The mass remains
conserved.
ii. Law of constant proportion: This law was given by Joseph Louis Proust in 1797. According to this law,
A chemical compound always consists of the same elements combined together in the same
proportions by weight. In other words whatever be the source from which a compound is obtained. It is
always made up of the same elements in the same weight percentage. e.g. Water is a compound of
hydrogen and oxygen. If we decompose 9 grams of pure water by passing electricity through it, then 1
gram of hydrogen and 8 grams of oxygen are always obtained. Now, if we repeat the experiment by taking
pure water from different sources, the same mass of hydrogen and oxygen are obtained in each case. It is
clear from here that water always consists of two elements, hydrogen and oxygen and these elements are
combined together in the same ratio proportion of 1:8 by parts.
iii. Law of multiple proportion: This law was put forward by John Dalton in 1808. According to this law,
when two elements combine to form two or more compounds, then the weight of one of these elements
which combine with a fixed weight of the other element bear a simple ratio to one another. e.g. In water
(H2O) two atoms of hydrogen combine with 1 atom of oxygen. On the other hand in hydrogen peroxide
(H2O2), the same two atoms of hydrogen combine with two atoms of oxygen. So, the ration of oxygen
atoms in water and hydrogen peroxide, which combine with a fixed no. of hydrogen atoms, is 1:2. Since
the weight is proportional to the no. of atoms, therefore, the ratio of weight of oxygen atoms in the two
compounds water and hydrogen peroxide, which combine with a fixed weight of hydrogen atoms is also
1:2 which is a simple ratio.
Daltons atomic theory: In 1808, John Dalton gave his atomic theory of matter which was confirmed by
experiments. According to Daltons atomic theory of matter,
i.
All the matter is made up of very small particles called as atoms.
ii.
Atoms can neither be created nor destroyed by any chemical process.
iii.
Atoms cannot be divided.
iv.
Atoms are of different kinds. i.e. atoms are of many kinds as there are elements.
v.
All the atoms of a given element are identical in every respect, having the same mass, size and
chemical properties.
vi.
Atoms of different elements differ in masses, size and chemical properties.
vii.
Chemical combination between the two or more elements consists in the joining together of
atoms of these elements to form molecules of compounds.
viii. The number and kind of atoms in a given compound is fixed.
ix.
During chemical combination atoms of different elements combine in small whole numbers to
form compounds.
x.
Atoms of the same elements can combine in more than one compound.
Drawbacks of Daltons atomic theory: Some of the draw backs (limitations) of Daltons atomic theory are.
i.
According to Dalton, atoms are indivisible, but now under special circumstances atom can be
further divided into still smaller particles called protons, electrons and neutrons.
ii.
It failed to explain many common observations like the different properties of charcoal, graphite
and diamond when all these substances are made up of same type of atoms called carbon atoms
but have different physical properties.
iii.
It says that all the atoms of an element have exactly the same mass; it is however now known
that atoms of the same element can have slightly different masses.
iv.
According to this theory atoms of different elements have the different masses. It is however,
now known that even atoms of different elements can have the same masses.
Atom: An atom is the smallest particle of an element that can take part in a chemical reaction. It is the smallest
particle of the element which may or may not have independent existence. Atoms of most of the elements are
very reactive and do not exist in the free state.
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Page 49 of 95
Atomic mass: The atomic mass of an element is the relative mass of its atom of the element as compared with
the mass of an atom of carbon atom (12C6 atom) taken as 12 units. In other words atomic mass expresses the
number of times an atom of the elements is heavier than a carbon atom taken as 12 or 1/12th of the mass of
carbon atom.
Therefore,
Atomic mass =
(mass of an element)
(1/12th the mass of a carbon atom C-12)
The unit of measurement of the atomic mass is atomic mass unit (amu)
Atomic mass unit = 1/12th the mass of a carbon-12 atom.
Or,
1 amu
= 1/12th the mass of a carbon-12 atom.
Molecule: A molecule is the smallest particle of a substance which has the properties of that substance and can
exist in the free state. It is an electrically neutral group of two or more atoms chemically bound together.
On the basis of combination of atoms of the same element or of different elements, a molecule is of two types.
i.
Molecule of an element: The molecule of an element contains two or more similar atoms
chemically combined together. e.g. The chlorine molecules and hydrogen molecule contains 2
chlorine atoms and 2 hydrogen atoms respectively.
i.e.
molecule of chlorine Cl2
molecule of hydrogen H2
The numbers of atoms present in one molecule of an element is called as its atomicity.
ii.
Molecule of a compound: The molecule of a compound contains two or more different types of
atoms of different element chemically combined together. e.g. A molecule of water contains two
hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom to form a molecule of water. i.e. H2O etc.
Ions: An ion is an electrically charged atom or a group of atoms. An ion is formed by the loss or gain of
electrons by an atom, so it contains an unequal no. of electrons and protons. e.g. Sodium ion (Na+),
Magnesium ion (Mg2+), Chlorine ion (Cl-), Oxide ion (O2). Ions are of two types as per their electrical charge.
i.
Cation: a positively charged ion is called as a cation. It is formed by the loss of one or more
electrons by an atom. e.g. Sodium atom losses 1 electron to form a sodium ion (Na+).
Na
(1 sodium atom)
ii.
electron
Na +
Sodium ion (Cation)
Anion: A negatively charged ion is known as an anion. It is formed by the gain of one or more
electron by an atom. e.g. A chlorine atom gains (accepts) 1 electron to form a chlorine ion (Cl - ).
Cl
(1 sodium atom)
electron
Cl
Chloride ion (anion)
An anion contains more electrons than a normal atom.

Chemical formula: the chemical formula of a compound represents the composition of a molecule of the
compound in terms of the symbols of the elements present in it. The chemical formula of a compound conveys
the information about the number and kind of atoms present in compound.
Writing of chemical formula of simple compounds: The steps involved in writing the chemical formula of a
compound are
i.
Write the symbol of formulae of the ions of the compound side by side with positive ion on the
left hand side and negative ion on the right hand side.
ii.
Polyatomic ion i.e. ion containing atoms of more than one element should be written in bracket
e.g. CO32, NH4+, SO42 etc.
iii.
Write the valency (or charge) of each ion below its symbol.
iv.
Reduce the valency (or charge) numerals to a simple ratio by dividing with a common factor, if
any.
v.
Crossover the valencies (or charges) i.e. shift the charge (valency) numerals crosswise to the
lower right corner of the ions. We will not write the charges positive and negative of the ions.
e.g.Formula of Barium Nitrate.
Step1. Formula of ions

Step2. Enclosing of compound radical.
Step3. Writing of valencies.
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Ba 2+
(Ba) 2+
(Ba) 2+
2
NO 3 (NO 3 ) (NO 3 ) 1
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Step4. Simple ratio

Step5. Crossing over of valencies
2:1
(Ba) 2+
2
(NO 3 ) 1
= Ba(NO 3 ) 2
Molecular mass: The molecular mass of a substance is defined as the relative mass of its molecules as
compared to the mass of an atom of carbon (carbon-12) taken as 12. In other words, molecular mass expresses
as to how many times a molecule of a substance is heavier than 1.12th of the mass of an atom of carbon (C-12).
Therefore, Molecular mass =
Mass of a molecule
1/12 th mass of the carbon atom (C-12)
Molecular mass can also be calculated as the sum of the atomic masses of all the atoms in a molecule of the
substance.
e.g. Molecular mass of NH 3 (ammonia)
Atomic mass of nitrogen is 14 and that of hydrogen i s 1.
Therefore, Molecular mass of NH 3 = 1 x 14 + 3 x 1 = 14 + 3 = 17u.
Molecular mass of glucose (C 6 H 12 O 6 )
Atomic mass of carbon = 12, Hydrogen =1, Oxygen=16
Therefore, Molecular mass of (C 6 H 12 O 6 ) = 12x6 + 12x1 + 6x16
= 72 + 12 + 96 = 180u.
Mole Concept: A mole of a substance is that amount of substance which contains the same number of particles
(atoms, molecules or ions) as there are carbon atoms in 12 grams of C-12 atom. Since 12 grams of C-12
contains 6.022x1023 atoms of carbon. So, a molecule of a substance can also be expressed as that amount of the
substance which contains 6.022x1023particles (atoms, molecules or ions) of the substance. A mole of a
substance represents the two things. i.e.
i.
A mole of a substance represents a definite amount of the substance. It represents the amount of
a substance equal to its gram atomic mass or gram molecular mass.
ii.
A mole of a substance represents a definite number of atoms, molecules or ions of a substance. It
represents 6.022x1023atoms, molecules or ions of a substance.
Textual questions
In text Questions
Q:
In a reaction, 5.3 g of sodium carbonate reacted with 6 g of ethanoic acid. The products were 2.2 g of
carbon dioxide, 0.9 g water and 8.2 g sodium ethanoate. Show that these observations are
in agreement with the law of conservation of mass.
Ans: Sodium carbonate + Ethanoic acid Sodium ethanoate + Carbon dioxide + water
5.3g
6.0g
8.2g
2.2g
0.9g
Total Mass of reactants = Mass of sodium carbonate + Mass of ethanoic acid
= 5.3 + 6.0 = 11.3 g
Total Mass of products = Mass of carbon dioxide + Mass of water + Mass of sodium ethanoate
= 2.2 + 0.9 + 8.2 = 11.3 g
The mass of products is equal to the mass of reactants. Thus, mass is neither created nor lost during the
given chemical change which is in agreement with the law of conservation of mass.
Q:
Hydrogen and oxygen combine in the ratio of 1:8 by mass to form water. What mass of oxygen gas
would be required to react completely with 3 gm of hydrogen gas?
Ans: Since hydrogen and oxygen combine in the ratio of 1:8 by mass, it means that x gm of hydrogen
and 8xg of oxygen will be required to form water.
So, Oxygen required to react with 3 g of hydrogen to form water = 8 x 3 = 24 g
Q:
Which postulate of Daltons Atomic Theory is the result of the law of conservation of mass?
Ans: Atoms are indivisible particles, which cannot be created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction. is the
result of the law of conservation of mass.
Q:
Which postulate of Daltons Atomic Theory can explain the law of definite proportions?
Ans: The postulate that The relative number and kinds of atoms are constant in a given compound. The
above postulate of Daltons Atomic Theory can explain the law of definite proportions.
Q:
Define the Atomic Mass Unit.
Ans: The atomic mass of an element is the relative mass of its atom as compared with the mass of a particular
atom of carbon isotope taken as 12 units. Thus the atomic mass of an element indicates the number of
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Q:
Ans:
Q:
Ans:
Q:
Ans:
Q:
Ans:
Q:
Ans:
Q:
Ans:
Q:
Ans:
Q:
Ans:
Q:
Ans:
Q:
Ans:
/F-16/
times one atom of the element is heavier than 1/12 th of a 12C atom. For example the atomic mass of
oxygen is 16 which indicates that an atom of oxygen is 16 times heavier than 1/12 th of a 12C atom.
Thus, one Atomic Mass Unit (u) = 1/12 th mass of 12C isotope atom.
Why is it not possible to see an atom with naked eyes?
The size of an atom is very small and is measured in nanometers. Therefore, it is not possible to see an
atom with naked eyes.
Write down the formulae of
(i) sodium oxide
(ii) aluminium chloride
(iii) sodium sulphide
(iv) magnesium hydroxide
(i) Na2O (ii) AlCl3 (iii) Na2S (iv) Mg(OH)2
Write down the names of compounds represented by the following formulae:
(i) Al2(SO4)3,
(ii) CaCl2,
(iii) K2SO4, (iv) KNO3,
(iv) CaCO3
(i) aluminium sulphate
(ii) calcium chloride
(iii) potassium sulphate
(iv) potassium nitrate
(v) calcium carbonate
What is meant by the term chemical formula ?
The chemical formula of a compound is the symbolic representation of its composition.
A chemical formula of a compound shows its constituent elements and the number of atoms of each
combining element. For example, the chemical formula of hydrogen sulphide is H2S. It indicates that in
hydrogen sulphide two hydrogen atoms and one sulphur atom are chemically united.
How many atoms are present in a (i) H2S molecule and (ii) PO43 ion ?
(i) Three atoms (ii) Five atoms
Calculate the molecular masses of H2, O2, Cl2, CO2, CH4, C2H6, C2H4, NH3, CH3OH.
Molecular mass of H2 = 1 + 1 = 2u
Molecular mass of O2 = 16 + 16 = 32u
Molecular mass of Cl2 = 35.5 + 35.5 = 71u
Molecular mass of CO2 = 12 + 32 = 44u
Molecular mass of CH4 = 12 + 4 = 16u
Molecular mass of C2H6 = 24 + 6 = 30u
Molecular mass of C2H4 = 24 + 4 = 28u
Molecular mass of NH3 = 14 + 3 = 17u
Molecular mass of CH3OH = 12 + 3 + 16 + 1 =32u
Calculate the formula unit masses of ZnO, Na2O, K2CO3, given atomic masses of Zn = 65u, Na = 23u,
K = 39u, C = 12u and O = 16u
Formula unit mass of ZnO = 65 + 16 = 81u
Formula unit mass of Na2O = 23 x 2 + 16 = 62u
Formula unit mass of K2CO3 = 39 x 2 + 12 x 1 + 16 x 3 = 138u.
If one mole of carbon atoms weighs 12g, what is the mass (in g) of 1 atom of carbon ?
1 mole of carbon atoms = 6.022 x 1023 atoms. Now 6.022 x 1023 atoms of carbon weighs = 12g
So, 1 atom of carbon weighs = 12 6.022 x 1023 = 1.99 x 1023 g.
A 0.24 g sample of compound of oxygen and boron was found by analysis to contain 0.096 g of boron
and 0.144 g of oxygen. Calculate the percentage composition of the compound by weight.
Mass of boron as given = 0.096 g
Mass of oxygen as given = 0.144 g
Mass of sample as given = 0.24 g
Mass of element
We know that, %age of any element in a compound = Mass of compound 100
Percentage of boron by weight in the compound = (0.096 0.24 ) x 100 = 40%
Percentage of oxygen by weight in the compound = (0.144 0.24) x 100 = 60%
When 3.0 g of carbon is burnt in 8.00 g oxygen, 11.00 g of carbon dioxide is produced. What mass of
carbon dioxide will be formed when 3.00 g of carbon is burnt in 50.00 g of oxygen? Which law of
chemical combination will govern your answer?
We know that in burning process carbon utilises oxygen to form Carbon dioxide .
Carbon + Oxygen Carbon Dioxide + Heat Energy
Here as given, in burning, 3.0 g of carbon utilises 8.00 g of oxygen to form 11.00 g of carbon dioxide.
When 3.00 g of carbon is burnt in 50.00 g of oxygen, it will use just 8.00 g of oxygen from the total of
Page 52 of 95
50g of Oxygen to produce 11g of Carbon Dioxide. 42g of Oxygen will be left behind without any
change. It is governed by the following two laws of chemical combination:
1.
Law of conservation of mass which states that mass can neither be created nor destroyed in a
chemical reaction. Here in terms of mass 3g of Carbon and 50g of Oxygen combines to give 11g
of Carbon Dioxide and 42g of unused Oxygen keeping the total mass of combining chemicals
53g (3+50g) by weight constant before and after the reaction.
2.
Law of constant proportions which states that in a chemical substance the elements are always
present in definite proportions by mass. Here respective of the excess quantity of Oxygen
available for burning of same weight of Carbon, the amount of carbon dioxide will remain same.
What are polyatomic ions? Give examples.
Polyatomic ions are clusters or group of atoms that always have a fixed charge attach to them. This
charge may be positive or negative. Ammonium NH4+, Hydroxide OH-, Nitrate NO3 -, Carbonate CO32,
Sulphate SO42Write the chemical formulae of the following.
(a) Magnesium chloride
(b) Calcium oxide
(c) Copper nitrate
(d) Aluminium chloride
(e) Calcium carbonate.
(a) Magnesium chloride MgCl2 , (b) Calcium oxide CaO,
(c) Copper nitrate Cu(NO3)2. (d) Aluminium chloride AlCl3
(e) Calcium carbonate. CaCO3
Give the names of the elements present in the following compounds.
(a) Quick lime
(b) Hydrogen bromide
(c) Baking powder
(d) Potassium sulphate.
Q:
Ans:
Q4.
Ans:
Q5.
Ans:
Compound
Chemical Formula
Elements
(a) Quick lime
CaO
Calcium, Oxygen
(b) Hydrogen bromide
HBr
Hydrogen, Bromine
(c) Baking powder
NaHCO3
Sodium, Hydrogen, Carbon, Oxygen
(d) Potassium sulphate.
K2SO4
Potassium, Sulphur, Oxygen
Q:
Ans:
Q:
Ans:
/F-16/
Calculate the molar mass of the following substances.

(a)
Ethyne, C2H2
(b)
Sulphur molecule, S8
(c)
Phosphorus molecule, P4 (Atomic mass of phosphorus = 31)
(d)
Hydrochloric acid, HCl
(e)
Nitric acid, HNO3
(a)
Molar Mass of Ethyne, C2H2; = 2 12 + 2 1 = 26 g
(b)
Molar Mass of Sulphur molecule, S8 = 8 32 = 256 g
(c)
Molar Mass of Phosphorus molecule, P4 (Atomic mass of phosphorus = 31) = 4 31 = 124 g
(d)
Molar Mass of Hydrochloric acid, HCl = 1 + 35.5 = 36.5 g
(e)
Molar Mass of Nitric acid, HNO3 = 1 + 14 + 3 16 = 63 g
What is the mass of.
(a)
1 mole of nitrogen atoms?
(b)
4 moles of aluminium atoms (Atomic mass of aluminium= 27)?
(c)
10 moles of sodium sulphite (Na2SO3)?
The mass of 1 mole of a substance is equal to its relative atomic or molecular mass in grams. The
atomic mass of an element gives us the mass of one atom of that element in atomic mass units (u). To
get the mass of 1 mole of atom of that element, that is, molar mass, we have to take the same numerical
value but change the units from 'u' to 'g'.
Molar mass of atoms is also known as gram atomic mass. For example, atomic mass of hydrogen=1u.
So, gram atomic mass of
hydrogen = 1 g.
Page 53 of 95
(a)
(b)
(c)
The mass of 1 mole of Nitrogen atoms = 14 g.

