Elementary process engineering

Eng.Siad Elsayed

Course Overview
1. Introduction

5. Conversion & Rearrangement

processes

2. Fundamentals of gas processing

6. Safety in refinery

3. Basics of Oil Refining process

7. Tanks & Valves

4. Towers internals

8. Pumps

9. Heat Exchangers & Fired

Heaters

10. Compressors

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Elementary Process Engineering

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Course Overview
1. Introduction

5. Conversion & Rearrangement

processes

2. Fundamentals of gas processing

6. Safety in refining

3. Basics of Oil Refining process

7. Tanks & Valves

4. Towers internals

8. Pumps

9. Heat Exchangers & Fired

Heaters

10. Compressors

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Session 1 : Introduction

Petroleum
Petroleum is composed of two
elements,
Hydrogen and Carbon
Joined together in compound called
hydrocarbons.
Two simple ways of looking at these
hydrocarbons is by:
Ratio. and
Weight.
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Session 1 : Introduction
These impurities include:
Sulfur (0- 3 lb),
Nitrogen (0-1 lb),
Oxygen (0- 0.5 lb),
Chlorine,
Nickel, Vanadium, Iron, Copper,
and other metals in traces so
small they are measured in parts
per million or parts per billion.

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Session 1 : Introduction
Classification of Hydrocarbons
There are so many different hydrocarbon
compounds in crude oil.
Estimates range between 50,000 and
1,000,000.
Its necessary to have systematic ways to
classify them into manageable groupings.
The two basic systems used are:
by carbon number, and
by molecular structure
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Session 1 : Introduction

Carbon Numbers
This is based on the number of
carbon atoms found in a given
hydrocarbon molecule.
For example, methane (CH4) has
one carbon atom per molecule
and is C1.
Ethane
(C2H4),

(C2H6)

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and

Ethylene

Elementary Process Engineering

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Session 1 : Introduction
The carbon number is important because it
indicates the physical state of the
compound.
Basically, the higher the carbon number,
The higher the boiling point,
The greater the viscosity (the rate
at which it will flow through a
small opening)
The higher the density (weight per
volume)

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Session 1 : Introduction

C1 (methane)
Is used as a fuel in the
refinery.
It can sold and transported
by liquefying it by lowering
its temperature to 255F
(this reduces its volume by a
factor of 1000 and there by
simplifies transportation)

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Session 1 : Introduction

C3 (propane and propylene)

Are used in plastics
manufacture.
Propane can also be liquefied
for sale as LPG (Liquefied
Petroleum Gas).

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Session 1 : Introduction
C4 (Butane and Butylenes)
The largest gas molecule at
room temperatures, can be
combined to from
C8S
(liquids) for use in gasoline.
C4S can also be added
directly to gasoline to increase
vapor pressure for
better
starts on cold mornings.

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Session 1 : Introduction

Materials from C5 to C12

Are used directly in gasoline
manufacture.
Materials from C13 to C17
Are used as fuels and
lubricants.

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Session 1 : Introduction
Materials from C17 C40
Are used for
Heavy fuels and asphalts
Charge
stocks
for
refinery
(convergence) processes that break
them down into smaller compounds
with lower carbon numbers (the C5
to C12 liquids) for use in gasoline

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Session 1 : Introduction
Molecular Structure
Is the more complicated way to
classify hydrocarbon compounds.
Is the actual arrangement of the
carbon and hydrogen atoms.

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Session 1 : Introduction
Molecular Structure
Is the more complicated
way to classify hydrocarbon
compounds.
Is the actual arrangement
of the carbon and hydrogen
atoms.

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Session 1 : Introduction
H

H H

H H H

HCH

HCCH

HCCCH

H H

H H H

CH4

C2H6

C3H8

In each case, every carbon atom is linked either to a hydrogen

atom or to another carbon atom, and the carbons are added
together in a row.

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Session 1 : Introduction

Name

Formula

Mol.
Wt.

Formula

Mol.
Wt.

