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Characterization and antimicrobial activity of

gold and silver nanoparticles synthesized using
saponin isolated from Trianthema decandra L.
ARTICLE in INDUSTRIAL CROPS AND PRODUCTS NOVEMBER 2013
Impact Factor: 2.84 DOI: 10.1016/j.indcrop.2013.08.055

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Industrial Crops and Products 51 (2013) 107115

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Industrial Crops and Products

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/indcrop

Characterization and antimicrobial activity of gold and silver

nanoparticles synthesized using saponin isolated from Trianthema
decandra L.
Geethalakshmi R., Sarada D.V.L.
Department of Biotechnology, School of Bioengineering, SRM University, Kattankulathur-603203, India

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 30 June 2013
Received in revised form 15 August 2013
Accepted 17 August 2013
Keywords:
Trianthema decandra
Saponin
Gold
Silver
Nanoparticles
Antimicrobial activity

a b s t r a c t
Synthetic methods based on naturally occurring biomaterials provide an alternative, environmentalfriendly means of obtaining nanoparticles. We describe, one step green synthesis of gold (AuNPs) and
silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) using a benign solvent, i.e., water and a surfactant isolated from Trianthema
decandra, i.e., saponin without any special reducing or capping agents. On treatment of aqueous solutions containing chloroauric acid or silver nitrate with a solution of saponin isolated from T. decandra,
stable gold or silver nanoparticles were rapidly formed. The reduction of gold and silver ions during the
reaction was analyzed by ultravioletvisible spectroscopy. Field emission-scanning electron microscopy
showed formation of gold nanoparticles in various shapes, including spherical, cubical and hexagonal,
while silver nanoparticles were spherical. The size of the gold nanoparticles was 37.779.9 nm and that
of the silver nanoparticles was 17.959.6 nm. Energy dispersive X-ray and Fourier transform infrared
spectroscopy conrmed the presence of metallic gold and metallic silver in the respective nanoparticles.
The antimicrobial activity of the synthesized nanoparticles was analyzed using the KirbyBauer method,
indicated varied susceptibility of microorganisms to the gold and silver nanoparticles.
2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Nanotechnology offers unique approaches to control a wide
variety of biological and medical processes that occur at nanometer
length and it is believed to have a successful impact on biology
and medicine (West and Halas, 2000). By controlling the structure precisely at nanoscale dimensions, one can control and modify
their surface layers for enhanced aqueous solubility, biocompatibility or bio-conjugation (Zandonella, 2003). Nanoparticles exhibit
attractive properties like high stability and the ability to modify
their surface characteristics easily (Tom et al., 2004). Nowadays,
research efforts are being concentrated on integrating nanoparticles with biology. It has been reported that antibiotics often disturb
the bacterial ora of digestive tract which may develop multiple
drug-resistant isolates, hence novel ways of formulating biocide
materials is an upcoming eld of attraction (Jarvinen et al., 1993;
Concannon et al., 2003; Altman et al., 2006; Daglia et al., 2007).
For this reason, there is a need for the use of an agent which does
not generate resistance and presents a good bactericidal property.

Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 9884876619.

E-mail addresses: rgeetha.venky@gmail.com, geethalakshmi.r@ktr.srmuniv.ac.in
(Geethalakshmi, R.), dvlsarada1@gmail.com, sarada.dvl@ktr.srmuniv.ac.in
(Sarada, D.V.L.).
0926-6690/$ see front matter 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2013.08.055