The mass of 4 moles of Aluminium atoms is (4 27) g = 108 g
The mass of 10 moles of Sodium Sulphite
(Na2SO3) =10 [2 23 + 32 + 3 16] g = 10 126 g = 1260 g
Q:
Convert into mole.

(a)
12 g of oxygen gas
(b)
20 g of water
(c)
22 g of carbon dioxide.
Ans: To get the mass of 1 mole of atom of that element, that is, molar mass, we have to take the same
numerical value but change the units from 'u' to 'g'.
1 mole substance = Total Atomic mass of a substance (u)
Or
= Total gram atomic mass of substance (g) Or
= Molar Mass
= 1 Mole of substance
Or
= 6.022 1023 in number of particles of that substance
Here required mole of substance = Given mass of substance in 'g' Molar Mass
(a)
12 g of oxygen gas = Given mass of oxygen in 'g' Molar Mass of Oxygen
= 12 32
= 0.375 mole of oxygen
(b)
20 g of water = Given mass of water in 'g' Molar Mass of Water
= 20 18
= 1.11 mole of water
(c)
22 g of carbon dioxide.= Given mass of Carbon Dioxide in 'g' Molar Mass of Carbon Dioxide
= 22 44
= 0.5 mole of carbon dioxide
Q:
What is the mass of:
(a)
0.2 mole of oxygen atoms?
(b)
0.5 mole of water molecules?
Ans: Mass of atoms (m) in given moles (n) = Molar Mass of substance (M) Given Moles of substance (n)
(a) Mass of 0.2 mole of oxygen atoms = Molar Mass of oxygen Given Moles = 16g 0.2 = 3.2 g
(b) Mass of 0.5 mole of water molecules =Molar Mass of water Given Moles =18 g 0.5 = 9 g
Q:
Calculate the number of molecules of sulphur (S8) present in 16 g of solid sulphur.
Ans: 1 mole of Sulphur (S8) = 8 32 g = 256 g
also as 1 mole = 6.022 1023 in number of particles of that substance
So 256 g of sulphur contains = 6.022 1023 molecules of sulphur
Therefore 16 g of sulphur will contains =
Q:
Ans:
/F-16/
6.023x10 23
256
16
22
= 3.76 10 molecules (approx)

Calculate the number of aluminium ions present in 0.051 g of aluminium oxide.
(Hint: The mass of an ion is the same as that of an atom of the same element. Atomic mass of Al = 27 u)
1 mole of Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3) = 2 27 + 3 16 = 102 g
We know, 102 g of Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3) = 6.022 1023 molecules of Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3)
We know, The number of atoms present in given mass = (Given mass molar mass) Avogadro
number
Then, 0.051 g of Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3) contains
= (0.051 102 ) 6.022 1023 molecules of Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3)
= 3.011 1020 molecules of Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3)
The number of Aluminium ions (Al3+) present in one molecule of aluminium oxide is 2.
Therefore, the number of Aluminium ions (Al3+) present in 3.011 1020 molecules (0.051 g )
of Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3)
= 2 3.011 1020
= 6.022 1020
Thus, 0.051g of aluminium oxide (Al2O3) contains = 6.022 1020Al3+ions
Page 54 of 95
STRUCTURE OF ATOM
Discovery of Electron: An electron is defined as a subatomic particle having mass equal to 1/1840 th of that of
a hydrogen atom and carrying one unit negative charge. The electrons are located outside the nucleus in an
atom. The existence of electrons in an atom was shown by J.J. Thompson in 1897. Thompson passed electricity
at high voltage through a gas at very low pressure taken in a discharge tube. Streams of minute particles were
given out by the cathode known as cathode rays. These cathode rays are consisting of small negatively charged
particles known as electrons. An electron is usually represented by e Mass of electron: The mass of an electron is 9.108 x 10-28 grams i.e. about 1/1837 times that of a hydrogen
atom. Being a very little to the mass of an atom.
Charge of electron: An electron carries a unit charge (negative charge) that a particle can carry and hence it is
given as a unit negative charge. Hence the charge of an electron is 1.6x10-19 coulomb.
Discovery of Proton: A proton is defined as a subatomic particle having mass equal to that of a hydrogen
atom (1u) and carrying one unit positive charge. The protons are located inside the nucleus. The existence of
protons in an atom was given by E. Goldstein in 1886. He repeated the discharge tube experiments using
special perforated cathode. When the pressure in the tube is decreased, it was observed that in addition to
cathode rays, a new kind of rays is also found which came through the perforations (holes) of the cathode.
These rays travelled in opposite direction to the cathode rays and passed through the holes of the cathode and
struck the other end of the discharge tube. When these radiations struck the negative end of the tube, the
fluorescent radiations were also produced. These rays are called canal rays, because they passed through the
holes or canal in the tube. Since these rays are coming from the anode side, therefore they are called anode
rays.
Mass of proton: The mass of a proton is equal to the mass of a hydrogen atom. i.e. 1.673 x 10-24 grams which
is equal to 1 atomic mass unit and is about 1837 times the mass of an electron .
Charge: The charge of a proton is equal to the charge of an electron, but opposite in sign, therefore its charge is
a unit positive charge. i.e. + 1.6 x 10-19 Coulomb.
Rutherfords model of atom: After the discovery of electrons, protons and neutrons, it was Rutherfords
Alpha particle scattering experiment in 1911 that lead to the discovery of small positively charged part called
nucleus. In his experiment Rutherford bombarded a thin gold foil with a beam of -particles and observed that
most -particles passed very neatly straight through the foil but some were deflected by a large angle, where as
very few were repelled back. From the experiment Rutherford concluded that
i.
Most of the space inside the atom is hollow which allows -particles to pass through straight
without deflection.
ii.
There is some positive charge present at the centre in an atom which deflects or repels the particles. This positively charged central part is known as nucleus.
iii.
The total volume occupied by a nucleus is very small as compared to the total volume of the
atom, as very few -particles are repelled by a wider angle.
iv.
Rutherfords
-particle
scattering
experiment
Based on his
points.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
/F-16/
-particle scattering experiment Rutherford put forward a nuclear model of atom with following
An atom consists of a positively charged central part called as nucleus.
Electrons are present outside the nucleus of an atom.
Nucleus and electrons are held together by electrostatic forces of attraction.
The whole mass of an atom is concentrated in nucleus.
The volume of a nucleus is very small as compared to the total volume of the atom.
Page 55 of 95
Drawbacks of Rutherfords nuclear model of atom: Rutherfords model has a major drawback that as the
nucleus and electrons is held together by electrostatic forces of attraction. It would lead to the fusion of the
nucleus with electrons. This does not happen in the atom. For this Rutherford gave the explanation that
electrons revolve round the nucleus in a spiral path. This too is not satisfactory because in following a spiral
path, energy is lost by the electrons and ultimately they will fall into the nucleus, but atoms are stable.
Bohrs model of atom: To overcome the drawbacks of Rutherfords model of atom Neil Bohr in 1912
proposed a new model of atom which was based on new concepts. He made a suggestion that electrons could
revolve around the nucleus in certain circular paths called as orbits or energy levels. As long as the electrons
remain in a particular orbit, it does not lose or radiate energy. Since the electrons do not lose energy while
revolving around the nucleus in certain allowed orbits, they do not fall into the nucleus. Hence the atom
remains stable.
Based on this conclusion Neil Bohr put forward the model of atom with following postulates.
i.
The atom has central positively charged part called nucleus is surrounded by electrons, and it is
situated at the centre of atom.
ii.
The electrons in an atom revolve around the nucleus in certain fixed circular paths known as
orbits or shells.
iii.
Each orbit has fixed energy. Therefore, these orbits are also known as energy levels.
iv.
The orbits or energy levels are numbered as 1,2,3,4,5,...... or K,L,M,N,O........starting from the
nucleus.
v.
An electron does not lose or gain energy, as long as it is in a particular orbit.
vi.
The change in energy of an electron takes place only when it jumps from one energy level to
another. If the electron gains energy from outside, it jumps from lower energy level to higher
energy level. It loses energy then it jumps from higher energy level to lower energy level.
Bohrs model of atom
Nucleus with
positive charge
Electrons (-ve charge)
Discovery of neutron: Neutron is the third fundamental particle of an atom. Neutrons are neutral in charge and
contribute in the atomic mass of an atom. Rutherford in 1920 predicted the presence of these fundamental
particles in atoms which are neutral, but has a mass equal to the mass of a proton i.e. 1u (1 unit).
The existence of neutron in the nucleus of an atom was confirmed by Chadwick in 1932. He bombarded the
nuclei of some light elements like beryllium and boron with fast moving -particles. He found some neutral
particles were ejected from the nucleus. Each of these particles carried no charge but had a mass nearly equal to
that of proton. These particles were named as neutron.
i.
Mass: The mass of a neutron is 1.673 x 10-24 grams. i.e. It is equal to the mass of a proton or 1
amu.
ii.
Charge: Neutron is neutral in charge. i.e. It has no charge (neither positive nor negative).
Particle
Charge on the particle
Mass of the particle
Symbol
Location in the atom

Outside the nucleus (extra
nuclear part)
kg
+1.6x10-19 C (+1 unit)
1.6x10-27 kg
1
+1
In the nucleus
No charge
1.6x10-27 kg
In the Nucleus
Electron
-1.6x10
Proton
Neutron
-19
(-1 unit)
9.1x10
-31
Distribution (electronic configuration ) of electrons in various orbits (shells):

Electrons are negatively charged particles, so they form a cloud of negative charges around the nucleus. In this
cloud the electrons are arranged according to their potential energy in different energy levels or shells or orbits.
The arrangement of electrons in the various shells is known as electronic configuration of the element. In order
/F-16/
Page 56 of 95
to write down the electronic configuration of an element we should know the atomic number of an element i.e.
number of electrons or number of protons in an atom of an element and the maximum number of electrons
which can be accommodated in any energy level or orbit of an atom. The maximum number of electrons
accommodated by an energy level or orbit is given by the formula 2n2
i.e.
Maximum number of electrons in first or K-shell = 2(1)2 =2 x 1 = 2
--------------------------------------------- or L-shell = 2(2)2 = 2 x 4 = 8
---------------------------------------------or M-shell= 2(3)2 = 2 x 9 = 18
---------------------------------------------or N-shell = 2(4)2 = 2 x 16 = 32
Example:
Atomic number of Chlorine = 17 (No. Of Electrons)
Electronic configuration
K
L
M
N . . . . .. .
2
8
7
Atomic number: The atomic number of an element is defined as the number of unit positive charges on
nucleus of its atom (protons) or the number of electrons present in extra nuclear part of its atom.
i.e.
Atomic number = Number of protons or Number of electrons.
Mass number: The total number of protons and neutrons present in one atom of an element is known as its
mass number.
i.e.
Mass number = No. of protons + No. of Neutrons.
The mass number of an atom also gives the atomic mass of an element.
i.e.
Mass number = Atomic mass
Electronic configuration of first twenty elements:
Electronic Configuration
Element
Symbol Atomic No.
K
L M N O
P
Hydrogen
H
1
1
Helium
He
2
2
Lithium
Li
3
2
1
Beryllium
Be
4
2
2
Boron
B
5
2
3
Carbon
C
6
2
4
Nitrogen
N
7
2
5
Oxygen
O
8
2
6
Fluorine
F
9
2
7
Neon
Ne
10
2
8
Sodium
Na
11
2
8
1
Magnesium
Mg
12
2
8
2
Aluminium
Al
13
2
8
3
Silicon
Si
14
2
8
4
Phosphorous
P
15
2
8
5
Sulphur
S
16
2
8
6
Chlorine
Cl
17
2
8
7
Argon
Ar
18
2
8
8
Potassium
K
19
2
8
8
1
Calcium
Ca
20
2
8
8
2
Valence electrons: The outermost shell of an atom is called the valence shell and the number of electrons
present in outermost shell of an atom are called as valence electrons. It is these valence electrons which decide
the valency of an atom.
e.g.
Atomic number of chlorine = 17
Electronic configuration =
K
L
M
2
8
7
No. of valence electrons = 7,
No. of electrons required to complete its octet in its outermost shell = 1
Therefore, Valency of chlorine = 1
Valency: The valency of an atom is the no. of electrons required by an atom to lose or gain in order to complete
its outermost shell with an octet (8-electrons) to become stable or to acquire inert gas configuration. (Except in
/F-16/
Page 57 of 95
case of Hydrogen and Helium, as their outermost shell is the first shell and hence these two elements required
only 2 electrons in their outermost shell). The valency of the atoms whose outermost shell contains 1 to 3
electrons is same as that of their valence electrons. While as the valency of the atoms whose outermost shell
contains 5 to 8 electrons is equal to 8 minus the valence electrons.
The elements which lose electrons from their outermost shell will have the + sign as their superscript indicating
the number of electrons loosed, while as the elements which gain electrons in their outermost shell will have
the sign as their superscript indicating the number of electrons gained.
e.g.
Chlorine Atomic Number = 17
Sodium Atomic number = 11
2, 8, 7
2, 8, 1
No. of Valence electrons = 7
No. of Valence electrons = 1
Valency = 8 7 = 1 (Cl-)
Valency = 1 (Na+)
Isotopes: Isotopes are atoms of the same element having the same atomic number but different mass numbers.
It is because the isotopes of an atom have same number of protons and electrons but different number of
neutrons. It is clear that isotope of an element differ in the number of neutrons in their nucleus.
e.g.
The two isotopes of chlorine are 35Cl and 37Cl both having same atomic number 17 with
17
17
different mass number 35 and 37.
Characteristics of Isotopes:
i.
Isotopes of an element have different atomic masses.
ii.
They have same atomic numbers.
iii.
They have the same electronic configuration.
iv.
They have the same chemical properties.
v.
They have the same number of valence electrons.
Applications of Isotopes: Some of the important applications of isotopes are
i.
Isotopes of uranium are used as fuel in nuclear reactors.
ii.
Radio isotopes are used to estimate the age of the fossils like dead plants, animals and rocks
known as carbon dating or radio isotope dating.
iii.
Some radio isotopes are useful in treatment of diseases, particularly in radiotherapy.
iv.
Radioactive isotopes are used as traces in many processes in medicines, surgery, agriculture,
industry and chemistry.
Isobars: Isobars are the atoms of different elements having same mass number but different atomic numbers.
Since the isobars have same mass number, therefore sum of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus of each is
the same. These atoms differ in their atomic number and therefore they have different number of protons and
also different number of neutrons. Due to different atomic numbers, the isobars will have different structures
and therefore will differ in chemical properties.
e.g.
Argon Atomic number = 18,
Mass number = 40
Calcium Atomic number = 20,
Mass number = 40.
QUESTIONS:
Q:
If an atom contains one electron and one proton, will it carry any charge or not?
Ans: An electron is a negatively charged particle, whereas a proton is a positively charged particle. The
magnitude of their charges is equal. Therefore, an atom containing one electron and one proton will not
carry any charge. Thus, it will be a neutral atom.
Q:
On the basis of Rutherfords model of an atom, which subatomic particle is present in the nucleus
of an atom?
Ans: On the basis of Rutherford's model of an atom, protons (positively-charged particles) are present in the
nucleus of an atom.
Q:
Draw a sketch of Bohrs model of an atom with three shells.
Ans: Bohrs model of an atom with three shells
/F-16/
Page 58 of 95
What do you think would be the observation if the -particle scattering experiment is carried out
using a foil of a metal other than gold?
Ans: If the -scattering experiment is carried out using a foil of a metal rather than gold, there would be no
change in the observation. In the -scattering experiment, a gold foil was taken because gold is
malleable and a thin foil of gold can be easily made. It is difficult to make such foils from other metals.
Q:
Name the three sub-atomic particles of an atom.
Ans: The three sub-atomic particles of an atom are: (i) Protons (ii) Electrons, (iii) Neutrons
Q:
If K and L shells of an atom are full, then what would be the total number of electrons in the
atom?
Ans: The maximum number of electrons that can occupy K and L-shells of an atom are 2 and 8 respectively.
Therefore, if K and L-shells of an atom are full, then the total number of electrons in the atom would be
(2 + 8) = 10 electrons.
Q:
Helium atom has an atomic mass of 4 u and two protons in its nucleus. How many neutrons does
it have?
Ans: Helium atom has two neutrons. The mass of an atom is the sum of the masses of protons and neutrons
present in its nucleus. Since helium atom has two protons, mass contributed by the two protons is (2
1) u = 2 u. Then, the remaining mass (4 2) u = 2 u is contributed by neutrons.
Q:
Write the distribution of electrons in carbon and sodium atoms?
Ans: The total number of electrons in a carbon atom is 6. The distribution of electrons in carbon atom is
given by:
First orbit or K-shell = 2 electrons
Second orbit or L-shell = 4 electrons
Or, we can write the distribution of electrons in a carbon atom as 2, 4.
The total number of electrons in a sodium atom is 11. The distribution of electrons in sodium atom is
given by:
First orbit or K-shell = 2 electrons
Second orbit or L-shell = 8 electrons
Third orbit or M-shell = 1 electron
Or, we can write distribution of electrons in a sodium atom as 2, 8, 1.
Q:
How will you find the valency of chlorine, sulphur and magnesium?
Ans: If the number of electrons in the outermost shell of the atom of an element is less than or equal to 4,
then the valency of the element is equal to the number of electrons in the outermost shell. On the other
hand, if the number of electrons in the outermost shell of the atom of an element is greater than 4, then
the valency of that element is determined by subtracting the number of electrons in the outermost shell
from 8. The distribution of electrons in chlorine, sulphur, and magnesium atoms are 2, 8, 7; 2, 8, 6 and
2, 8, 2 respectively. Therefore, the number of electrons in the outer most shell of chlorine, sulphur, and
magnesium atoms are 7, 6, and 2 respectively.
Thus, the valency of chlorine = 8 7 = 1
The valency of sulphur = 8 6 = 2
The valency of magnesium = 2
Q12: If number of electrons in an atom is 8 and number of protons is also 8, then (i) what is the atomic
number of the atom and (ii) what is the charge on the atom?
Ans: (i) The atomic number is equal to the number of protons. Therefore, the atomic number of the atom is 8.
(ii) Since the number of both electrons and protons is equal, therefore, the charge on the atom is 0.
Q:
With the help of Table 4.1, find out the mass number of oxygen and sulphur atom.
Ans: Mass number of oxygen = Number of protons + Number of neutrons = 8 + 8 = 16
Mass number of sulphur = Number of protons + Number of neutrons = 16 +16 = 32
Q:
For the symbol H, D and T tabulate three sub-atomic particles found in each of them.
Ans:
Symbol
Proton
Neutron Electron
Protium
H
1
0
1
Deuterium
D
1
1
1
Tritium
T
1
2
1
Q:
Write the electronic configuration of any one pair of isotopes and isobars.
Ans: Two isotopes of carbon are 12C6 and 14C6.
The electronic configuration of 12C6 is 2, 4.
The electronic configuration of 14C6 is 2, 4.
[Isotopes have the same electronic configuration]
Q:
/F-16/
Page 59 of 95
40
Ar18 and 40Ca20 are a pair of isobars