Methane

CH4

16

Hexane

C6H14

86

Ethane

C2H6

30

Heptane

C7H16

100

Propane

C3H8

44

Octane

C8H18

114

Butane

C4H10

58

Nonane

C9H20

128

Pentane

C5H12

72

Decane

C10H22

142

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Name

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Session 1 : Introduction
Paraffin isomers
When we get to C4 (butane) there are two ways to link the
carbon atoms in a row again, making normal butane, or with
one of the carbon atom connected in the middle, making
isobutene.

C4H10
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C4H10
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Session 1 : Introduction
The word normal before a paraffin
indicates the straight-chain structure.
While the prefix iso indicates paraffins
with the more complicated branched
structures.
Even though these two compounds:
Consist of the same number of
carbon and hydrogen atoms
Differ physically & chemically and
have different boiling points, densities,
and refractive indices
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Session 1 : Introduction
As the carbon number increases, the number of possible
permutations (isoparaffins) increases astronomically.

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Session 1 : Introduction
2.3 Olefins or Ethylene Series
(Basic formula: CnH2n)
Olefins are not found naturally in crude
oil, but are the product of the refining
process.
Hydrocarbons in this series combine
easily with other atoms like chlorine
and bromine, without the replacement
of a hydrogen atom.
Since they are so reactive, they are
called unsaturated hydrocarbons.
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Session 1 : Introduction
C2 paraffin, ethane, was saturated
because it contained six hydrogen
atoms.
If we remove two of the hydrogens and
bend the two vacated carbon valence
bonds around to join with each other,
we create a double bond or
unsaturated bond, the most reactive
point in the molecule.
The resulting compound is ethylene,
the C2 olefin.
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Session 1 : Introduction

ETHANE (C2 H6)

C2 Paraffin

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ETHYLENE (C2 H4)

C2 Olefin

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Session 1 : Introduction
Naphthenes
(Basic formula:
formula: CnH2n)
Naphthenes have the same ratio of two
hydrogen atoms per carbon atom as do
olefins.
But they are more like Paraffins because
they are saturated compounds.
This is possible because instead of being
like the straight or branched structures
weve seen so far, naphthenes exist in a
ring structure.
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Session 1 : Introduction
Naphthenes may be found in most crude oils but are seldom
shown in routine analyses.
Cyclohexane is a common member of this series. Its structural
formula is (C6H12).

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Session 1 : Introduction
Aromatics
(Basic formula:
formula: CnH2n-6)
Aromatics get their name from the
fact that the earliest known members
of this class had very strong smells.
Aromatic is the word used to describe
an unsaturated hydrocarbon molecule
where the carbon atoms form a ring, a
cyclic compound.
All aromatics are based on benzene
(C6H6) .
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Session 1 : Introduction

Since the aromatics are unsaturated,

they:
Oxidized to form organic acids.
Promote foaming and other
operational problems in the
production and handling of crude
oil and natural gas.

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Session 1 : Introduction
Volume
Is the amount of gas that will fill a
container with dimensions of 1x1x1
(feet or meter).
Gas volume are measured in units of
cubic feet,
Or in units of cubic meters, the metric
units of volume.

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Session 1 : Introduction
Actual Volume (acf)
acf):
Is the amount of space occupied by a given amount of gas
under actual conditions of pressure and temperature.
Standard Volume (scf)
scf):
Is the volume that a given amount of gas would occupy if it
were at standard (Base) conditions of pressure and
temperature.
standard conditions are:
Temperature: 60F (15C)
Pressure:
Atmospheric pressure
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Session 1 : Introduction
Pressure
In English units, pressure is expressed
as pounds per square inch (psi).
In the new International Standards
System of units, pressure is defined as
Newton (units of force) per square
meter (unit area) and is expressed as a
Paschal.

psi = 6.9 Kpa

kg/cm2 = 100 Kpa
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Session 1 : Introduction
Atmospheric Pressure
Gauge Pressure
Pressure::
Is the positive pressure measured with
respect to atmospheric pressure.
Gauge pressure is the amount of
pressure in a container above
atmospheric pressure.

Gauge pressure + atmospheric

pressure = absolute pressure.
pressure.