Gold and silver nanoparticles have a bactericidal effect on a range

of microorganisms and their bactericidal effects depend on the size
and the shape of the particle (Nirmala Grace and Pandian, 2007).
Nanoparticles can act as antibacterial and antifungal agents, due
to their ability to interact with microorganisms (Hernandez-Sierra
et al., 2008; Dror-Ehre et al., 2009; Eby et al., 2009; Panacek et al.,
2009).
Metal nanoparticles such as gold (Au) and silver (Ag) have recognized importance in chemistry, physics, and biology because
of their unique optical, electrical, and photothermal properties
(Huang et al., 2006; Li et al., 2007). The ease of synthesizing Au
and Ag nanoparticles and their afnity for binding many biological molecules, makes them attractive candidates for study. Various
methods have been reported over the last two decades for the synthesis of Au and Ag nanoparticles, which involved the reduction of
AuCl4 and AgNO3 (Mayya et al., 2003; Ohno et al., 2003).
The green method of nanoparticle synthesis employing plant
extracts is a simple and viable alternative to chemical procedures
and physical methods (Rivas et al., 2001). Chemical and physical methods are harmful because the chemicals used are toxic,
ammable, and are not disposed easily of in the environment
(Zhang et al., 2000). In recent years, biosynthesis of nanoparticles
has received considerable attention due to the growing need to
develop clean and nontoxic chemicals, environmentally friendly
solvents and renewable materials (Chen et al., 2001). Plant

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No.BSI/SRC/5/23/10-11/Tech.975 is deposited in Plant Tissue Culture Laboratory, SRM University for future reference.
2.2. Chemicals
Gold (III) chloride trihydrate (HAuCl4 ) and silver nitrate (AgNO3 )
were purchased from SigmaAldrich, St Louis, MO. Double-distilled
deionized water was used.
2.3. Extraction
Leaves of T. decandra were washed with distilled water to
remove dirt and soil and were shade dried. The dried plant material was powdered and passed through a 40-mesh sieve. The coarse
powder (500 g) was extracted three times each with water (100 C)
sequentially using a Soxhlet apparatus. The water extract was then
concentrated in a lyophilizer at reduced pressure below 40 C.
Fig. 1. Habit of T. decandra L.

surfactants are extensively used for synthesis of silver

nanoparticles without any special reducing agent/capping
agent. Generally surfactants act as capping agent which prevent the growth and aggregation of nanoparticles. Diosgenin from
Dioscorea bulbifera, a predominant saponin have been used in the
synthesis of silver nanoparticles (Ghosh et al., 2012) and individual
plant-based surfactants derived from coconut and castor oils have
been used in the synthesis of gold nanoparticles (Nadagouda et al.,
2009). Plant surfactants are widely used in the synthesis of silver
nanoparticles. This also conrms the present study using saponin
isolated from Trianthema decandra.
T. decandra (Aizoaceae) is a prostrate herb distributed in the
Southern parts of India with opposite pairs of unequal leaves, owers are borne in dense clusters. Fruit is a capsule with black seeds.
The habit of T. decandra is shown in Fig. 1. The roots of the plant
are well-known as an aperient (Nadkarni, 1976) and reported to
be useful in hepatitis, asthma and in orchitis (Kirtikar and Basu,
1991; Naovi et al., 1991). Gold and silver nanoparticles from aqueous root extract of T. decandra with their antimicrobial properties
have been reported by us (Geethalakshmi and Sarada, 2012). In the
present study, gold and silver nanoparticles were synthesized from
saponin isolated from aqueous extract of T. decandra.
The green synthesis of Au and Ag nanoparticles involves three
main steps, which must be evaluated based on green chemistry
perspectives, including (1) the selection of the solvent medium, (2)
the selection of environmentally benign reducing agents, and (3)
the selection of non-toxic substances for the stability of Au and Ag
nanoparticles. Therefore, the green chemistry type of Au and Ag
nanoparticle synthesis via chemical reaction has been reviewed.
The present study highlights (i) the evaluation of gold and silver nanoparticle content using saponin isolated from aqueous leaf
extracts of T. decandra, (ii) the methods employed in the synthesis of
Au and Ag nanoparticles, characterized through SEM and EDX analysis and (iii) the role of Au and Ag nanoparticles in antimicrobial
experiments.