The electronic configuration of 40Ca20 is 2, 8, 8, 2.
The electronic configuration of 40Ar18 is 2, 8, 8.
What are the limitations of Rutherfords model of the atom?
According to Rutherfords model of an atom, electrons revolve around the nucleus in fixed orbits. But,
an electron revolving in circular orbits will not be stable because during revolution, it will experience
acceleration. Due to acceleration, the electrons will lose energy in the form of radiation and fall into the
nucleus. In such a case, the atom would be highly unstable and collapse.
Describe Bohrs model of the atom.
Niels Bohr proposed the following postulates regarding the model of the atom.
i.
The atom has central positively charged part called nucleus is surrounded by electrons, and it is
situated at the centre of atom.
ii.
The electrons in an atom revolve around the nucleus in certain fixed circular paths known as
orbits or shells.
iii.
Each orbit has fixed energy. Therefore, these orbits are also known as energy levels.
iv.
The orbits or energy levels are numbered as 1,2,3,4,5,...... or K,L,M,N,O ........starting from the
nucleus.
v.
An electron does not lose or gain energy, as long as it is in a particular orbit.
The change in energy of an electron takes place only when it jumps from one energy level to another. If
the electron gains energy from outside, it jumps from lower energy level to higher energy level. It is
loses energy then it jumps from higher energy level to lower energy level.
Compare the properties of electrons, protons and neutrons.
Q:
Ans:
Q:
Ans:
Q:
Ans:
Electron
i. Electrons are present
outside the nucleus of an
atom.
ii. Electrons are negatively
charged.
iii. The mass of an electron is
considered ton negligible.
Proton
i. Protons are present in the
nucleus of an atom.
ii. Protons are positively
charged.
iii. The mass of a proton is
approximately 2000 times
as the mass of an electron.
Neutron
i. Neutrons are present in
the nucleus of an atom.
ii. Neutrons are neutral.
iii. The mass of neutron is
nearly equal to the mass
of a proton.
Q:
Summarize the rules for writing of distribution of electrons in various shells for the first eighteen
elements.
Ans: The rules for writing of the distribution of electrons in various shells for the first eighteen elements are
given below.
(i)
The maximum number of electrons that a shell can accommodate is given by the formula 2n 2,
where n is the orbit number or energy level index (n = 1, 2, 3).
(ii)
The maximum number of electrons present in an orbit of n = 1 is given by 2n2 = 212 = 2.
(iii) Similarly, for second orbit, it is 2n2 = 222 = 8.
(iv)
For third orbit, it is 2n2 = 232 = 18 , and so on
(v)
The outermost orbit can be accommodated by a maximum number of 8 electrons.
(vi)
Shells are filled with electrons in a stepwise manner i.e., the outer shell is not occupied with
electrons unless the inner shells are completely filled with electrons.
Q:
Ans:
/F-16/
Define valency by taking examples of silicon and oxygen.

The valency of an element is the combining capacity of that element. The valency of an element is
determined by the number of valence electrons present in the atom of that element. If the number of
valence electrons of the atom of an element is less than or equal to four, then the valency of that element
is equal to the number of valence electrons. For example, the atom of silicon has four valence electrons.
Thus, the valency of silicon is four. On the other hand, if the number of valence electrons of the atom
of an element is greater than four, then the valency of that element is obtained by subtracting the
number of valence electrons from eight. For example, the atom of oxygen has six valence electrons.
Thus, the valency of oxygen is (8 6) i.e., two. Valency of Silicon is 8-4=4.
Page 60 of 95
Q:
Ans:
Q:
Ans:
Q:
Ans:
Q:
Ans:
Na+ has completely filled K and L shells. Explain.

An atom of Na has a total of 11 electrons. Its electronic configuration is 2, 8, 1. But, Na+ ion has one
electron less than Na atom i.e., it has 10 electrons. Therefore, 2 electrons go to K-shell and 8 electrons
go to L-shell, thereby completely filling K and L shells.
Explain with examples (i) Atomic number, (ii) Mass number, (iii) Isotopes and (iv)Isobars. Give
any two uses of isotopes.
(i)
Atomic number: The atomic number of an element is the total number of protons present in the
atom of that element. For example, nitrogen has 7 protons in its atom. Thus, the atomic number of
nitrogen is 7.
(ii)
Mass number: The mass number of an element is the sum of the number of protons and
neutrons present in the atom of that element. For example, the atom of boron has 5 protons and 6
neutrons. So, the mass number of boron is 5 + 6 = 11.
(iii) Isotopes: Isotopes are atoms of the same element having the same atomic number, but different
mass numbers. For example, hydrogen has three isotopes. They are protium , deuterium, and tritium .
(iv)
Isobars: Isobars are atoms having the same mass number, but different atomic numbers i.e.,
isobars are atoms of different elements having the same mass number. For example, 40Ar18 and 40Ca20 is
a pair of isobars.
Two uses of isotopes are:
(i)
One isotope of uranium is used as a fuel in nuclear reactors.
(ii)
One isotope of cobalt is used in the treatment of cancer.
The average atomic mass of a sample of an element X is 16.2 u. What are the percentages of
isotopes and in the sample?
It is given that the average atomic mass of the sample of element X is 16.2 u. Let the percentage of
isotope be y%. Thus, the percentage of isotope will be (100 y) %. Therefore, the percentage of isotope
is 10%. And, the percentage of isotope is (100 10) % = 90%.
If bromine atom is available in the form of, say two isotopes (49.7%) and (50.3%), calculate the
average atomic mass of bromine atom.
It is given that two isotopes of bromine are (49.7%) and (50.3%). Then, the average atomic mass of
bromine atom is given by:
= 79 x 49.7+ 81 x 50.3
100
100
Q:
Ans:
Q:
= 3926.3 + 4074.3 = 8000.6 = 80.006 u

100
100
If Z = 3, what would be the valency of the element? Also, name the element.
By Z = 3, we mean that the atomic number of the element is 3. Its electronic configuration is 2, 1.
Hence, the valency of the element is 1 (since the outermost shell has only one electron). Therefore, the
element with Z = 3 is lithium.
Compare all the proposed models of an atom given in this chapter.
Ans:
Feature
1. Positive
Charge
(Protons)
Thomson's model
As per Thomson's model of
an atom, an atom consists of a
positively charged sphere.
Rutherford's model
The positive charge is
concentrated at the core of the
atom, which is called nucleus.
Bohr's model
The positvive charge is
present in the core of the
atom, called nucleus.
2. Negative
charge
(electrons)
The electrons are embedded

in the positively charged
sphere of an atom, like the
seeds in a watermelon.
The nucleus is surrounded by

electrons, and the electrons
and the nucleus are held
together by electrostatic force
of attraction.
The electrons move in

discrete orbits, and each
orbit is associ-ated with a
definite amount of energy.
3. Diagrammatic
representa-tion
/F-16/
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Q: Complete the following table:

Number of
neutrons
Number of
protons
Number of
electrons
Name of the
atomic species
32
24
2
1
10
0
12
1
1
sulphur
-
Atomic
number
Mass number
Number of
neutrons
Number of
protons
Number of
electrons
Name of the
atomic species
9
16
12
1
1
19
32
24
2
1
10
16
12
1
0
9
16
12
1
1
9
16
12
1
0
Fluorine
Sulphur
Magnesium
Deuterium
Protium
Atomic number Mass number

9
16
Answer:
Q:
Ans:
Composition of the nuclei of two atomic species X and Y are given as under:
X
Y
Protons
6
6
Neutrons
6
8
Give the mass numbers of X and Y. What is the relation between the two species?
Mass number of X = Number of protons + Number of neutrons = 6 + 6 = 12
Mass number of Y = Number of protons + Number of neutrons = 6 + 8 = 14
These two atomic species X and Y have the same atomic number, but different mass numbers. Hence,
they are isotopes.
BIOLOGY
TOPICWHY DO WE FALL ILL

The Significance of Health: The term health is applied in a number of contexts. For example:
We may talk about the healthy attitude say in a classroom: Here, we mean interest in studies, attentiveness
in the class and following the instructions of the teacher properly in the classroom.
We may talk about the health of an institution: Here, we mean whether the institution is running properly or
not.
We may talk about healthy climate of an area: Here, we mean the environmental conditions that are
necessary for disease-free, happy life.
We may talk about health of an individual: This is the most common use of the term and means his/her
functioning.
From the above points, it is clear that the term health always implies the idea of well being and is a state of
being well enough to function well physically, mentally and socially.
The World Health Organisation (WHO), in 1948, has defined health as a state of complete physical, mental
and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease, or infirmity in a human being.
Personal and Community issues both matter for health: There are a number of factors which influence
health. These factors lie both within the individual and also in the environment in which he or she lives.
Healthy environment: It is not possible for us to achieve good health on its own. Our health will also depend
on the environment. All of us are influenced by our social environment. We live in societies in cities, towns or
villages. In such places, even our physical environment is decided by our social environment.
Public health services: These services ensure proper drainage of sewage, proper removal and disposal of
garbage, availability of clean drinking water, vector and pest control, proper vaccination etc. if public health
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services are inadequate, the health of individuals will be affected despite taking best personal hygiene and
consuming the balanced diet.
Economic conditions: Food is earned by doing job. Proper earning is necessary to provide adequate and
nutritious food. For this, job opportunities have to be available in the societies where we live. Thus, good
economic conditions and jobs are necessary for individual health.
Social equality and harmony: If we mistreat each other and are afraid of each other, we cannot be happy or
healthy. To become happy or healthy we should help each other and treat each other nicely. Thus, social
equality and harmony are necessary for individual health.
Distinctions between Healthy and Disease-free:
The term disease literally means without ease or being uncomfortable. However, this word is used in a more
limited meaning. It is just the opposite of health. It has been defined in various ways.
Malfunctioning of the body or some part of it with specific symptoms is termed as disease.
A condition of the body or some part or organ of the body in which its functions are disturbed or
deranged is called a disease.
Any physical or functional change from the normal state that causes discomfort or disability or impairs
the health of a living organism is called a disease.
Questions on page-216
Q.
State any two conditions essential for good health.
Ans: Health is a state of being well enough, to function well physically, mentally and socially. Therefore, for
good health
1. One should be disease free.
2. There should be social equality and harmony.
Q.
State any two conditions essential for being free to disease.
Ans: The conditions essential for being free of disease are
1. Eating good food (balanced diet).
2. Maintaining personal and public hygiene.
Q.
Are the answers to the above questions necessarily the same or different? Why?
Ans: The answers are not the same for the above two questions. They are slightly different but
interconnected. This is because being disease-free does not mean one is healthy.
Q.
What does disease look like?
Ans: There are a number of tissues in our body. These tissues form different organs and specific organs
coordinate to form organ systems also called physiological systems. Each organ, in an organ-system, has
specific functions. For example, digestive system has mouth for ingestion of food, buccal cavity with tongue
and teeth for mastication of food and stomach intestine for the digestion of the ingested food. Occurrence of a
disease changes, either the normal functioning or the appearance of one or more systems of the body for the
worse such changes give rise to symptoms or signs of disease.
Symptoms: These are the manifestations or evidences of the presence of disease. They indicate that there is
something wrong in the body. For example, one can have headache or cough or loose motions. All these are
symptoms of some disease. Headache may occur under stress or problem of eye sight or blood pressure of it
may occur due to number of diseases e.g. typhoid, malaria, jaundice, etc. symptoms indicate that there may be a
disease but they dont indicate what the disease is. On the basis of symptoms doctors
look for the signs of a particular disease.
get laboratory tests done to confirm the disease. The laboratory tests include blood, urine, stool tests,
etc.
Signs: These provide information about the presence of a particular disease.
Acute and Chronic Diseases: Depending upon the duration for which a disease persists, diseases are classified
as:
Acute Disease: these diseases last for only short periods of time. They do not cause long term effects on our
health. Cold, cough, cholera, typhoid etc. are examples of acute disease.
Chronic Diseases: These diseases last for a long time, even as much as lifetime. They have drastic long term
effects on patients health. Diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, tuberculosis, arthritis, cancer etc are examples of
chronic diseases.
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Acute Disease
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Chronic Disease
These last for short period of time.

These do not cause long term bad effects on health.
Patient recovers fully after the treatment.
May not require hospitalization.
Examples: common cold, cough, diarrhea, typhoid
etc.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
These last for a long period of time.

These cause drastic long term effects on health.
Patient does not recover completely.
May require hospitalization and long duration treatment.
Examples:
cardio-vascular
disease,
diabetes,
tuberculosis, arthritis, cancer, etc.
Chronic diseases and poor health: Acute and chronic diseases have different effects on our health. Any
disease causes malfunctioning or deviation from normal working of any body organ. All the body organs are
dependent upon each other functionally. That is why, malfunctioning of any body organ will affect our general
health. The acute diseases are shot lived. That is why, these diseases will not have time to cause major effects
on general health. On the other hand, chronic diseases last for a very long time. There is loss of weight, general
weakness, and the feeling of tiredness all the time. Hence, such diseases have long term bad effects on our
general health.
Congenital and Acquired Diseases: On the basis, whether the disease occurs since birth or after birth, these
may be broadly classified as:
Congenital Disease: These are present since birth and may be caused by gene or chromosomal mutations
(anaemia, haemophilia, colour blindness, sickle cell etc), and environmental factors (e.g. harelip).
Acquired Disease: These diseases are acquired by an organism after birth and do not pass on from generation
to generation. These are further classified into two categories.
1. Communicable or infectious diseases
2. Non-communicable or non-infectious diseases.
Diseases
Congenital diseases
Acquired diseases
Communicable diseases
Contagious diseases
(directly transmitted)
Deficiency
diseases
i)
Metabolic
diseases
Non-communicable diseases
Non-contagious diseases
(In directly transmitted)
Degenerative
diseases
Allergies
diseases
Injuries
diseases
Psychological
diseases
Intrinsic or Internal factors:

The factor that occur within the human body are called intrinsic factors like
a) Malfunctioning of various body parts.
b) Genetic disorder
c) Hormonal imbalance
d) allergy
The diseases caused by internal factors are called organic or metabolic diseases. Cancer, Diabetes,
Myopia, kidney failure are some of the metabolic diseases.
External or Extrinsic factors: The disease causing external agents which enter the human body from
outside are called as extrinsic factors like pathogens, unbalanced diet, environmental pollutants,
tobacco, alcohol and narcotic drugs.
ii)
Infectious Diseases
Agents of Infection: The various organisms which cause diseases are :
a)
Bacteria: They are unicellular prokaryotic organisms causing diseases like typhoid, Cholera, Anthrax,
food poisoning.
b)
Virus: They are Crystalline microbes causing diseases like SARS AIDS, Swine flu, Polio etc.
c)
Protozoan: These are multicellular Eukaryotic organisms. They cause malaria, Kala azar, sleeping
sickness, giardiasis etc.
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d)
Fungi: They are multi cellular, eukaryotic, heterotrophic organisms. They cause ring worms, athletes
foot & many skin infections.
Helminthes: The multicellular worms usually infect intestine and cause taeniasis, ascariasis,
elephantiasis etc.,
COMPLETE THE TABLE
Disease
Pathogen
1. SARS
2. Ascariasis
3. Athletes foot
4. Kala azar
5. Polio
e)
II.
Means of spread of Infectious (Communicable) Diseases:The means of transmission of infection is of two types:
(1) Direct transmission (2) Indirect transmission.
Direct transmission of diseases:
In direct transmission, Pathogens are transmitted directly without any intermediate agent. It occurs in
the following ways.
a)
Physical contact: infection spreads by actual physical contact of the articles used by infected
person eg. Chickenpox.
b)
Sexual contact: - Some diseases like syphilis, AIDS etc. are transmitted through sexual relations.
c)
Soil contact: Infectious agents may enter the body through soil in case of any open wound eg.
Tetanus.
d)
Bites of animals: Bites of animals like rabid dog may cause rabies.
e)
Placental transmission: virus of AIDS, syphilis may directly enter from mother to foetus through
placenta.
Indirect transmission of diseases:
It may occur by following means:
a)
Air: Many infectious agents spread from an infected person to an healthy person through air,
dust, and droplets. e.g. Common cold and tuberculosis.
b)
Contaminated food and water: Diseases like Cholera, Jaundice spread through use of
contaminated drinking water and food.
c)
Vectors: Certain living organisms may spread the pathogens from an
infected person to the healthy one are called vectors. Most of the insects are called vectors which
spread disease like typhus, thyroid, diarrhoea etc.
d)
Fomite Borne:- The articles that are being used by the infected person can act as a source of
infection for the healthy person like utensils, door handles etc.
Complete the flow chart:
Diseases (Transmission)
Direct Transmission
Physical diseases
Bites of animals
Air
Fomite-Borne
Levels of Cause/s : Most diseases have more than one cause and these are many levels of causes of diseases.
1. First Level Cause/s: It is the immediate cause of the disease. For example, if a baby is suffering from
loose motions it can be said that the immediate cause of infections or disease is a virus. So, virus is the
first-level cause of the disease.
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2. Second Level cause/s: these are the factors which make a person prone to catching the disease. All
individuals in a society are not equally susceptible to a disease. Continuing with the above example, we
find that the virus comes from polluted drinking water. But from a number of babies of society drinking
the same water, why only this baby got the infection. one reason might be that this baby, in comparison
to others is not healthy and therefore, got the disease when exposed to risk. We can further deliberate
why this baby is not health? The answer could be that perhaps this baby is under fed i.e. not well
nourished. Thus, lack of good nourishment becomes second-level cause of the disease.
3. Third-level cause/s: Such a cause/s promotes proneness to a disease. In the given example,
undernourished baby belongs to poor family. Therefore, poor public services providing unclean
drinking water in the area and poverty and the third-level cause of the disease.
In the given example, the baby suffering from the infection or disease might be having some genetic
difference which caused the disease when exposed to virus. The genetic difference or undernourishment
cannot cause the disease in absence of virus. Here, genetic difference and undernourishment are the
contributory causes of the disease. A contributory cause cannot cause a disease by itself.
Organ specific /tissue-specific Manifestations:
*
The pathogens have the ability to infect only a particular type of tissue, organ or organ system.
In some diseases, the specificity depends on the point of entry inside the body while in others
its not.
*
Micro-organisms may enter the human body by different routes and may affect a variety of
specific organs in the body like if the micro organisms enter the digestive track through mouth,
it may cause diarrhoea and Typhoid.
*
The signs and symptoms of the disease depend on the target organ in the body affected by
micro-organism e.g. we experiences headache vomiting and unconsciousness, if brain is the
target organ.
*
Besides, the various tissue specific effects there can be other common effects which depend on
the ability of a patients immune system to send WBC to the organ tissue leading to
inflammation, which in turn causes swelling Pain and fever.
*
The severity of disease symptoms depend on the number of microbes in the body. e.g. if the
number is small, then the symptoms will be minor or unnoticed but if the number of same
pathogen is large, the disease can be severe enough to be life risking.
Principles of Treatment
Infectious diseases can be treated in two ways:
(i)
By reducing the effect of disease.
(ii)
By killing the pathogens of disease.
I)
To Reduce the effect of disease: The effect of the disease can be reduced by the symptomatic treatment.
It reduces the symptoms which are usually due to inflammation. e.g. medicines are given to reduce
fever, pain and diarrhoea. Bed rest can be another option to conserve energy, which inturn enables us to
heal.
II)
To Kill the cause of the disease: To cure a disease, it is necessary to kill the cause of the disease. i.e.
Pathogens by using medicines. We choose a drug/medicine i.e. specific against a particular group of
micro-organism and do not affect the hosts metabolism e.g. antibiotics.
Antibiotics are drugs which block the bio-chemical pathways of bacteria without harming the human
cells. They are produced by certain micro-organisms to kill or stop the growth of other microorganisms.
Principles of Prevention/Inhibition
To prevent the transmission of disease, we must adopt the following two ways:(i) General ways
(ii) specific ways
(i)
General ways of Prevention: These include
a)
Proper spacing at homes, School, offices and public places is necessary to check the spread of
diseases.
b)
Sanitation measures like proper disposal of garbage and sewage, proper cleaning and covering
of open drains are must to prevent the spread of diseases.
c)
Use of insecticides, antiseptics, soaps and phenyl most encouraged to maintain hygiene.
d)
Drinking water must be clean and free from contamination.
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Page 66 of 95
e)
f)
g)
h)
(ii)
Maintaining personal hygiene is important to keep oneself free from infectious disease.
Use of Narcotic drugs should be discouraged.
Exercise, Rest and relaxation reduces chances of many diseases.
Complete knowledge about infectious diseases should be given to prevent diseases.
Specific ways of prevention: Specific prevention is provided by Immune system when it
produces specific molecules called antibodies to fight against invading microbes or their
products called antigens.
Immunisation
Immunity is the ability of ones body to resist a disease- The method of developing immunity is called
immunisation.
vaccination is the most general way of providing immunity to the body by injecting vaccines to it. Some of the
vaccines BCG, DPT, MMR etc.
NATURAL RESOURCES
Natural Resources; its components.

Atmosphere; constitution, use and Air pollution.
Hydrosphere; forms use and conservation/management of water resources, water pollution.
Lithosphere; formation of soil, soil erosion and its prevention.
Green House effect.
Ozone Layer
Bio-geo chemical cycles- deleted.
IMPROVEMENT IN FOOD RESOURCES
Types of crops
Improvement in yields
Nutrient Management
Manures and Fertilizers
Irrigation methods
Cropping Patterns
Crop Protection
Animal Husbandry-deleted
NATURAL RESOURCES AND ITS COMPONENTS
Resources provided to us by nature are called as natural resources. For eg: Plants , soil etc.
COMPONENTS:
NATURAL RESOURCES
/
\
BIOTIC COMPONENT
ABIOTIC COMPONENT
It includes the plants, animals including
These include the air water,
human beings and micro organisms.
soil light and temperature.
Both the biotic and abiotic components, interact and affect each other, resulting in the establishment of a
complex and complete balance in environment. Certain other environmental components such as mountains,
rivers, ponds, forests, minerals, coal and even petrol and other natural resources are of great importance for the
human beings.
The present status of complexity and interdependence which we observe among the various components of the
environment is a result of billions of years.
The resources on the earth can be broadly classified as:
Living organisms
Air or Atmosphere
\
/
Earth
/
\
Land or Lithosphere
Water or hydrosphere
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Page 67 of 95
ATMOSPHERE; CONSTITUTION,USE AND AIR POLLUTION

The multilayered gaseous envelope surrounding the planet earth is called atmosphere. Atmosphere filters
sunlight reaching the sunlight reaching the earth, affect climate and is a reservoir of several elements which are
essential for life.
Atmosphere, predominantly consists of air. Air is a mixture of gases such as nitrogen, oxygen and carbon
dioxide. Air also contains water vapour and suspended dust particles.
USES OF ATMOSPHERE
(i)
It forms the protective layer around the earth, maintaining its average temperature and hence making
life feasible on earth.
(ii)
It shields us from the harmful ultra violet radiations.
(iii)
It contains the life supporting gases in it like the oxygen, carbon dioxide etc.
(iv)
Atmospheric conditions have a major role in determining the climate of a region.
(v)
It is a reservoir of several elements which are essential for life.
AIR POLLUTION
The present day industrial growth has polluted air to a greater extent by releasing SO2, CO2, CO, oxides of
nitrogen,H2S, fumes of acids, dust particles of unburnt carbon, lead, asbestos and even cement. For example:The burning of coal and oil to generate electric power, run factories and fuel automobile engines creates oxides
of nitrogen and sulphur that acidify the rain.
Air carries many undesirable substances or impurities. The chief constituents include: carbon monoxide, oxides
of sulphur, fluoride compounds , metals, hydro carbons, particulate matter (dust, grit, fly ash) and toxicants .
All these impurities are called as pollutants. They cause air pollution.
CONSEQUENCES OF AIR POLLUTION
1.
The polluted air causes respiratory diseases.
2.
It affects the eye membrane, results in headache and causes other physical ailments.
3.
It increases the incidence of heart diseases, allergies and cancers in human beings.
4.
Air pollution results in acid rains which cause extensive damage to our ecosystem. The nitrogen Oxides
2
(NO ) and sulphur oxides (SOx) combine with water droplets to form sulphuric acids and nitric acid.
SO2 + H2O H2SO4
NO2+H2O HNO3
5.
The burning of fuels produces unburnt carbon particles or hydrocarbons which further forms NO2, O3,
PAN (Peroxy actyl nitrate). When sunlight acts on these gases, a yellowish brown haze called photochemical
smog appears, resulting in poor visibility.
Hydrosphere; forms, uses, water pollution, conservation management of water resources
WATER: The oceans, rivers, streams, lakes, ponds, pools, polar ice caps, water vapour etc., collectively form
the hydrosphere. About three fourth of the earths crust is covered with hydrosphere, the main component of
which is water. Major part of water is found in seas and oceans. Most of the water of our utilisation on the earth
comes from rivers, lakes, ponds and even underground wells. Fresh water forms only about 2.5 percent of water
and major part of this fresh water is frozen in glacial ice. So, a very small amount remains there for the living
beings to perform all living activities.
USES: Water is one of the most unusual natural compound found on the earth and it is also one of the
important. The water remains in solid (snow) liquid (water) and gaseous forms. It is absolutely essential for the
maintenance of all life. Water is one of the agent in soil formation and serves as a living medium for several
different ecosystems. Water is also used for drinking, washing of utensils and clothes, sewage disposal,
irrigation and in various industries.
Water helps in the digestion of organic compounds and causes photosynthesis in plants by initiating the
process. It therefore also runs the oxygen cycle in nature,
which is produced by plants due to photolysis of water molecules.
All metallurgical and industrial processes require water. It is the habitat for a large number of living
organisms.
Water transport is very popular as it is the cheapest. Various recreational activities are conducted using water
bodies.
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Page 68 of 95
WATER POLLUTION:
Water pollution is defined as the addition of some substances inorganic, organic or biological which degrade
the quality of water so that it becomes a health hazard or unfit for use. The sources which discharge their
pollutants directly into water include industries, power, plants, coal mines and oil wells are referred to as point
sources, while as those pollutants which do not have any specific location for their discharge in a particular
water body. This includes domestic effluents, surface run off, logging areas etc. Water pollutants i.e. biological
pollutants include micro organisms and other vectors of diseases added by excreta of animals deposition of
inorganic substances like chlorides, Fluorides, calcium, Magnesium etc. Or pesticides, plastics, detergents,
domestic waste and radioactive waste are the factors, which are referred to as chemical pollutants.
NEED FOR CONSERVATION: In India we often face water scarcity. The ground water level goes down in
the summer seasons. As a result during summers the Municipal Corporation water supply is restricted, our
wells and hand pumps becomes dry. Such frequent situations of water crisis have forced environmental
biologists to seek various means of water conservation. The suggested measures for avoiding misuse and
wastage of potable water are:1)
Development of integrated water shed plan for drinking irrigation and industrial uses.
2)
Adoption of various flood control methods.
3)
Transfer of surplus water to water deficit basins by interlinking of Indian rivers.
4)
For identifying the over exploited areas of fresh water extensive hydro geological surveys are done.
5)
The ground water is recharged by artificial means.
Lithosphere; formation of soil, soil erosion and its prevention
1.
SOIL: Soil is the portion of the earths surface consisting of disintegrated rock and decaying organic
material. It provides the support for many plants and animals. Thickness of soil on the earths surface
ranges from a few millimetres to 3-4 meters.
Terrestrial plants depend for their nutrition, water supply and anchorage upon the soil. Even for the
aquatic plants, the soil is important as it is the chief storage of all the nutrients which are made available
to the water medium.
2.
FORMATION OF SOIL: Soil is formed from the rocks by undergoing the following two processes.
(a) WEATHERING
(b) Paedogenesis
A.
Weathering: Breakdown of bigger rocks into fine smaller mineral particles is called weathering.
Weathering occurs by following three means:Physical Weathering:- This is done by various climate factors such as temperature, wind, rain water, ice,
snow, glaciers and running water. Water and high temperature cause corrosive humidity and bring about
unequal expansion and contraction of rocks facilitating their breakdown.
CHEMICAL WEATHERING: It involves a variety of chemical processes such as hydrolysis, hydration,
oxidation and reduction. Chemical weathering for example involves the breakdown of complex compounds by
the carbonic acid present in water and by acidic substances derived from the decomposition process of organic
matter in soil.
BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING: Lichens, bryophytes (mosses) and other plants live on rocks and produce
acids, which accelerate the process of rock weathering .
B.
PAEDOGENESIS (SOIL DEVELOPMENT): This process involves the decomposition process by
bacteria and fungi by which organic materials are broken down and leads to humification and mineralization.
Detritivores such as nematodes, earthworms and arthropods such as scolopendra, millipede, mites and ants
consume organic matter and add excretory nitrogen to it. Thus addition of organic matter (humus) from dead
and decomposed plants and animals is the final stage in the formation of soil.
SOIL EROSION: The process of removal of superficial fertile top layer of soil by various agencies or forces is
called soil erosion. Soil erosion involves the movement of soil from one place to another. It may be due to the
flowing water (rainwater, floods) or wind (Dust storm)
The roots of grasses, hedges, trees etc., hold the soil in place. The large scale deforestation and over grazing by
our domestic animals not only destroys biodiversity but leads to soil erosion also. Top soil that is bare of
vegetation, is likely to be removed very quickly. Such a process is accelerated in hilly or mountainous regions.
This process of soil erosion is very difficult to reverse. Vegetative cover on the ground also helps in percolation
of water into deeper layers of soil.
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PREVENTIVE MEASURES:
1.
More afforestation and reforestation programmes should be brought into practise.
2.
Construction of embankments/bunds in areas which are prone to erosion.
3.
Avoiding over grazing by stray animals.
GREEN HOUSE EFFECT

Earth is covered by a gaseous blanket . These gases allow solar radiation to pass through and heat the surface of
the earth. Some gases called as green house gases (for eg. Carbon dioxide) control the entry and escape of heat
from the surface so as to keep the surface hospitable.
The warming up (or heating up) the earths atmosphere due to trapping of solar radiations by CO2 gas and
other green house gases is called green house effect. Excessive increase in the concentration of these gases in
the atmosphere would retain more and more radiation resulting in enhanced green house effect. The
consequent increase in the global mean temperature is referred to as .
Global warming:- (The mean temperature of the earth is about 15C).
EFFECTS OF GLOBAL WARMING:1.
Loss of bio diversity and natural resources of high economic valve.
2.
Occurrence of more frequent storms in many parts of the world.
3.
There may be a change in the pattern of rainfall.
4.
Global warming may lead to rise in the sea level, due to melting of glaciers and polar ice caps.
5.
Contamination of ground water with the sea water.
6.
Dust bowl conditions of 1930s may even occur.
MEASURES TO CHECK GLOBAL WARMING
1.
Reducing the emission of green house gases by limiting the use of fossil fuels.
2.
Development and use of alternative sources of energy such as solar, wind, tidal, geothermal etc.
3.
Curbing deforestation and increasing the vegetation cover.
4.
Minimizing the use of nitrogen fertilizers in agriculture and banning production and use of CFCs
Ozone Layer and its depletion:The Ozone (O3) is an isotope of oxygen. It exists in the so called ozone layer at a height of about15-60km. In
the stratosphere. By a natural chemical process, sunlight creates ozone when it strikes the stratosphere.
Thinning of ozone is caused by numerous pollutants like CFCs (Chloro-floro-carbons), Nitrogen oxide,
Rocket propellants, chlorine, Tetra chlorides, halogens and chloroforms CFCs have maximum ozone depleting
potential. They are present in troposphere and from here they pass into stratosphere. CFCs split up to release
chlorine which converts O3 into O2. Nitric oxide released into the stratosphere by jet emissions also react with
ozone to form oxygen.
NO+O3
NO2+ O2
Ozone filters all the radiations which are biologically harmful and thereby controls the thermal budget of the
earth. The extreme thinning out of ozone layer is known as ozone hole and was first discovered in 1985 over
Antartic and above Arctic in 1990.
EFFECTS OF OZONE DEPLETION:The thinning of ozone layer results in an increase in UV radiation reaching the earths surface. This radiation is
harmful to living organisms as it may have the following effects:i)
Increased incidents of cataract and skin cancer in human beings.
ii)
Weakening of the immune system.
iii)
Damage to early developmental stage of aquatic forms.
(increased mortality rate of young one of animals).
iv)
Decreased reproductive capacity of the organism.
v)
Inhibition of Photosynthesis.
vi)
Increase in the incidents of mutations.
vii)
Adverse effect on the food chain, food web, biogio-chemical cycles (Global environment)
PREVENTIVE MEASURES;Suggestive measures to reduce ozone depletion.
1)
We should encourage the use of alternative sources of energy in order to discourage the burning of
fossil fuel.
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2)
Use of CFCs refrigerators and air conditioners should be stopped.
3)
The products which contain chlorine and other harmful chemicals should be judiciously used.
4)
Use of eco-friendly insecticides and pesticides should be encouraged.
5)
Public awareness programmes should be conducted.
IMPROVEMENTS IN FOOD RESOURCES
Agriculture is an applied science which deals with the mass production of plants and animals useful to human
beings involving soil cultivation, breeding and management of crops and livestocks.
Successful crop production depends upon understanding of how crops develop and grow, how various factors
affect the growth and development of crops and how each factor can be modified or managed. Crop production
is pertained to exploitation of plant responses within a soil and atmospheric environment to produce a high
yield per unit area of land. Such a target can be achieved by adopting good farming practices and managing
resources such as nutrients and water more effectively.
Plantation crops e.g tea coffee etc.
Oil seed Crops
e.g Soyabean, groundnut etc.
Cereal crops e.g Wheat rice etc.