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Session 1 : Introduction
Basic Gas Laws
The particular relationships between
gas temperature, pressure, and
volume have been formulated into
three laws;
Boyle's Law,
Charles' Law, and
General Gas Law.
Dalton Law

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Session 1 : Introduction
Boyle's Law
Law::
Boyle's Law deals with the relationship of pressure to a
volume of gas.

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Session 1 : Introduction
Charles' Law states that:
that:
At a given pressure, the temperature of a gas varies directly
with its volume.
V1 / T1 = V2 / T2

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Session 1 : Introduction
The General Gas Law:
Ideal (Perfect)
PV/T = Constant

Gas

Law

The perfect gas law is written for a single set of conditions as:
PxV=nxRxT
Where:
P = Absolute pressure (psia)
V = Volume (cubic feet)
T = Absolute temperature (R = t + 460 F)
n = Number of lb-mols (wt. of gas in lb/ MW)
R = Gas constant (10.72 for units shown)
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Gas Processing

Session 2 : Gas Processing

Physical Properties
Molecular Weiaght:
Weiaght:
Critical Pressure and Temperature
Temperature::
The critical temperature is that
temperature above which a fluid cannot
exist in the liquid state.
The critical temperature for ethane, for
example, is 90.09 F. The critical pressure
is the vapor pressure of the fluid at the
critical temperature.
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Session 2 : Gas Processing

The critical pressure is the
vapor pressure of the fluid at
the critical temperature.
The critical pressure of ethane
is 707.8 psia.
These two values mean that
the vapor pressure at 90.09 F
for ethane is 707.8 psia.
If the ethane temperature is
greater
than
90.09
F,
increasing the pressure above
707.8 psia will not liquefy the
ethane.
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Session 2 : Gas Processing

Heating Value:
Value:
Heating value is expressed as:
BTUs per cubic foot for gases,
BTUs per gallon for liquids.
Heating value is the amount of heat
released when a known volume of a
given hydrocarbon is burned.

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Session 2 : Gas Processing

The net heating value is the

amount of heat that is generated
by product of combustion; water
vapor is generated in the
combustion process.
If this water vapor is condensed to
a liquid state, the amount of heat
released in the condensation is
added to the net heating value to
give the gross heating value of the
hydrocarbon.

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Session 2 : Gas Processing

Vapor Pressure
Pressure::
Vapor pressure data is important in determining the
liquid content, both hydrocarbon and water; of a
natural gas streams.

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Session 2 : Gas Processing

Water Dew Point:

Hydrocarbon dew point

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Session 2 : Gas Processing

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Session 2 : Gas Processing

Mercaptans (Methyl [CH3SH,]
Ethylene [C2H5SH,] Mercaptans):

or

These materials are:

Very foul smelling compounds,
Can be used as gas odorants in
very small quantities,
Make the gas offensive to
certain consuming areas in larger
quantities.

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Session 2 : Gas Processing

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Session 2 : Gas Processing

Definitions
It is desirable to define several of the
terms that will be used in the book.
The main ones are as follows:
Raw Gas (Natural Gas)
Untreated gas from / or in the
reservoir.

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Session 2 : Gas Processing

Pipeline gas or Residue Gas

Gas::
Has the quality to be used as
a domestic or industrial fuel.
It meets the specifications
set by a pipeline transmission
company, and / or a
distributing company.

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Session 2 : Gas Processing

Sour Gas
Gas::
Gas that contains more than 1
grain of H2S per 100 scf of gas (1
grain = 0.065 grams).
Sweet Gas
Gas::
Gas in which the H2S content is
less than 1 grain per 100 scf of
gas.

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Session 2 : Gas Processing

g.p.m for a gas
gas::
Gallons of liquid per 1000 scf of gas.
Rich Gas:
Gas:
Gas containing a lot of compounds
heavier than ethane, about 0.7 US
gallons of C3 + per 1000 scf of feed to
a processing plant.
Lean Gas
Gas::
Gas containing very little propane
and heavier-or the effluent gas from
a processing plant.
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