2.4. Isolation of saponin

To 8 g of water extract taken in a beaker and 250 mL of methanol
was added. The precipitated insoluble portion was separated. This
process was repeated till the last wash with methanol did not
give any residue. Methanol insoluble portion was pooled and puried by fractionation on a silica gel column (60120 mesh) using
a gradient of CHCl3 MeOHH2 O from 8:2:0 to 15:10:1 followed
by MeOHH2 O 8:2 as a mobile phase. The elute was nally puried
using preparative HPLC (Voutquenne et al., 2002). Preparative HPLC
was run using 40:60 10 mM sodium di-hydrogen orthophosphate
(pH 4.2) acetonitrile as mobile phase at a ow rate of 0.2 mL/min for
40 min and detected at 220 nm. The pure form of isolated saponin
compound was used for further experiments.
2.5. Synthesis of gold and silver nanoparticles
For the synthesis of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) and silver
nanoparticles (AgNPs) from saponin isolated from aqueous extract

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Plant material
The leaves of T. decandra L. were collected from Nagerkoil
district, Tamil Nadu, India during June 2008. The plant was taxonomically identied and authenticated by the Botanical Survey
of India, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India and voucher specimen

Fig. 2. Photograph of colloidal solution of (A) Saponin isolated from water extract of
T. decandra. (B) Colloidal gold solution formed by reduction of HAuCl4 with isolated
saponin.

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109

Fig. 4. UVvis bioreduction kinetics in the range 190900 nm for colloidal HAuCl4
solution with saponin of T. decandra.

2.10. Antimicrobial activity

Fig. 3. Photograph of colloidal solution of (A) Saponin isolated from water extract of
T. decandra. (B) Colloidal silver solution formed by reduction of AgNO3 with isolated
saponin.

of T. decandra, 1 mL of 1 mM aqueous HAuCl4 and AgNO3 solutions

were separately added to 5 mL of 2 mg/mL of aqueous solution of
saponin and incubated in dark. The resulting colloidal solutions of
gold and silver were then analyzed using UVvis spectrophotometer.
2.6. UVvis absorbance spectroscopy analysis
The colloidal solutions of gold and silver were diluted by adding
2.9 mL deionized water to 0.1 mL of sample. Bioreduction of HAuCl4
and AgNO3 was recorded as a function of time using water as reference using UVvis spectrophotometer at a scanning range of
200800 nm.

Antimicrobial activity of the synthesized AuNPs and AgNPs was

studied by the standard disc diffusion method (KirbyBauer, 1966).
The overnight grown bacterial suspensions of Staphylococcus aureus
(MTCC 29213), Streptococcus faecalis (MTCC 0459), Enterococcus
faecalis (MTCC 2729), Escherichia coli (MTCC 443), Pseudomonas
aeruginosa (MTCC 1035), Proteus vulgaris (MTCC 1771), Bacillus
subtilis (MTCC 121), Yersinia enterocolitica (MTCC 840), Klebsiella
pneumoniae (MTCC 3384) and fungus, Candida albicans (MTCC 183)
were swabbed on separate nutrient agar (NA) plates using L-rod.
Whatman lter paper (No. 1) discs of 6 mm diameter were separately impregnated with 20 L of 10 mg/mL solution of AuNPs and
AgNPs in dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO). The discs were evaporated
and then impregnated on the plates. Chloramphenicol and Nystatin
were used as positive controls for bacteria and fungus respectively
while DMSO served as negative control. Triplicates were maintained and bacterial cultures were incubated at 37 C, while the
fungal ones were incubated at 25 C for 24 h. The diameters of zones

2.7. Purication of AuNPs and AgNPs

To remove excess gold and silver ions, the gold and silver colloidal solutions were centrifuged at 10,000 rpm for 15 min and
washed three times with deionised water and dried in a freeze drier.
2.8. FT-IR spectroscopy analysis
The air dried powder of the synthesized AuNPs and AgNPs were
ground with KBr pellets and subjected to FT-IR analysis.
2.9. FE-SEM and EDX analysis of Gold (AuNPs) and Silver
nanoparticles (AgNPs)
The gold and silver nanoparticles were further characterized
using high resolution FE-SEM. The samples were prepared by simple drop coating of the suspension of AuNPs and AgNPs separately
on a carbon coated copper grid by simply dropping a very small
amount of the sample on the grid, with excess solution being
removed using blotting paper. The lm on the SEM grid was then
allowed to dry under a mercury lamp for 5 min. EDX analysis was
performed using the Thermo EDX attachment of Hitachi S-3400N
FE-SEM.