PLANTS
Pulse crops e.g Chicken pea
or gram(Chana)
Fodder crops e.g Oats.
Crops of fruits vegetables and spices
e.g Apple, Tomato etc.
CROP SEASONS:Various crops require different climatic conditions, temperature and photoperiod for their growth and
completing their life cycle. Cropping activities go on all the year round in India, provided water is available to
the crops. In Northern India, there are following two distinct seasons:1.
KHARIF SEASON CROPS:- These crops are grown in rainy seasons i.e; Kharif season starts from the
months of May/June and last till October for eg. Paddy,soyabeanetc.
2.
RABI SEASON CROPS:- These crops are grown in winter season i.e. from November to April eg:
wheat, gram etc.
IMPROVEMENT IN YIELDS
India is a large country with a large area under cultivation. Together with forests and fisheries agriculture is the
badibone of Indian economy.
Three fourth of the population is engaged in agriculture Besides providing food agriculture is a source of raw
materials for industries.
Following three scientific approaches are adopted in India to obtain high yields from our agriculture farms:
1.
Crop production Management: In the modern agriculture there is a direct correlation between
higheryields and input applications. In other words. Farmers purchasing capacity for inputs decides the
cropping system and production practices. These include no cost production, low cost production and high
cost production practices.
2.
Crop improvement for higher yield through genetic manipulation:- The art of recognising valuable traits
and incorporating them into future generation is very important in plant breeding.
General Manipulation means the incorporation of desirable characters in an organism (crop plant) by various
methods such as hybridization, mulation,Polyploidy and DNA recombination technology. Crops with better and
desirable agronomic characteristics, obtained through the above mentioned processes bring about crop
improvement for higher yield.
3.
Crop protection Management:- Field crops are infested with a variety of pests. A pest is any destructive
organism which causes great economic loss by destroying crop plants or products obtained from them. Pests of
crop plants include weeds, insects, mites etc. If these pests are not controlled at appropriate time, they can
damage the crop to the extent of 50 to 70 percent. All practices used to protect crops, before and post
harvestation are included in crop protection management.
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NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT:
The food required by plant is composed of certain chemical elements, which are known as nutrients. Though
plants absorb a large number of elements from its environment, only 16 nutrients are found to be essential for
the plant nutrition. Some of these include carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium etc.
Deficiency of these nutrients affect physiological processes in plants including reproduction, growth and
susceptibility to disease.
There are three different sources from where a plant gets essential nutrients. These sources are air, water and
soil.
MACRO NUTRIENTS
The essential elements which are
Utilised by plants relatively in large
quantities are called major nutrients
Or macro nutrients. For eg. Nitrogen,
Phosphorus etc.
NUTRIENTS
MICRO NUTRIENTS
The essential elements which are used by

plants in small quantities are called Minor
nutrients or micro nutrients for e.g. Iron,
Maganese etc.
MANURES AND FERTILIZERS

The deficiency of plant nutrients and organic matter in the soil is made by adding manures and fertilizers to the
soil of crop fiends . Both manures and fertilizers are a major source of nutrients of plants.
A manure is different from a fertilizer in the following manner:
MANURE
FERTILIZER
1. A manure is a Natural substance.
It is obtained by the decomposition
1. A fertilizer is a human made substance.
Of animal wastes such as dung of cattle and plant
It is an inorganic salt or an inorganic
residues.
Compound.
2. A manure contains small amounts of essential plant
nutrients such as Nitrogen, Phosphorus and potassium.
3. A manure adds a great amount of organic matter in
the form of humus in the soil
4. Nutrients present in the manure are absorbed slowly
by the crop plants, since manure is not soluble in
water.
5. A manure is not nutrient specific and it tends to
remove the general deficiency of the soil.
2. Fertilizers are very rich in plant nutrients such

as nitrogen, Phosphorus and potassium.
3. A fertilizer does not add any humus to the soil
4. Being soluble in water, a fertilizer is readily
absorbed by crop plants
5. A fertilizer is nutrient specific.
6. A fertilizer is easy to store, transport and

handle
7. A manure is cheap and is prepared in rural homes 7. A fertilizer is costly and is prepared in factories
for example: Cow dung.
for eg. Urea. CO(NH2)2
IRRIGATION
Water is a key input for crop production. The process of supplying water to crop plants of the crop fields by
means of canals, reservoirs, wells etc. is known as irrigation.
Our country is awarded with large water and land resources with varied climatic conditions. Under such
circumstances various types of irrigation systems have been adopted to supply water to the agricultural lands
some most commonly used irrigation systems are:1) Canal System: In canal system, the human made canals receive water from one or two reservoirs or from
rivers.
2) Tanks: Tanks are small storage reservoirs, which catch and store the runoff of smaller catchment areas.
3.) Wells: are constructed wherever exploitable ground water is present. Wells are either Dug Wells or tube
wells.
4) River Valley system: In some parts of India where heavy rainfall is concentrated in four or five month period
of the year, the water is discharged into the steep and narrow riverine valleys during the rainy season.
6. Manure is difficult to store, transport and handle.
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5) River lift system: In the areas where canal flow is inadequate or irregular due to insufficient reservoir release
the lift system of irrigation is used. In lift system water is directly drawn from the rivers for supplementing
irrigation in the area near to the rivers.
CROPPING PATTERNS
Arranging and organising crops in fields in a particular manner, in a particular season or in consecutive
seasons, forms the cropping pattern. Various cropping patterns are used in agronomy to obtain better agronomic
production. Some of these are.
1. MIXED CROPPING: It is a practice of growing of two or more crops simultaneously on the same piece of
land. The basic objective in mixed cropping is to minimise the risk and insure against the crop failure due to
abnormal weather conditions for eg. Maize and Urad bean are grown together.
2. INTERCROPPING: Inter-cropping is a practice of growing two or more crops simultaneously in a same
field in definite row patterns with the objective of increasing productivity per unit area.
3. CROP ROTATION: Crop rotation can be defined as the practice of growing of different crops on a piece of
land in a pre-planned succession. Most commonly, legumes are included in the crop rotation programme. They
are used to increase soil fertility.
MAIZE
MUSTARD
CROP PROTECTION: Field crops are infested by a large number of weeds, insects, pests and diseases. If the
crops are not protected at the appropriate time, then they can damage the crops so much that most of the crop is
lost.
Various steps which can be taken to protect the crops pre and post harvestation are:
1. Fencing of fields to protect them from stray animals.
2. Raising scare crows to protect the crops from birds.
3. Weeds or unwanted grass can be removed by mechanical, cultural, chemical (weedicides) or biological
control methods.
4. Chemicals like insecticides, fungicides, protect the crops from harmful organisms.
5. Storage of grains should be done properly, the storage space should be free from moisture, micro-organisms
and rodents.
HISTORY
Topic:
Pastoralists in the Modern world
In this section we shall look at the following:
1)
Life of the nomadic pastoralists before colonialism in India and Africa.
2)
How did colonial rule change the lives of nomadic pastoralist in India and Africa.
3)
Do a comparative study of the pastoralists in India and Africa.
4)
How did the nomadic pastoralists cope with the pressures of modern society.
Nomads: Nomads are people who do not live in one place but move from one area to another to earn their living.
Pastoral nomads: Nomads, who depend on domesticated live stock, migrate in an established territory to find pastures
for their animals.
The nomadic pastoral tribes moved between summer and winter pastures to adjust to seasonal changes and made effective
use of available pastures in different places. When the pastures were exhausted or unusable in one place, they moved their
herds and flocks to new areas.
Judge how long the herds could stay in one area.
The life of the pastoral

groups was sustained by
a serious consideration
of a host of factors
They
had
to
Calculate the timing of their movement.

Set up relationship with farmers on the way.
Combine a range of different activities cultivation,
trade and herding.
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This continuous movement was helpful to the environment in many ways:

1. It allowed the pastures to recover.
2. It prevented the overgrazing of the pasture lands which helped in preventing soil erosion. The flocks manured the
fields while they fed on the stubble.
The colonial government in India brought in number of laws which changed the lives of pastoralists in a number
of ways. Their grazing grounds shrank, their movements were regulated and the revenue they had to pay
increased. Their agricultural stock declined and their trades and crafts were adversely affected.
Laws enacted
Waste land rules
Forest acts
The criminal Tribes Act
Grazing tax
WASTE LAND RULES: To colonial officials all uncultivated land appeared to be unproductive. It produced neither
revenue nor crops. In order to bring this waste land under cultivation various Wasteland rules were enacted in various
parts of the country. By these rules uncultivated land was taken over and given to select individuals. These individuals
were granted various concessions and encouraged to settle this land. In most areas, the land taken over was actually used
by pastoralists for grazing their flock. So, expansion of cultivation inevitably meant the shrinking of pastures and a
problem for pastoralists.
FOREST ACTS: Through these acts, forests which produced commercially valuable timber like deodar or sal were
declared Reserved. No pastoralist was allowed access to these forests. Other forests were classified as protected. In
these, some customary grazing rights of pastoralists were granted but their movements were severely stricted. The
colonial officials believed that grazing destroyed the saplings and young shoots of trees that germinate on the forest floor.
ACCORDING TO THESE ACTS:
The pastoralists were prevented from entering many forests that had earlier provided valuable forage for their
cattle.
Their movements were regulated even in the areas they were allowed entry
They needed a permit for entry. The timing of their entry and departure was specified.
Pastoralists could no longer remain in the forest even if forage was available. They had to move because the
Forest Department permits that had been issued to them now ruled their lives. If they overstayed they were liable
to fines.
All these restrictions were bound to change the lives of the pastoralists negatively. They found it difficult to graze
their cattle which brought their lives to a halt. Restrictions were imposed on pastoral movements, grazing land
came to be continuously used and the quality of pastures declined. This in turn created a serious shortage of
forage for animals and the under fed cattle died in large numbers.
THE CRIMINAL TRIBES ACT:
The colonial government wanted to rule over a settled population such a population was easy to identify and control. The
British officials were suspicious of nomadic people whereas, those who were settled were seen as peaceable and law
abiding. In 1871, the colonial government in India passed the Criminal Tribes Act. By this act many communities of
craftsmen, traders and pastoralists were classified as Criminal Tribes. Once the Act came into force, these communities
were expected to live only in notified village settlements. They were not allowed to move out without a permit. These
restrictions affected the social and economic lives of these nomadic tribes adversely. The shepherds and herders could no
longer move freely because of which they couldnt graze their cattle for which it was necessary to move from one place
to another.
GRAZING TAX:
To expand its revenue income, the colonial government looked for every possible source of taxation. So, tax was imposed
on land, canal water, salt, trade goods and even on animals. Pastoralists had to pay tax on every animal they grazed on the
pastures. The tax per head of cattle went up rapidly and the system of collection was made increasingly efficient. The
contractors who were given the right to collect taxes tried to extract as high a tax as they could. Even when the
government began to collect taxes directly they showed no mercy. To enter a grazing tract, cattle herder had to show the
pass and pay the tax. The number of cattle heads he had and the amount of tax he paid was entered on the pass.
MASSAI AND THE COLONIAL RULE:
The Massai, like other pastoral communities under colonialism were affected in a variety of different ways. One of the
major changes that happened was the loss of their grazing lands. Let us understand the reasons behind that.
1) In the late nineteenth century, European imperial powers scrambled for territorial possessions in Africa, slicing
up the region into different colonies. In 1885, Massailand was cut into half with an international boundary
between British Kenya and German Tanganyika. Subsequently, the best grazing lands were gradually taken over
/F-16/
Page 74 of 95
for the white settlement and the Massai were pushed into a small arid zone of South Kenya and North Tanzania
with uncertain rainfall and poor pastures. The Massai lost about 60 percent of their pre-colonial lands.
2) From the late nineteenth century, the British government in east Africa encouraged local peasants to expand
cultivation. As cultivation expanded, pasturelands were turned into cultivated fields. The Massai had dominated
their agricultural neighbours both economically and politically. The situation reversed because of the British
policies.
3) Large areas of grazing land were also turned into game reserves like the Maasai Mara, Samburu National Park
and Serengeti Park, which not only led to the shortage of grazing lands for their herds but also imposed
restrictions on hunting in these areas.
The loss of the finest grazing lands and water resources created pressure on the small area of land that the Maasai were
confined within. Continuous grazing within a small area inevitably meant a deterioration of the quality of the pastures.
Colonial Rule and Pastoral Life
Steps taken by the British government with regards to the Nomads and Pastoralists: Under the British rule, the lives
of the pastoralists changed dramatically. This was because of various steps taken by the British government. Some of
these steps are discussed below:
The British government enacted various acts which restricted the movement of the nomads and pastoralists. The
colonial acts prevented them from entering forests that had earlier provided valuable forage for their cattle. No
pastoralist was allowed access to the so called Reserved forests. Even in the areas which were protected their
movements were regulated. They needed a permit for entry.
The British wanted to rule over a settled population. They considered the nomadic communities a threat to law
and order. In order to ensure this they exacted criminal tribe act which forced the nomadic communities to live
only in notified village settlements.
In order to expand its revenue, income the colonial government looked for every possible source of taxation. Tax
was levied on land, water, salt and even on animals. Pastoralists had to pay tax on every animal they grazed on
the pastures.
The British disturbed the traditional social setup of the nomadic and pastoral communities to suit their own needs.
In order to ensure this, they introduced a series of measures that had serious and significant implications.
Cause
Effect
Grazing lands were taken over
Shortage of pastures.
Preservation of forests
Decrease in grazing land
Overgrazing in pastures available, which led

to the deterioration in the quality of pastures.
Underfed Cattle
Died in large numbers
Grazing grounds shrank.

Shortage of forage
Colonialism & changes in the lives of

pastoral communities in India and East
Africa (similarities)
SIMILARITIES
Both the pastoralists of India

and East Africa were found
to live within the confines of
special reserves. The
boundaries of the reserves
became the limits within
which they could now move.
They were not allowed to
move out with their stock
without special permits.
Those found guilty of
disobeying rules were
severely punished.
/F-16/
As the areas of
grazing lands shrank,
pressure was created
on the small area of
land that pastoralists
were confined within.
Continuous grazing
within a small area
meant a deterioration
of the quality of
pastures. This
subsequently, led to
the death of underfed
cattle.
The reservation of
forests meant that
pastoralist could no
longer freely pasture
their cattle in the forest
because of which many
of them either reduced
their cattle in their
herds or were forced to
take up alternate jobs.
British officials were

suspicious of nomadic
people. In India as well
as East Africa, laws
were enacted to make
these nomadic
communities live in
fixed places.
Pastoralists in India as
well as East Africa not
only tended cattle but
traded in various forest
and animal products.
Because of the colonial
rule their trading
activities were now
subject to various
restrictions.
Page 75 of 95
The pastoralists reacted to the changes

that took place because of colonial rule in the following ways
They reduced the

number of cattle in
their herds.
They discovered new

pastures.
Some settled as
Peasants
Traders
Poor pastoralists
became labourers,
working on fields or
in towns.
LIVING STYLE OF PASTORAL NOMADS A BRIEF SUMMARY

Nomadic lifestyle is most likely the oldest form of human society still practiced today. Pastoral nomads are nomads who
depend on domesticated livestock and migrate in an established territory to find pastures for their animals. They make
their living by raising livestock, such as sheep, goats, buffatoes etc. Some of the pastoral communities found in India are:The Gujjars, Bakarwals, Gollas, Kurumas, Kurubas & Raikas.
The nomads live a very simple life and because of their constant travel, they cannot carry a great amount of supplies,
equipments etc. The life of pastoral nomads is sustained by a careful consideration of a host of factors. They need to
judge how long the herds can stay in one area, and know where they can find water and pasture. They need to calculate
the timing of their movements and ensure that they can move through different territories. They have to set up
relationship with people they meet on the way, in order to avoid any sort of difficulty in their movement. Maintaining
good relationship with farmers on the way is most important as they graze their herds in harvested fields and manure the
soil. Nomads coming a range of different activities cultivation, trade and herding to make their living.
Conclusion:
We now know that pastoral communities in different parts of the world were affected in a variety of different ways by
changes in the modern world.
Topic: Peasants and Farmers

In this section we shall look at:1) lives of peasants & farmers with a special focus on England, the USA and India
2) the impart of modern agriculture on different rural groups.
THE OPEN FIELD SYSTEM IN ENGLAND:
Before the late eighteenth century, the countryside in England was open. It was not partitioned into enclosed lands,
privately owned by land lords. The features of this system were: Peasants cultivated strips of land around the village they lived in.
At the beginning of each year, each villager was allocated a number of strips to cultivate.
These strips were of varying quality and often located in different places. The effort was to ensure that everyone
had a mix of good and bad land.
All villages had access to the commons. Here they pastured their cows and grazed their sheep, collected fuel
wood, berries & fruit for food. They fished in the rivers and ponds and hunted in common forests.
What open field system meant to:
1) A rich farmer: The open field system was not beneficial for a rich farmer because he did not enjoy priority as far
as control over common land was concerned. He could not cultivate beyond the strips that were allotted to him in
the beginning of the year.
2) A labourer: The open field system was beneficial to labourer as it provided additional sources of livelihood. He
could pasture his cows and sheep in the common land, collect fuel wood for fire and berries and fruit for food. He
fished in the rivers and ponds and hunted rabbits in the common forests. For the poor the common land was
essential for survival.
3) A peasant woman: The open field system was important for a peasant woman. She could venture into the
common land to collect firewood, berries, fruits, herbs and other forest products.
FACTORS WHICH LED TO THE ENCLOSURES IN ENGLAND
Price of wool
went up
/F-16/
Rapid increase in
population in England
Increased demand for

food grains
Anglo French War
Page 76 of 95
The price of wool went up in the world market in the 16th century. Rich farmers wanted to expand wool
production to earn profits. They were eager to improve their sheep breeds and ensure good feed for them. They
were keen on controlling large areas of land in compact blocks to allow improved breeding. So they began
dividing and enclosing common land and building hedges around their holdings to separate their property from
that of others.
From the mid-eighteenth century, the English population expanded rapidly. Between 1750 and 1900, it multiplied
to over four times, mounting from 7 million in 1750 to 21 million in 1900. Britain at this time was industrializing.
More and more people began to live and work in urban areas. Men migrated from rural areas to towns in search
of jobs. To survive they had to buy food grains from the market. This resulted in an increased demand for food
grain for which commons were cleared and land enclosed.
By the end of the eighteenth century, France was at war with England. This disrupted trade and the import of
food grains from Europe. Prices of food grains in England skyrocketed, encouraging landowners to enclose land
and enlarge the areas under grain cultivation. Enclosures were seen as necessary to make long- term investments
on land and plan crop rotations to improve the soil.
MACHINES BROUGHT MISERY TO POOR FARMERS

The poor opposed threshing machines
The fear of unemployment made workers hostile to the introduction of new technology
Mechanization reduced the

need for labour in threshing
season, rendering the poor
jobless.
The poor were forced to

migrate in search of
alternate jobs.
The machine reduced the

dependency of landowners
on labourers. The
landowners took
advantage, the poor were
forced to accept whatever
wages they were given.
CONSEQUENCES
In 1830, and the subsequent two years, riots spread over Southern England and about 387 threshing machines
were broken.
Farmers received threatening letters urging them to stop using machines that deprived workmen of their
livelihood. Most of these letters were signed in the name of Captain Swing.
Farmers and landlords were attacked by armed bands at night.
Government took severe action against those suspected of rioting. Hundreds were imprisoned or sent to exile.
Many were killed also.
CAPTAIN SWING
Captain swing was a mythical name used by the swing rioters who forbade the landlords and farmers from using
threshing machines, Captain Swings name symbolized the protest of the poor against the rich farmers and against the
new technology which created the fear of unemployment among the poor.
THE WESTWARD EXPANSION OF SETTLERS IN THE USA
After the formation of the USA, the white Americans began to move westward. Seen from the east coast, America
appeared to be a land of promise. Its wilderness could be turned into cultivated fields. Forest timber could be cut for
export, animals hunted for skin and mountains mined for gold and minerals.
Impact
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The white settlers first settled in the Appalachian plateau from where they moved to the Mississippi valley, and after the
1860s swept in the Great Plains across the river Mississippi. Settled agriculture, especially grain production, was
undertaken on an intensive scale largely at the expense of grasslands and forests. Forests were slashed and burnt, stumps
pulled out and land cleared for cultivation.
Agrarian expansion led to displacement of local tribes. They were driven beyond the river Mississippi and later
further west.
Westward expansion provided the impetus for development of new technologies in agriculture in order to meet
the requirements of new habitats and land.
Westward expansion led to US emerging as the breadbasket of the world and to increased mechanization of
agriculture.
After the American war of

Independence
The white Americans began

to move westwards
American Indians were

force to give-up their land.
As the American Indians

retreated
The new settlers cleared the

land for cultivation
Larger areas were cleared

and Corn and Wheat were
sown
The regions of the great plans across

the river Mississippi became a major
wheat producing area of America
ADVANTAGES OF MACHINES
1) They allowed big farmers to rapidly clear large tracts, breakup the soil, remove the grass and prepare the ground
for cultivation.
2) These machines reduced dependence on labour and increased efficiency. With this power driven machinery work
could be done faster.
3) The machines helped in the increase in production by bringing virgin land under cultivation so as to meet the
growing demands of urban dwellers and the export market.
DISADVANTAGES OF MACHINES
1) For poor farmers machines brought misery. Machines reduced dependence on labour leading to unemployment. It
became difficult for the poor to find jobs.
2) Production expanded rapidly. When the export market collapsed after the American war of independence wheat
prices fell drastically.
3) Extensive cultivation led to the Great Agrarian Depression of the 1930s.
4) The entire landscape was ruined resulting in ecological imbalance. Ordinary dust storms turned into black
blizzards. The USAs dream of plenty turned into a nightmare.
THE TRADE WITH CHINA AND OPIUM SMUGGLING
The English East India Company was buying tea and silk from China for sale in England. China was exporting enormous
amounts, but wasnt interested in importing any European goods. This created a problem, England at this time produced
nothing that could be easily sold in China. In such a situation how would they balance their trade. That is when Warren
Hastings came up with an idea that the only way of balancing trade was to smuggle opium into China.
While the English cultivated a taste for tea, the Chinese became addicted to opium. People of all classes took to the drug.
As China became a country of opium addicts, the British trade in tea flourished. The returns from opium sale financed the
tea purchases in China. This is where the Indian peasant comes into the story. When the British conquered Bengal, they
made a determined effort to produce opium in the lands under their control. The British made every possible attempt to
force the Indian peasants to grow opium.
THE INDIANS WERE RELUCTANT TO GROW OPIUM
i)
The crop had to be grown in the best land, on the fields that lay near villages and were fertile. On this land
peasants usually produced pulses. If they planted opium then pulses could not be planted there.
ii)
The plant was delicate and the farmers had to spend long hours in nurturing it.
iii)
The price the government paid to the cultivators for the opium they produced was low.
iv)
Many cultivators owned no land. They had to pay rent and lease land from landlords. The rent on good lands near
the villages was quite high.
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HOW WAS OPIUM TRADE CONDUCTED IN CHINA

The East India Company did not carry opium, itself but, through country traders ie private traders licensed by the
Company to take goods from India to China. The country traders sold opium to smugglers along the Chinese coast. The
gold and silver received from the sales were then turned over to the East India Company. In China, the company used this
gold and silver to purchase goods that were profitable in England.
OPIUM CULTIVATION OUTSIDE BRITISH TERRITORY
By 1773, the British government in Bengal had established a monopoly to trade in opium. No one else was legally
permitted to trade in the product. By the 1820s, the British found to their horror that opium production in their territories
was rapidly declining, but its production outside the British territories was increasing. It was being produced in central
India and Rajasthan, within princely states that were not under British control. In these regions, local traders were
offering much higher prices to peasants and exporting opium to China for the British this trade was illegal: it was
smuggling and it had to be stopped. Government monopoly had to be retained. It therefore instructed its agents posted in
the princely states to confiscate all opium and destroy the crops.
The lessons to learn from the conversion of
the country side in the USA from bread
basket to a dust bowl
Man must respect the

ecological conditions of each
region
Mans uncontrolled ambitions, greed

and desire to conquer nature can lead
to ecological imbalance.
Technology and development should

be nature friendly
GEOGRAPHY
CLIMATE
Making Connections: The handicraft industry of J&K has been adversely affected by modern technology.
Explain how this has happened over the years and suggest some remedies.
SEASON: Each of the four(4) divisions of the year marked by particular weather pattern and day hours,
resulting from the earths changing position with regard to the sun.
The Seasons: There are four (4) main seasons in India. These are:
I.
The cold weather season (winter)
II.
The hot weather season ( summer)
III.
Advancing monsoon (The spring season)
IV.
Retreating monsoon ( The transition season)
1. The Cold Weather Season: This season begins in mid-November and stays till February (3 months). In
this season whole India experiences low temperatures but great impact of this season can be seen in
Northern India especially in hilly regions like J&K, Himachal Pradesh, Utaranchal, etc. December and
January are the coldest months of this season. In this season the South India experiences average
temperature of about 240C to 250C because this area is located in tropical heat zone, while as Northern
India experiences average temperature of about 100C to 150C because this area is mostly hilly and is
located in temperate heat zone. Days are usually warm and nights are cold, frost is common in hilly
areas during nights. In this season winds mostly blow from land to sea due to which the country remains
mostly dry. A characteristic feature of this season is in flow of Western disturbances from
Mediterranean sea and Western Asia which causes rain over Northern plains and snowfall in Himalayas.
2. The hot weather season: This season begins from March and stays till May (3 months). In this season
the Northern Hemisphere starts receiving most of the insolation (suns heat and light that reaches on the
surface of earth). Most parts of the country enjoy high temperature. The highest temperature from 40 0C
to 500C can be seen in North-Western India, while as peninsular block experience maximum
temperature about 380C. A striking feature of this season is hot and dry winds called loo which blow
during day time in North-western India. Direct exposure to these winds sometimes proves fatal. Dust
storms are very common in May in Northern India. The locally formed thunder storms which cause
torrential rains are also common towards the end of this season pre monsoon showers are common in
Kerala and Karnataka, they help in early ripening of mangoes and hence are called as mango showers.
3. Advancing Monsoon (Rainy season): This season begins from June and stays till September (Four
months). In this season the winds start blowing from sea to land which are full of moisture. These winds
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cause heavy rains in most parts of India. Since these winds come from South and move towards west,
they are also called as South-West monsoon winds. These winds control the temperature and bring
change in the hot weather. The monsoon winds enter India from south side at an average speed of 30km
per hour with lightening and violent thunder. This is called breaking of monsoon. The peninsular India
divides monsoon into two branches, Arabian sea branch and Bay of Bengal sea branch. Arabian sea
branch gives most of the rain over western side of western ghats and Bay of Bengal sea branch gives
most of the rain over North-eastern region. Mawsynram a place in Meghalaya receives the highest
rainfall about 122km in the world. Rainfall decreases as the winds move towards interior parts of the
country besides the monsoon rains are not regular, there are breaks in rainfall, thus there are also dry
spells in many parts of India. In India agricultural season also starts with the onset of monsoons.
NOTE: The word monsoon has been derived from an Arabic word Mausim which refers to the
seasonal reversal in the wind direction through the year.
4. Retreating monsoon (the transition season): This season begins from October and stays till
November. In this season the monsoon winds start withdrawing drom Northern plains, the season
changes from rainy season to dry winter conditions. The retreat of monsoons is marked by clear skies,
rise in temperature and humidity which makes the weather more oppressive during the day, this
condition of retreating season is known as October heat. In this season the cyclonic depressions occur
over Andaman sea. These cyclones cross eastern coast and cause heavy rains in Godavari, Krishna and
Kaveri delta regions. Sometimes these cyclones cause heavy damage to life and property.
EXERCISE: (FIND THE ANSWERS FROM THE TOPIC)
Q1.
Give an account of hot weather season in India.
Q2.
What do you understand by break in monsoon?
Q3.
Define monsoons.
Q4.
What do you mean by mango showers?
Q5.
What do you understand by October heat?
Q6.
What is loo?
Q7.
Name the winds which blow from mediterranian sea during cold weather season.
Q8.
Which place in India receives the highest rainfall in the world?
Lesson No. 5
NATURAL VEGETATION WILDLIFE
Natural Vegetation: Natural vegetation refers to a plant community which has grown naturally without
human interference and has been left undisturbed over a long period, this type of vegetation is termed as virgin
vegetation. The plant life of a particular area is referred to as flora. There are about 47000 plant species in
India, with these plant species India is 10th in the world and 4th in Asia. Nearly 40% of plant species have come
from outside India, these plants are called exotic plants and the plants which are purely Indian are called
endemic plants.
Wildlife: Wildlife refers to all the non-domesticated animals found in an area which comprises of mammals,
reptiles, birds, amphibians and insects. The animal life of a particular area is termed as fauna. There are about
89000 animal species in India. The country has 1200 species of birds (13% of the worlds total). 2500 species
of fish (12% of the worlds total).India also has 5-8% of the worlds amphibians, mammals and reptiles.
Elephant is the most majestic animal among the mammals and is found in Assam, Karnataka and Kerala, wild
ass and lions are found in Gujarat. Rajasthan is habitat for camels. India is the only country in the world that
has both lions and tigers. Tigers are found in West Bengal and M.P. Some other animals like, monkeys,
leopards, crocodiles, Gazels, nilgai, deer etc are found also in India. Some bird species like peacocks, ducks,
cranes, pigeons are also found in India. Tiger is the national animal and peacock is the national bird of India.
Wildlife of J & K : J&K is rich in wildlife. Ladakh, a cold area is home of yak, the Tibetan anti-lope, Blue
sheep, red panda, Ibex, bear, Kiang(Tibetan wild ass), snow leopard etc. The famous Dachigam national park is
home of Hangul a rare species of deer found only in Kashmir valley in the world. The national park is also
habitat for 20 mammals including leopard and 150 species of birds. Monkeys are almost found in all the forests
of J&K.
Factors responsible for the distribution of plants and animals: Distribution of plants and animals in India
depends on relief, climate and soil. Relief consists of plains, plateaus and mountains. Climate consists of
temperature, precipitation and sunlight(photoperiod). Land and soil effect the natural vegetation directly, the
plain areas with fertile soil, high temperature and rainfall are responsible for high plant growth. The plateaus
and mountains are areas where grasslands and woodland develop and give shelter to many wild animals. Desert
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areas support thorny bushes and cactus due to scanty rainfall and less fertile soil. Delta areas and marshy lands
support mangroves and deltaic vegetation. In the areas with large amount of sunlight, rainfall and high
temperatures, the vegetation grows faster in summer as compared to winter. In India the areas which receive
heavy rainfall have thick vegetation cover such as Western Ghats and Island groups and the areas which receive
low rainfall have less vegetation such as North-Western and Eastern side of peninsular India. Plants and
animals are very important for maintaining ecological balance and are dependent and interlinked on each other.
Different plants and animals have adapted themselves to survive under a particular climatic conditions. Indias
bio-diversity have been greatly altered by humans for various needs such as, mining, development of industries,
urbanization, need for agricultural land, etc. It is estimated that about 1500 plant species, 79 species of
mammals, 44 of birds,15 of reptiles and 3 of amphibians are already on endangered list. About 1300 plant
species are endangered and 20 plant species are extinct. Also commercial hunting is one of the causes.
DO IT NOW YOURSELF (FIND THE ANSWERS FROM THE ABOVE TOPICS)
Q1.
What is virgin vegetation?
Q2.
Define the terms (a) Exotic plants (b) Endemic plants (c) Fauna.
Q3.
Define wildlife and write names of 10 animals found in India.
Q4.
Name the animal which is only found in Kashmir valley in the world.
Q5.
Explain how land and soil affect the distribution of plants.
Q6.
Which areas in India have thick vegetation cover?
Q7.
Indias bio-diversity have been greatly altered by humans. Explain.
Q8.
How many animal species are found in India?
Lesson: 6
POPULATION
POPULATION: The population refers to the total number of people living in a country, the people who
constitute the population act as the producers as well as the consumers of the goods and services. The people
are important to develop the economy and society of any nation.
POPULATION SIZE AND DISTRIBUTION IN INDIA:
SIZE: India is the second largest country after China in population and also second in Asia after China.
According to 2011 census the population of India is 1210 million (1.21 Billion) which accounts for 17.37% of
the worlds population. In India, U.P is the most populous state and Sikkim is the least populous state.
DISTRIBUTION: According to 2011 census the density of population in India is 382 persons per km 2. The
density varies from state to state, it is 1102 persons per km2 in Bihar (highest) and 17 persons per km2 in
Arunachal (Lowest). About 50% of the population of India lives in 5 states only, these are : U.P, Maharashtra,
West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan.
The Northern plains have high density of population due to plain land, fertile soil, abundant rainfall, favorable
climatic conditions, employment opportunities and availability of modern facilities. The peninsular area and
Assam have moderate population due to rocky terrain, moderate rainfall and less fertile soil, most of the eastern
states like Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Tripura, Meghalaya, Mizoram have low density of
population due to rugged terrain, low rainfall, very less fertile soil and unfavorable climatic conditions.
CENSUS: Census is an official survey of population of a country. In India, it takes place after every 10 years.
The first census was held in 1872 but it was incomplete, the first complete census was held in 1881 and last
census was held in 2011. The census is an enquiry based on questionnaire, the questions are related to various
kinds of information about the members of the house hold such as age, occupation of people, number of males,
females, children, young, old, etc. On the basis of this information the government provide detail about births,
deaths, sex ratio, literacy, etc.
Age composition: It refers to the number of people in different age groups in a country. The population of a
country is generally grouped into three broad age groups:
I.
Children (generally below 15 years): Children are economically unproductive and are dependent for
food, clothing, education, medical care etc on their parents. The share of children in population is
34.4%.
II.
Working age(15 59 years) :This age group is economically productive and biologically reproductive.
The share of adults in population is 68.7%. They comprise the working population.
III.
Aged( above 59 years) : This group can be economically productive though they may have retired. They
may be earning by doing various works but they cannot be recruited for employment. The share of aged
in population is 6.9%.
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In India consumption of resources is higher than the production because a large proportion of
resources is used to satisfy the needs of dependent population of children and aged groups which
adversely affects the development of the country.
SEX RATIO: It is defined as the number of females per thousand males in the population. The sex ratio in
India has always remained in favor of males. In 1901 census the sex ratio in India was 972 females per 1000
males. Since then this ratio always remained in favor of males with slight variation in number of females. In
2011 census the sex ratio in India is 940 females per 1000 males. In India only two states have their ratio in
favor of females. Kerala with 1058 females per 1000 males and Pondicherry 1001 females per 1000 males. In
J&K the sex ratio is 883 females per 1000 males (2011 census), while as 2001 census shows 892 females per
1000 males, this decreasing trend is a matter of concern because this shows a declining status of women in the
society.
LITERACY RATES: Literacy generally refers to schooling, formal or non-formal\. Any person of the age of
7(seven) and above, who is able to read and write any language with certain understanding is called as
literate. In India the literacy rate was just 5% and in 2011 it is 74.04% (82.14% for males and 65.46% for
females). In India Kerala has the highest literacy rate of 90.92% and the lowest literacy rate of 47.53% is in
Bihar (2001 census). The literacy rate of J&K is 68.74% according to 2011 census (78.26% for males and
58.01% for females).
In India the high literacy rate is due to education and awareness and low literacy rate is mostly lack of
education, low levels of awareness, poverty, distance from school, lack of facilities etc.
In todays modern and electronic age only educated citizens can make a better and developed society. The
European and American countries are developed because they have high literacy rate and know the importance
of education. The Asian and African countries have low literacy rate and that is why they are far behind than
developed countries of the world.
PROCESS OF POPULATION CHANGE/ GROWTH:
There are three main processes of change of population,
1) Birth rate, 2) Death rate, 3) Migration
Birth Rate: Birth rate is the number of live births per thousand persons in a year. It is a major component of
population growth because in India, birth rates have always been higher than death rates. The high rate is
due to improved medical facilities after independence, control over infant motality, early marriages, lack of
education, etc.
Death Rate: Death rate is the number of deaths per thousand person in a year. The main cause of the rate of
growth of the Indian population has been the rapid decline in death rate and the decline in the death rate is
due to high life expectancy due to improved medical facilities control over epidemics like, plague, small
pox, etc, improved life style of the people and increasing public health measures during the last four
decades.
Migration: Migration means movement of people from one place to another place for education, jobs,
business, etc. Migration is of two types:
1.
Internal migration: This migration is the movement of people from one place to another place
within the country or from rural areas to urban areas. This type of migration does not change the
size of the population but influence the distribution of population within the nation.
2.
External migration: This migration is the movement of people from one country to another
country. This type of migration changes the size and density of population of the countries.
After reading the above topics find the answers of the following questions yourself:
Q1.
Define the term population.
Q2.
What are the reasons for uneven distribution of population in India?
Q3.
What is census?
Q4.
Explain about the age composition.
Q5.
What is sex ratio?
Q6.
Name the two states, where sex-ratio is in favor of fames, also mention the ratio.
Q7.
Who is a literate?
Q8.
Why European and American country are developed than Asian and African countries?
Q9.
Explain the three processes of population growth.
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POLITICAL SCIENCE
Chapter:
Democratic Rights
1)
What are Rights?
A right is a claim of an individual recognized by society and the State. Rights are those conditions of social life
without which no man can seek the development of ones personality. Rights are the necessary conditions for
the personal, social, economic, political, mental, moral and religious development of a man. Rights are not
only required for the development of man but are necessary for the development of society and social values at
large.
According to Laski, Rights are those conditions of social life without which no man can seek to be himself at
his best.
According to Hobbes, Rights are what we may expect from others and others from us.
There is a marked difference between rights and powers. Beasts enjoy powers in the jungle and not rights. If
the powers of man are not recognized by society and are not used by him for common welfare, they cannot be
called rights.
Kinds of Rights:
a) Natural Rights: By Natural Rights we mean those rights which were enjoyed by people even before the
origin of the state. These rights were enjoyed by the people in the state of nature. These rights were right to
life, right to property and the right to freedom.
b) Moral Rights: These are the claims of the individuals recognized and sanctioned by the community. For
example, it is the moral right of parents in the old age that they will not only be respected, but be supported
by their grown up children as well.
c) Legal Rights: The rights which are granted to man by law and are protected by law are known as legal
rights. Their violation attracts penalty ranging from simple fine to capital punishment.
d) Political Rights: These are rights by virtue of which the citizens take direct part in the administration of
State. Political rights are enjoyed by the citizens alone and not by aliens. Political rights include the right to
vote, right to be elected, right to hold public offices etc.
e) Civil Rights: These are the rights which are necessary for an individual to lead a happy, contented and
progressive life in a society. Some of the civil rights are right to life, right to liberty, right to family,
freedom of speech, right to form an association, freedom of press.
f) Economic Rights: Economic Rights are essential for the living standard of the citizens. Citizens should be
given rights through which their standard of living will rise. These rights include the right to work, right to
property, right to choose vocation etc.
2)
Fundamental Rights
By Fundamental Rights, we mean those rights which form the essential conditions of good life and
which constitute the essentials of human progress. In the absence of these rights the growth and
development of human personality is not possible. These are rights given to every citizen of India. The
Constitution considered them as basic rights of every human being, necessary in a democratic society.
These are special rights in the sense that they offer to all citizens individually and collectively those
basic freedoms and conditions of life which alone can make life significant and democracy fruitful.
These rights cannot be altered, or taken away by an ordinary legislation
These are fundamental in the sense that any law passed by any legislature in the country would be
declared null and void if it is derogatory to the rights guaranteed by the Constitution. If any of these
rights is violated, the individual affected is entitled to move the Supreme Court or High Court for the
protection and enforcement of his rights. However, during an emergency, the President may suspend all
Fundamental Rights and may also suspend the right of the people to move the High Courts and
Supreme Court for the enforcement of these rights.
Categories of Fundamental Rights mentioned in the Constitution of India:
There are six categories of Fundamental Rights mentioned in the Constitution of India. These include
Right to Equality, Right to Freedom, Right to Freedom of Religion, Right against to Exploitation,
Cultural and Educational Rights, and Right to Constitutional Remedies.
Right to Education, Right to freedom of Press and Right to Information are also the fundamental rights
which have been expanded recently by the court judgments from time to time.
a) Right to Equality: Right to equality guarantees to all persons equality before the law and equal protection
of law. It prohibits discrimination between citizens on the basis of caste, race, and place of birth, sex and
religion. All citizens have equal access to shops, public entertainments and places of public resort, which
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are maintained wholly or partly by the state. However, special provisions may be made in respect of
women, children, socially and educationally backward classes and scheduled castes and tribes. The
constitution guarantees equal opportunities relating to public employment to all citizens, but some posts
may be reserved for backward classes. It abolishes untouchability and also abolishes the system of
conferring titles by the State, except military and academic distinctions.
b) Right to Freedom: By right to freedom we mean the absence of interference in our affairs by others. It
means to do the things in the way we want to do them. Others should not dictate to us what we should do.
Right to Freedom is guaranteed by the Constitution of India under Article 19 which guarantees every
citizen of the country to have the right to freedom of speech and expression, freedom to assemble
peacefully and without arms, freedom to form association or unions, freedom of movement throughout
India, freedom to reside and settle in any part of the territory of India and freedom to practice any
profession or to carry on any occupation, trade or business.
Such freedom is subject to reasonable restrictions that may be imposed by the state in the interests of the
sovereignty and integrity of the country, security of the State, friendly relations with foreign States, public
order, decency or morality or any other restrictions in the interests of the general public.
c) Right against Exploitation: The right seeks to ban traffic of human beings, begging or any other form of
forced labour .Employment of children below 14 years of age in any factory or mine or other risky
occupations is also prohibited by law. Child labour is considered a gross violation of the provisions of the
Constitution.
d) Right to freedom of religion: Freedom to practice ones religion is very important. The Constitution of
India has declared India as a Secular country which means to respect every religion and has to be given
equal space to flourish and there is no right to any community to impose its religious beliefs and practices
upon others. Right to freedom of Religion guarantees freedom to all citizens of the country to profess,
practice and propagate any religion. Every religious body has been given the freedom to manage its
religious affairs and to own, acquire and administer property for religious or charitable purposes.
e) Cultural and Educational Rights: This right guarantees to the minorities the right of conserving their
language, script and culture, to receive education and administer educational institutions of their choice. No
citizen may be discriminated against for admission to state or state-aided institutions. In granting aid to
these institutions, the State may not discriminate against any institution.
f) Right to Constitutional Remedies: Right to Constitutional Remedies means to move to the Supreme Court
for the enforcement of Fundamental Rights. The Constitution guarantees us the right to constitutional
remedies if any of our fundamental right is encroached upon. Citizens of India have the right to go to the
court if they feel that their fundamental rights are being violated. We can challenge such laws of the
government. The Supreme Court and High Courts have the power to issue directions, orders or writs for the
enforcement of the Fundamental Rights. They can also award compensation to the victims and punishment
to the violators. Thus, the courts ensure the protection and enforcement of the citizens rights. However,
during an emergency, the President may suspend all Fundamental Rights of the citizens and may also
suspend the right to move the High Courts and Supreme Court for the enforcement of these rights.
Lets summarize the above mentioned topics by filling up the following Web Charts.
Fundamental
Rights
The six Fundamental Rights