Fig. 5. UVvis bioreduction kinetics in the range 190900 nm for colloidal AgNO3
solution with saponin of T. decandra.

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Fig. 6. FTIR absorption spectrum of AuNPs obtained by reduction of HAuCl4 ions using saponin isolated from T. decandra.

Fig. 7. FTIR absorption spectrum of AgNPs obtained by reduction of AgNO3 ions using saponin isolated from T. decandra.

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of inhibition were measured using a metre ruler and the mean value
for each organism was recorded and expressed in millimetres.
2.11. Statistical analysis
Data were analyzed by one-way ANOVA followed by the Duncans Multiple Range Test.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Synthesis of AuNPs and AgNPs from saponin isolated from T.
decandra
Nanoparticles of noble metals are characterized by the presence
of bright colours endorsed to the oscillations of the surface electron cloud of these particles (Noginov et al., 2007). The collective

111

oscillations of electrons of a nanoparticle upon interaction with

light of suitable energy enable the nanoparticles to attain colour
specic to a particular metal. In the present study the formation of
AuNPs and AgNPs was observed by monitoring the change of colour.
The reduction of aqueous chloroaurate ions and silver ions
leading to the synthesis of AuNPs and AgNPs from saponin was
compared using 10 mg of saponin isolated from the aqueous extract
of T. decandra (Figs. 2 and 3). Chloroauric acid and silver nitrate
were reduced very rapidly in the presence of saponin. Synthesis of
AuNPs as recorded by colour change from yellow to dark ruby was
very rapid taking less than 5 min, while 30 min reaction period was
required for synthesis of the AgNPs counterpart recording a colour
change from yellow to orange. Previous studies have shown that silver exhibits yellowish-brown colour and gold exhibits ruby colour
due to the excitations of their surface plasmon response (SPR)
(Song and Kim, 2009; Raghunandan et al., 2009) when dissolved in

Fig. 8. Scanning Electron Micrographs of AuNPs obtained by the reduction of HAuCl4 with saponin isolated from T. decandra.

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Fig. 9. Scanning Electron Micrographs of AgNPs obtained by the reduction of AgNO3 with saponin from T. decandra.

The synthesized nanoparticles were puried and subjected

spectrophotometric and microscopic analysis. Bioreduction of
aqueous Ag+ ions and Au+ ions can easily be followed by UVvis
spectrophotometer and one of the most important features in optical absorbance spectra of metal nanoparticles is surface plasmon
band, which is due to collective electron oscillation around the surface mode of the particles (Vijayakumar et al., 2012). The AuNPs
synthesized by reduction using saponin showed strong (0.42 AU)
absorption peaks at 440580 nm (Fig. 4) while the AgNPs showed
strong (0.58 AU) absorbance peaks at 260380 nm (Fig. 5).
After conrming the presence of gold and silver in nanoparticles, they were characterized using FTIR, SEM and EDX. The
functional groups present in synthesized AuNPs were detected
using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Absorption peaks
located at 1637.76 cm1 in the region of 10001800 cm1 is characteristic of gold atoms (Fig. 6). One absorption peak located at