1. -------------------------2. -------------------------3. -------------------------4. --------------------------5. --------------------------6. -------------------------Significance of Fundamental Rights
1. .--------------------------------2.
---------------------------------
3. -------------------------------/F-16/
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Right to Equality: It guarantees to all persons equality before the --------and equal ------------of law. It abolishes ----------------and also abolishes
the system of conferring ------------by the State, except ---------- and ----------- distinctions.
Right to Freedom: By right to freedom we mean the absence of------------- in our affairs by --------------. It means to do the things in the way we
want to do them. Others should not ------------ us what we should do.
Right to Freedom is guaranteed by the Constitution of India under Article
-----------.
Fundamental
Rights
Right against Exploitation: The right seeks to ban traffic in --------------------, beggar or any other form of ---------------- labour. Child labour is
considered a gross ------------- of the provisions of the Constitution
Right to freedom of religion: The Constitution of India has declared
India as a -------------- country.
Right to freedom of Religion guarantees freedom to all citizens of the
country to -----------, ----------- and propagate any ----------------.
Cultural and Educational Rights: This right guarantees to the --------------- the right of -------------their language, script and ---------------. No
citizen may be discriminated against for-------------- in state or state-aided
institutions
Right to Constitutional Remedies: Citizens of India have the right to go
to the ----------- if they feel that their ------------- rights are being violated.
However, during operation of an ------------, the -------------may suspend
all Fundamental Rights of the citizens and may also -------------- the right
to move the High Courts and Supreme Court for the ------------- of these
rights.
.
Chapter: Electoral Politics

1)
Election: Election refers to a contest between various political parties for getting their representatives
elected with the intention to form the government. These take place periodically in all democracies.
Direct elections are those elections in which the electors directly participate by casting their vote. For
instance, the election to Lok Sabha, state Legislative Assemblies, Panchayats and Municipalities etc.
Indirect elections are those elections in which the electors indirectly participate by electing their
representatives who cast votes on their behalf. For instance, the election to the office of the President,
Vice President and members of the Rajya Sabha.
General Election: General Election is an election to the Parliament or the State Assembly, held
regularly after every five years. It is held all over the country at the same time to form a new
government at the centre or a state.
By-Election: By- election is an election held afresh for a particular seat which has fallen vacant in the
Parliament or in the state legislature due to the sudden death or resignation of an elected representative.
The newly elected candidate continues in office, only till the next general elections take place.
Mid Term Poll: It refers to the election that takes place before the expiry of the fixed tenure in case of
certain problems. This can happen when the government in power fails to prove its majority in the Lok
Sabha during the vote of no-confidence that is passed against it in the Parliament. The newly elected
government can hold office for the next five years.
Importance of elections in a democracy:
Elections are necessary in a democracy because they give citizens control over the government. They
can easily oust an anarchical government from power. This can be termed as a process through which
the free will of the people can be ascertained. They provide credibility and legitimacy to an elected
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government. They also provide political education to the people. Elections make the government
accountable for the decisions taken and if the decisions taken are unconstitutional, then the
representative is done away with in the next election. Elections empower the voters to choose their lawmakers, party and the executives.
Elections
Direct Elections
(Examples)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Indirect Elections (Examples)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------General elections:
Are held all over the country at the same time to form a new------------- at the centre or a --------------.
Mid-term elections:
Elections taking place before the ------------ of the fixed tenure in
Elections
case of certain problems. The newly elected ------------ can hold

the ---------- for the next five years.
By-elections:
Elections held as fresh for a particular seat which has fallen vacant in
the parliament or in the state legislature due to sudden --------- or --------- of an elected representative.
Importance of Elections:
1. ---------------------------------------2.----------------------------------------3.----------------------------------------4.----------------------------------------2)
Various steps involved in the election process :

Elections in India are conducted in a well structured process. The efficiency of the electoral process in
India can be assessed from the fact that it has been used 16th times for holding elections to the Lok
Sabha and several times for conducting elections to the State Legislative Assemblies. The Election
Commission has the sole responsibility for the conduct of elections in India. It superintends, directs and
controls all aspects of the electoral process. It is an autonomous institution, vested with the
responsibility of conducting all elections in India. The electoral process in India is conducted in several
stages which can be explained as under:
a) Preparation of Electoral Rolls: An important step in the conduct of election is to prepare the
constituency-wise electoral rolls which record the names of the eligible voters. These electoral rolls are
revised after each census as well as after regular intervals. In an election, only those voters can vote whose
names appear in the electoral rolls.
b) Notification of Election: When General Elections are to be held, the President sends a communication to
the Election Commission and the latter, after consulting the central and state governments, announces the
poll calendar.
c) Filling of Nomination Papers: The candidates seeking to contest the election, have to file their
nomination papers with the Returning Officers of their respective constituencies in the forms prescribed
by the Election Commission.
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d) Scrutiny: The Election Commission thoroughly checks and scrutinizes the nomination papers submitted
by the candidates. Nomination papers with incorrect information are declared invalid. After rigorously
going through every nomination paper, the Returning Officer publishes the list of contesting candidates
from various constituencies.
e) Allocation of symbols: The Election Commission approves and allocates symbols to independent
candidates and all political parties. While allocating symbols, the Election Commission makes sure that no
two political parties or independent candidates have the same or almost similar symbols, as it may confuse
or mislead the voters.
f) Election Campaign: The next stage in the electoral process involves the general public and the political
parties in a big way. After the completion of the process of fielding the candidate, the contest lines are
drawn and the parties get engaged in their election campaigns. Each party issues an election manifesto
which states its policies, programmes and promises.
g) Polling of votes: The Election Commission fixes the polling days and polling hours. Several polling
stations are established in each constituency. Each polling station is under the control of a Presiding
Officer who is assisted by several polling officers. The candidates contesting the elections also nominate
their polling agents who are present in the polling stations which are rooms where votes are being cast.
h) Counting of votes and Declaration of Results: The Returning Officer and his staff members then open
the ballot boxes in the presence of the agents of the candidates and begin the counting of votes. Invalid
votes are not counted. The candidate who gets more valid votes than all other candidates, is declared
elected.
Lets summarize the above mentioned topics by filling up the following Web Chart.
Preparation of Electoral Rolls: Electoral rolls are revised after each
------------ as well as after regular intervals. In an election only those
voters can --------whose names appear in the electoral rolls.
Notification of Election: The ----------sends a communication to the
Election Commission and the latter after consulting the central and
state governments, announces the ----------- calendar.
Filling of Nomination Paper: The candidates seeking to contest the
election have to file their ---------papers with the ---------- officer of
their respective constituencies in the forms prescribed by the Election
Commission.
Steps involved
in
elections
Scrutiny: --------------Commission thoroughly checks and scrutinizes

the nomination papers submitted by the --------------. Nomination
papers with incorrect information are declared ------------------.
Allocation of symbols : The --------------approves and allocates
symbols to independent candidates and all political parties. While
allocating symbols, the Election Commission makes sure that no two
political parties or independent candidates have the same or almost
similar ----------, as it may confuse or mislead the --------------.
Election Campaign: After the completion of the process of fielding
the candidate the contest lines are drawn and the parties get engaged in
their election
-------------.Each party issues an election ------------which states its policies, programmes and---------------.
Polling of votes: The --------------- fixes the polling days and polling
hours. Several polling stations are established in each -------------. Each
polling station is under the control of a ------------ Officer who is
assisted by several polling officers.
/F-16/
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3)
Composition, Powers and Functions of the Election Commission of India.

India has adopted a Parliamentary form of liberal democracy. The members of Parliament and State
legislatures are elected through a method called election. It was essential to have an independent
authority to direct and control all elections. The framers of the Indian Constitution provided for an
autonomous machinery called the Election Commission, which is responsible for the conduct of
elections. Article 324 of the Indian Constitution declares that the Election Commission shall consist of
the Chief Election Commissioner and a number of Election Commissioners. Presently, the Election
Commission consists of the Chief Election Commissioner and two other Election Commissioners. The
Chief Election Commissioner is appointed by the President subject to the provisions of law made by the
Parliament. He holds office during the pleasure of the President. Generally, the Election Commissioner
and the other members are appointed for a term of six years or till they attain the age of 65 years.
Powers and functions of Election Commission of India:
a)
To prepare electoral rolls for the elections of Parliament and all State Legislatures including the local
bodies.
b)
Appointment of election officers for inquiring into the disputes arising out of or connected with election
arrangements.
c)
Settlement of disputes regarding allotment of election symbols to the parties at the time of the election.
d)
Preparation of order for central broadcasts and telecasts and allocation of days and time to different
political parties.
e)
Notification of dates and schedules of election and scrutiny of nomination papers.
f)
Procuring the necessary staff for the conduct of the election from the President and governments of the
states.
g)
To determine the code of conduct to be observed by the parties and the candidates at the time of
elections.
h)
To ensure that the voter lists are kept up-to-date at all times and to see that there are no errors therein.
i)
The Election Commission can disqualify a candidate if he fails to submit election returns within a
prescribed period.
Lets summarize the above mentioned topics by filling up the following Mind Map.
Appointed By: ---------------------------------------------------------------------
Election
Commission of
India
Tenure: ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Powers and Functions:

1. ----------------------------2. ----------------------------3. ------------------------4. ----------------------------------
Chapter:
Working of Institutions
1)
Political Executive: It refers to those elected people of a country or state who have been elected for a
specific period to take big decisions. They are empowered to exercise the will of the people on their
behalf. They are answerable to the people for all the consequences of their decisions. They decide the
overall frame work and objectives in which decisions or a policy should be made. They take the advice
of experts on all technical matters and are also assisted by the permanent executives (civil servants) in
carrying out the day-to-day administration. At the Centre, the political executives include the President,
/F-16/
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the Vice President, the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers. At the state level, these are the
Governor, the Chief Minister and the council of Ministers.
2)
The President: The President or Rashtrapati is the constitutional head of the Republic of India. He is
more or less the titular head of the executive, the real power being vested in the hands of the Council of
Ministers. The Government is run in the name of the President though he cannot run the government
except in accordance with the advice of the cabinet. The 42nd Amendment to the Constitution has made
it obligatory on the part of the President to accept the advice of the Council of ministers with the
provision that he has power to ask the Council of Ministers, to reconsider their advice. But if the latter
on reconsideration reiterates the same advice, the President has no option but to accept it.
Qualifications and conditions for election as President: To be eligible for election as President, a person---a)
Must be a citizen of India.
b)
Must have completed 35 years of age.
c)
Must be qualified for election as a member of the Lok Sabha.
d)
Must not hold any office of profit under the Government of India or the Government of any state
or under any local authority subject to the control of any of these Governments.
Election and Removal of the President:
The President of India is elected indirectly by an electoral college consisting of elected members of both Houses
of Parliament and elected members of the Legislative Assemblies of States in accordance with the
system of proportional representation by means of a single transferable vote. The voting in such an
election is by secret ballot. The votes of the electorate are so regulated that the total voting strength of
the Parliament is equal to the total voting strength of all State Assemblies together and all States are
uniformly represented at this election.
The President is elected for a period of 5 years. He or she can be re-elected for another term. His office
can fall vacant under the following instances.
Expiry of the term
On death of the President
Resignation
Impeachment
Powers of the President: The President of India has the following powers:
Executive Powers: The President is the Executive Head of the state. All important appointments are made by
the President. He appoints Governors of states, Ambassadors and other diplomatic representatives, the
Chief Justice and Judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts, the Attorney-General, the Chairman
and members of the Union Public Service Commission and members of various commissions like the
Election Commission and the Finance Commission. He also makes the appointment of the Prime
Minister and on his advice, other ministers of the Union Government. The administration of the Union
Territories is run by the Lieutenant-Governors or Chief Commissioners, on behalf of the President who
appoints them.
Legislative Powers: The President of India is an integral part of the Parliament but he himself is not Member of
Parliament. He summons and prorogues either House of Parliament, calls joint sittings of the two
Houses, when necessary, and dissolves the Lok Sabha. He assents to or vetoes bills passed by the
Houses of the Parliament and reserved bills from states and issues ordinances. Money Bills cannot be
introduced in Parliament without the previous sanction or recommendation of the President. He can
promulgate ordinances at any time when the Parliament is not in session but such ordinances must be
ratified by the Parliament when it reassembles.
Judicial Powers: The President may grant pardon, reprieve, respite or remission of punishment or may
suspend, remit or commute the sentence of any person convicted of any offence (a) where the
punishment or sentence is by a court-martial; (b) where the punishment or sentence is for an offence
against any law relating to a matter to which the executive power of the union extends; and (c) in a case
where the sentence is a sentence of death.
Financial Powers: The President causes the Annual Budget and important reports to be laid before the
Parliament and recommends the introduction of Money Bills in the Parliament. He appoints the Finance
Commission for allocation of share of proceeds of taxes between the Union and the States. He can also
authorize the withdrawal of advances from the Contingency Fund of India to meet unforeseen expenses,
pending approval of the Parliament.
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Martial Powers: The President is the supreme Commander of the Defence Forces of India. He has the power to
declare war and conclude peace. All important treaties are made in the name of President. He represents
India in international conferences.
Emergency Powers: The President cannot declare an emergency without the approval of the Parliament. He or
she proclaims emergency on the following grounds.
If the security of the country is threatened by external aggression or armed rebellion. The
situation is called a national emergency.
If the administrative machinery of a state breaks down, Presidents rule is imposed in the state.
If the financial stability of the country is threatened, financial emergency is declared.

Discretionary Powers: When no party wins an absolute majority in the Lok Sabha, the President can appoint
the Prime Minister of his or her choice. He appoints a leader who in his opinion can muster majority
support in the Lok Sabha.He can ask the newly appointed Prime Minister to prove majority support in
the Lok Sabha within a specified time.
Union:
1. -----------2. -----------3. ------------Political
Executives
State:
1. -----------2. -----------3. -------------
Qualifications for the post:

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Election:
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
President
Of
India
Tenure:
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Powers and Functions:
1. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------3. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------4. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Removal through:
1. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------3. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------4. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3)
The Prime Minister:

The Prime Minister is the head of the government. He is the pivot on which the whole constitutional
machinery runs. He is appointed by the President. But it is expected of the President to appoint only that
person as Prime minister who is leader of the majority party in the Lok sabha. This is necessary because
/F-16/
Page 90 of 95
the Constitution holds the Prime Minister and his team of ministers responsible to the Lok Sabha. But
the Constitution does not debar the President from appointing a person as Prime Minister who belongs to
the Rajya Sabha, or one who is not a member of the legislature if that person has been chosen as leader
of majority party. In the last case the President can appoint the Prime Minister from outside the
Parliament and such a person must get himself elected to the Parliament within a period of six months.
Powers and Function of the Prime Minister: The Constitution of India provides a unique position to
the Prime Minister. It assigns the following function and powers to the Prime Minister:
He selects other Ministers: The Prime Minister is the head of the government .The Constitution
provides that other ministers shall be appointed by the President on the advice of the Prime Minister.
Since the advice of the Prime Minister in the appointment of the other ministers is invariably accepted,
the choice of other Ministers of the Union Council of Ministers is really that of the Prime Minister.
Although all executive authority of the Union is vested in the President, it is invariably exercised by the
Prime Minister and his council of Ministers. It is the Prime Minister who determines and assigns
business to various ministers.
He presides over Cabinet meetings: The policies of the Government are formulated and decisions
made in Cabinet meetings. The Prime Minister wields a great position in influencing cabinet decisions.
As chairman of the Council of Ministers, he exercises a casting vote.
He is the link between the President and the Cabinet: It is the Prime Minister who keeps the
President informed of the decisions of the Council of Ministers.
He guides the Ministers: It is one of the important functions of the Prime Minister to coordinate the
policies of the various departments and ministries. He, therefore, guides the various ministries and
exercises general supervision over all the departments.
He is the leader of the House: Inside Parliament, the Prime Minister is the leader of the Lok Sabha, and
the chief spokesman of the Government. He shapes the domestic and foreign policies of the country. He
is responsible for piloting all important legislations affecting policy matters. He is also the chairman of
the Planning Commission.
Term of office: The Prime Minister holds office during the pleasure of the President, Normally; the
President can not dismiss the Prime Minister at will because the former is convention-bound to
recognize the person commanding leadership of the majority party in the Lok Sabha as the Prime
Minister. The Prime Minister holds office till new Lok Sabha is elected. Even when the Lok Sabha, is
dissolved by the President, he can ask the Prime Minister to hold office till the new Lok Sabha is
elected. The Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers enjoy a term of 5 years. However, it can be
extended for 1 year during an emergency. It can even be dissolved earlier if a no-confidence motion is
passed against the ministry.
Categories of Ministers: There are three categories of ministers----- Cabinet Ministers, Ministers of
State and Deputy Ministers. The Cabinet Ministers form the inner core of the council. They hold
important portfolios, such as finance, railways, defence, home, foreign affairs, etc. The Ministers of state
and the Deputy Ministers do not attend cabinet meetings.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Appointment of PM:
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Prime Minister
of
India
Tenure:
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Powers and Functions:
1. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------3. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------4. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
/F-16/
Page 91 of 95
4)
Introduction of Judiciary in India:

After the legislature and executive, the Judiciary is the third branch or pillar of the Indian democratic set
up. The Constitution of India has provided us with a single unified judiciary..All the courts at different
levels in a country put together are called the Judiciary. The Indian Judiciary consists of a Supreme
Court for the entire nation, High Courts in the states, District Courts and the courts at the local level.
India has an integrated judiciary.
The Supreme Court: The Supreme Court controls the judicial administration in the country. It is the
guardian of the Constitution. It can interpret the Constitution and declare any law null and void, if it is
not in accordance with the Constitution. The Supreme Court interprets all the laws of the Union, as well
as the States. The Subordinate Courts, the District Courts and the High Courts of the States all come
below the Supreme Court.
The Supreme Court is the highest and final judicial tribunal of India. It consists of a Chief Justice and 30
other judges, all appointed by the President. The Judges hold office till the age of 65.For appointment as
a judge of the Supreme Court, a person must be a citizen of India and must have been for at least five
years a judge of a High Court or of two or more such courts in succession; or advocate of a High Court
or of two or more such courts in succession for at least ten years; or he must, in the opinion of the
President, be a distinguished jurist. The Chief Justice of India receives a monthly salary of Rs. 1, 00,000
and other Judges of the Supreme Court Rs. 90,000.
A Judge of the Supreme Court cannot be removed from office except by an order of the President,
passed after an address by each House of the Parliament supported by a majority of the total
membership of that House and by a majority of not less than two-thirds of the members present and
voting, has been presented to the President in same session for such removal on the ground of proven
misbehavior or incapacity.
Jurisdiction and Powers of the Supreme Court:
Original Jurisdiction: Original Jurisdiction extends to those cases which the Supreme Court has the
authority to hear and decide upon at the first instance. These are as follows.
Cases between the Government of India and the States.
Cases between the Government of India and any State vs other States.
Cases between two or more States.
Cases involving the violation of Fundamental Rights. In such cases, the Supreme Court issues
writs to enforce the Fundamental Rights.
Appellate Jurisdiction: Appellate jurisdiction are those which are appeals against the judgments of
High Courts. Appellate cases can be the following.
Constitutional cases
Civil cases
Criminal cases
Advisory Jurisdiction: The Supreme Court can give advice to the President on constitutional issues,
when asked by the President. The President, however, is not bound to follow its advice.
Other Powers:
a)
Court of Record: The Supreme Court is a Court of Record. The judgments are recorded, and are in the
nature of precedents. This means that the High Court and other courts are bound to give a similar
decision in a similar case.
b)
Revisory: The Supreme Court has the power to review any judgment. This provision shows that human
judgment is fallible, and the court may rectify something that was misjudged.
c)
Judicial Review: This can be defined as the power of the Supreme Court to examine the laws passed by
the legislature, and the orders issued by the executive. The aim is to ensure whether they are permitted
by the Constitution.
/F-16/
Page 92 of 95
Composition:
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Appointment of Chief Justice and other Judges:
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Supreme
Court
Removal of Chief Justice and other judges:

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Term of Office:
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Powers:
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ECONOMICS
Topic:
Understanding the Indian Economy
Sub Topics: (a)
Sectors of economy
(b)
Concept of People as a resource
(a)
Economic Activities & Sectors of Economy.
People are engaged in various activities. Some of these activities are producing goods. Some others are
associated with providing services. People get engaged in different activities or occupations to earn their
livelihood. All these activities & occupations that result in the production of goods & services are called
Economic activities. Examples of economic activities are farming, mining, fishing, forestry,
transportation etc.
There are some activities which are undertaken to satisfy social, religious, cultural & sentimental requirements
of the people. Such activities are called non-economic activities. These activities are exhibited as sympathy,
love, religion or patriotism. The people have no materialistic goal in doing such activities, for example mother
looks after her children, giving charity, helping a blind person to cross the road etc.
Check your progress.
Answer the following:
1. Economic activities involve production of ____________ & ___________
2. People do different activities to earn their __________________________
3. Forestry is an example of __________________________ activity.
4. Donating blood is _____________ activity.
Sectors of Economy
Economic activities on the basis of nature of activity can be classified as
Primary Sector
Secondary Sector
Tertiary Sector
Primary Sector: It includes those activities which lead to the production of goods by exploitation of natural
resources. Examples of Primary Sector activities are agriculture, fishing, miming, animal husbandry etc. its
products include cotton, milk, fruits, fish etc.
Secondary Sector: It includes those activities which result in transformation of natural products into other
forms by manufacturing. It produces manufactured goods like cloth, sugar bricks etc. Examples of Secondary
sector activities are manufacturing & construction, this sector is also called Industrial sector.
Tertiary Sector: It includes those activities that help in the development of the primary & secondary sectors.
These activities by themselves do not produce goods but they are an aid or support for the production process.
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Page 93 of 95
Though it does not produce goods but generates services like transportation, communication etc. it is also
called the service sector, examples of tertiary sector are banking, insurance, finance etc.
Check your Progress
Answer the following
1. Activities associated with exploitation of natural resources are called _______
2. Manufactured goods like cloth, sugar etc are products of ________sector.
3. Tertiary sector is also called ___________________
4. Banking is an example of _____________________
Sub Topic (b)
People as a resource
Human resources are the most important resources of any country. Human resources are important because the
fate of the country is very much dependent on its skilled population. Country can turn physical resources like
land into physical capital like factories etc. Similarly, it can also turn population into human capital like
engineers & doctors. Efficiency & effectiveness of people can be increased by enhancing their skills & hence
the performance can be increased. Investment in human capital through education, training, medical care yields
a return just like investment in physical capital. People as a resource is a way of referring to a countrys
working people in terms of their existing productive skills & abilities. Importance of population of a country is
often overlooked when we look at its negative side only, considering the problems of providing food,
education, access to health facilities and urbanization.
When human resource is further developed, we call it Human capital formation that adds to the productive
power of the country just as Physical capital formation.
Check your Progress
Answer the following Questions
1. Why is population considered as most important resource of a country?
2. How can we convert population of a country into resource?
3. What do you understand by people as a resource?
4. Define human capital.
DISASTER MANAGEMENT
Topic:
Man made Disaster.
Sub Topic: (a) Fire
(b) Environmental Degradation
(c) Transport Accidents
Fire: Fire has been a source of comfort & catastrophe for the human race. Fire is rapid, self sustaining
oxidation process accompanied by the evolution of heat & light in varying intensities. Fire is based on three
elements; fuel, heat and oxidizer. Fire occurs in circumstances that are unexpected or unpredictable.
Firestorms can be natural or human generated. Natural fire storms develop from forest fires. Basic requirement
to ignite fire is that both air and burning fuel like grass, bush, leaves, branches etc should be dry. Forest fire can
travel as much as 15 km/hour.
The main causes of eruption of fire are
1. Storage of wood, dry grass & other inflammable materials in houses.
2. Non Insulated electric wires & cooking heaters.
3. Short circuits
4. Throwing of cigarette butts in fire prone areas.
5. Picnic makers throwing burning ambers.
6. Shepherds leaving behind burning wood.
7. Left out burning camp fires.
Mitigation measures.
We cannot eliminate disasters but we can mitigate risk. We can reduce damage & we can save lives. There are
number of measures we can take to protect ourselves, family & property in event of a fire.
Following are some important measures.
1. Install smoke alarms on every level of house.
2. Store flammable liquids in approved containers in well ventilated storage areas.
3. Avoid storing fire wood, dry leaves or any other inflammable material in our houses.
4. Keep heating units regularly inspected & cleaned annually by a certified specialist.
5. We should install fire extinguishers in your homes & teach family members how to use them. What to
do during fire?
a)
Call the fire service by dialing 101.
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Page 94 of 95
b)
Close doors behind you as you escape, to delay the spread of the fire.
c)
If your clothes catch fire stop, drop & roll until fire is extinguished.
What to do after fire.
1. Cover your burns to reduce chance of further injury or infection in case you are a burn victim
2. Pour cold water on burnt parts of the body.
3. Evacuate immediately from damaged/ burning building.
4. Contact police station, police control room for immediate help.
Check your progress
1. What is fire?
2. Name three elements associated with fire?
3. What are the basic requirements for igniting fire?
4. List some major causes of fire?
Sub Topic (b) Environmental degradation
It is the process by which the environment i.e, air, water and land gets contaminated over exploited &
destroyed. It is the deterioration of the environment.
Environment means the surroundings in which we live. Environment denotes all the elements, processes and
conditions around us along with their inter relationships.
The important factors responsible for environmental degradation are Growing population, Agricultural
Development Industrialization, Solid waste, Pollution etc.
Check your Progress
1. Surrounding in which we live is called_____________________________
2. Process by which environment gets contaminated is called ___________________
3. Environment denotes all the elements ____________&________________ around us.
4. Name the major factors that cause environmental degradation.
5. Suggest some measures for protection of environment?
Mitigation measures
We should take following measures to protect our environment.
1. We should use our resources in judicious manner.
2. W should check & try to produce less pollution at our end.
3. We should use alternative sources of energy for our day to day needs.
4. We should protect wild animals and plants.
5. We should plant more & more trees.
Sub Topic (C)
Transport Accidents:
Transport has reduced travel time & increased comfort to mankind. Longer destinations could be travelled in
short period of time. On the other hand, this has also increased the vulnerability towards accidents. People get
injured or even killed due to accidents.
Major causes of accidents.
1. Vehicle to vehicle collision due to rash driving, over speeding, avoiding traffic rules, use of alcohol,
using cell phones, playing loud music or gossiping while driving.
2. Driving in low visibility can also lead to accidents.
3. Bad road condition is another cause for accidents especially in remote hilly areas.
Mitigation measures.
1. Always follow traffic rules.
2. Avoid rash driving.
3. Never use mobile phones while driving.
4. Tie seat belts while moving in a car.
5. Always use footpaths for walking along the roads.
6. Wear good quality helmets while riding a motor cycle.
Check your progress.
1. Write short note on means of transport as asset or abuse.
2. What are various causes of road accidents?
3. How road accidents can be prevented?
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Page 95 of 95

78Class-IX - U-III+T-II Assignment Work 2015-16 (Part-I)

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TYNDALE-BISCOE & MALLINSON SOCIETY

U-III + T-II ASSIGNMENT WORK FOR CLASS-IX (2015-16)

Two 's ABC & DBC on the same base BC and

Two figures i.e. parallelograms ABCD & ABFE lying on

Two figures i.e. ABC & gm BDEC lying on the same

Solutions of Exercise 9.2

Construction: Join HF.

Similarly area of ( GHF ) = area of ( gm DHFC)

Adding equations (1) & (2), we get

area of (gm DHFC)

[area of ( gm ABFH) + area of (gm DHFC)]

Proof: area of ( APB ) =

Also, area of ( BQC ) =

Both lie on the same base AB

Both lie on the same base BC

Solutions of Exercise: 9.3

Class-IX (U-III & T-II Assignment)

area of ( ABD) = area of ( ABC)

E is a mid - point of median AD

area of ( ABC) (Using 1)

Given: D, E & F are respectively the mid - points of the sides

Proof: F & E are the mid - points of sides AB & AC of ABC

(ii) area of ( DEF) = area of ( ABC )

into 2 s of equal areas]

[ Mid - point Theorem]

area of ( DEF) = area of ( BDF) (1)

Class-IX (U-III & T-II Assignment)

Now, area of ( ABC) = area of ( BDF)+area of ( DEC)+area of ( AFE) + area of ( DEF)

area of ( ABC) = area of ( DEF) + area of ( DEF) +

area of ( ABC) = 4 area of ( DEF)

area of ( ABC) (5)

Given: Diagonals AC & BD of quad. ABCD intersect at O

OLB OMD (A A S congruence)

area of ( AOB) = area of ( DOC)

area of ( DCB) = area of ( ACB)

Class-IX (U-III & T-II Assignment)

Given: ABCD and PBCQ are two parallelograms

area of (gm ABCD).

Construction: Draw CQ BP such that a gm PBCQ is

(1) both lie on the same

area of (gm PBCQ).

area of (gm PBCQ) =

area of (gm ABCD). [Using equation (1)]

area of (gm ABCD) =

base BC and between the

area of (gm FBCG).

area of ( ABC) = area of (FBC)

diagonal AC divides gm ABCD into two s of equal

Class-IX (U-III & T-II Assignment)

Solutions of Exercise: 10.1

In (i) and (ii), the number of common points = 0

Class-IX (U-III & T-II Assignment)

O is the centre of the circle.

AMO + AMO = 180 [Using 3]

Solutions of Exercise: 10.4

OL = OM [ Equal chords are equidistant from the centre]

Solutions of Exercise: 10.5

Given : ABC = 69, ACB = 31

100 + BAC = 180

Surface Areas & Volumes

b) Total surface Area of a cube = 62

CUBOID:a) Lateral surface Area of a cuboid