1637.76 cm1 are indicative of C C stretch. Distinct peaks in the

range of 2361.19 cm1 correspond to C H aldehyde stretch groups,
while peaks at 2923.92 cm1 and 3448.53 cm1 correspond to
C H and O H stretching vibration, respectively. Fourier transform
infrared spectroscopy analysis of the AgNPs showed absorption
peaks of reduced silver at 1637.06 cm1 and 1120.01 cm1 in the
region of 10001800 cm1 (Fig. 7). Two absorption peaks located
at 1637.06 cm1 are associated with the stretch vibration of C C
and the single absorbance peak located at 1120.01 cm1 is assigned
to C O C stretching vibrations of diaryl groups. Further distinct
peaks in the region of 2363.70 cm1 correspond to C H aldehyde
stretch groups, while peaks at 2924.26 cm1 and 3422.42 cm1 corresponds to C H and O H stretching vibration, respectively.
Scanning electron micrographs (Fig. 8) of the AuNPs obtained
by the reduction of HAuCl4 of saponin of T. decandra reveal numerous spherical, hexagonal and cubical nanoparticles produced due
to reduction of gold ions. The relative sizes of these AuNPs ranged
between 37.7 and 79.9 nm. Begum et al. (2009) reported that tea
polyphenols play important roles as reducing agents. Polyphenol
compounds bear various types of monosaccharide units in the form
of glycosides, which also provide a number of hydroxyl groups.
Spherical AgNPs with diameters ranging between 17.9 nm and
59.6 nm are depicted in scanning electron micrographs (Fig. 9).
Shankar et al. (2005) have speculated the role of reducing sugars
for the reduction of silver nitrate to silver nanoparticles. In a recent

Fig. 10. EDX of AuNPs synthesized using saponin of T. decandra.

Fig. 11. EDX of AgNPs synthesized using saponin of T. decandra.

water. Preliminary phytochemical screening of aqueous extracts of

T. decandra showed the presence of various secondary metabolites
(Geethalakshmi et al., 2010). Our results are in concordance with
Ghosh et al. (2012) and Nadagouda et al. (2009) who have attributed
the synthesis of AuNPs and AgNPs to surfactant properties of the
plant extracts.
3.2. Characterization of AuNPs and AgNPs

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113

Fig. 12. Activity of AuNPs formed by the reduction of HAucl4 with saponin from T. decandra against selected microorganisms depicting zones of inhibition of (a) positive
control Chloramphenicol/Nystatin, (b) AuNPs and (c) DMSO control.

study, it has been suggested that different compounds such as caffeine and theophylline bring out the reduction processes and thus
silver nanoparticles synthesis (Krishnaraj et al., 2010). The water
soluble heterocyclic compounds were mainly responsible for the
reduction of silver ions or chloroaurate ions to metallic silver and
metallic gold respectively.
The presence of gold atoms in AuNPs was further conrmed
using EDX spectroscopy. The optical absorption peak was observed
at 0.2 and 2.2 keV, which is typical for the absorption of gold
nanocrystallites due to SPR (Fig. 10). Similarly the presence of silver atoms in AgNPs of saponin from T. decandra was conrmed by
using EDX (Fig. 11). The optical absorption peak was observed at 0.2,
3, 3.3 and 3.7 keV, is typical for the absorption of silver nanocrystallites due to SPR. In an earlier study, individual spherical silver

nanoparticles synthesized using alfalfa showed absorption peaks

in the range 2.54 keV (Gardea-Torresdey et al., 2003).
3.3. Antimicrobial activity of AuNPs and AgNPs synthesized from
saponin isolated from aqueous extract of T. decandra
Antimicrobial activity of the synthesized AuNPs and AgNPs was
studied on 8 different bacteria, namely S. aureus, S. faecalis, E.
faecalis, E. coli, P. aeruginosa, P. vulgaris, B. subtilis, Y. enterocolitica, K. pneumoniae and a fungus, C. albicans. Both AuNPs and
AgNPs exhibited excellent activity against Y. enterocolitica, P. vulgaris, E. coli, S. aureus and S. faecalis. Zones of inhibition measuring
8.2 mm to 11.5 mm were recorded with AuNPs, while their silver counterparts recorded zones ranging between 7.8 mm and

Table 1
Mean zone of inhibition of synthesized AuNPs and AgNPs from saponin of T. decandra.
Diameter of zone of inhibition (mm)
AuNPs
Enterococcus faecalis
Staphylococcus aureus
Streptococcus faecalis
Bacillus subtilis
Yersinia enterocolitica
Proteus vulgaris
Escherichia coli
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Klebsiella pneumoniae
Candida albicans

9.5
11.2
10.3
11.2
11.5
8.3
10
8.2
10.5
10

AgNPs
c

0.5
0.3c
0.5c
0.3c
0.5b
0.8c
0.5c
0.3c
0.5c
0.3b

11.2
20.3
7.8
10.3
7.8
12.5
11.2
12.2
12
10

Positive control
b

0.3
0.5b
0.8b
0.5b
0.8c
0.5b
0.8b
0.3b
0.5a
0.5b

16
22.5
23.5
21.5
24.3
23.2
21.2
16
11.2
12.5

0.5
0.5a
0.5a
0.5a
0.8a
0.3a
0.3a
0.5a
0.3b
0.5a

Negative control

Values are expressed as mean SD (n = 3) and values followed by same letter are not signicantly different at the p < 0.05 as determined by Duncans Multiple Range Test.
indicates no inhibition. Positive control = Chloramphenicol/Nystatin, negative control = DMSO.

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20.3 mm (Table 1, Figs. 12 and 13). The antibacterial effect was

more pronounced in Gram-negative bacteria than Gram-positive
ones. Scientists have established the antibacterial mechanism of
-lactams, chloramphenicol, aminoglycosides, tetracyclines and
glycopeptides. However, there has not been a consistent explanation for the antimicrobial mechanism of silver, although application
of silver to burn wounds has been done for more than a century
(Ghosh et al., 2012).
The antimicrobial ability of AuNPs might be referred to their
small size (37.779.9 nm) which is 250 times smaller than a bacterium. This makes them easier to adhere with the cell wall of
the microorganisms causing its destruction and leads to the death
of the cell. Metal nanoparticles are harmful to bacteria and fungi
(Chwalibog et al., 2010). Nano-Au stimulates biolm production
and aggregate within this bio lm. They bind closely to the surface of microorganisms causing visible damage to the cells and
demonstrating good self-assembling ability. Gold nanoparticles

possess well-developed surface chemistry, chemical stability and

appropriate smaller size, which make them easier to interact with
the microorganisms (Nirmala Grace and Pandian, 2007). Also, the
particles interact with the building elements of the outer membrane and might cause structural changes, degradation and nally
cell death. During the interaction between S. aureus and gold
nanoparticles, they were trapped by the biolm and the substance
released by cells causing distortion of the cell wall (Chwalibog et al.,
2010).
The antimicrobial activities of AgNPs are inuenced by the
dimensions of the particles (Kaviya et al., 2011). Comparison of particle sizes of AuNPs and AgNPs indicate the later to be smaller than
the former. We attribute the higher activity of AgNPs to their small
size. The smaller particles lead to the greater antimicrobial effects
(Prashanth et al., 2011). The shape of AgNPs can be another factor
leading to their antibacterial activity (Monteiro et al., 2009). Silver
nanoparticles are very effective against micro-organisms because

Fig. 13. Activity of AgNPs formed by the reduction of AgNO3 with saponin from T. decandra against selected microorganisms depicting zones of inhibition of (a) positive
control Chloramphenicol/Nystatin, (b) AgNPs and (c) DMSO control.

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of their enormously high surface area. They do not remain nanosize when come in contact with normal environmental uids such
as water, they agglomerate to form much larger particles which are
more effective. Several studies proposed that AgNPs may attach to
the surface of the cell membrane disturbing permeability and respiration functions of the cell. Smaller AgNPs having the large surface
area available for interaction would give more bactericidal effect
than the larger AgNPs (Kvitek et al., 2008).
4. Conclusion
In the present study, the biosynthesis of gold nanoparticles
(AuNPs) and silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) from saponin isolated
from aqueous extract of T. decandra is described. Chloroauric acid
and silver nitrate were reduced to metallic gold and metallic silver
respectively on reaction with saponin of T. decandra resulting in
synthesis of AuNPs and AgNPs. The synthesized AuNPs and AgNPs
were characterized using UVvis spectroscopy, scanning electron
microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX)
and Fourier transform infra-red spectroscopy (FTIR). Antimicrobial
assays using AuNPs and AgNPs revealed creditable activity against
the entire range of microorganisms tested.
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