BCM 112 - Civil Eng Consruction I - Lecture Notes

University of Nairobi
Department of Real Estate and Construction Management
BCM 112
CIVIL ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION I
DR. NYAMBANE OSANO

sosano@uonbi.ac.ke
2013
BCM 112 CIVIL ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION I
OSN - Lecture Notes
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1
OVERVIEW ....................................................................................... 1
1.1
COURSE DESCRIPTION AND OUTLINE
1.2
PREREQUISITE
1.3
STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOME
1.4
TEACHING METHODOLOGY AND TECHNIQUES
1.5
REQUIRED TEXT BOOKS
INTRODUCTION TO SOIL MECHANICS ............................................. 3

2.1
DEFINITION OF SOIL
2.2
SOIL MECHANICS AND GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
SOIL FORMATION ............................................................................ 5

3.1
DEFINITION
3.2
3.2.1
3.2.2
3.2.3
WEATHERING
INTRODUCTION
PHYSICAL WEATHERING
CHEMICAL WEATHERING
5
5
5
5
3.3
TYPES OF SOILS
3.3.1
3.3.2
3.3.3
3.3.4
3.3.5
SANDY SOIL
SILTY SOIL
CLAY SOIL
PEATY SOIL
SALINE SOIL
6
6
6
6
7
SOIL PROPERTIES ........................................................................... 8

4.1
INTRODUCTION
4.2
4.2.1
4.2.2
4.2.3
SOIL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
SOIL TEXTURE
SOIL STRUCTURE
SOIL POROSITY
8
8
9
11
4.3
SOME USEFUL TERMS AND ASSOCIATED SYMBOLS
11
4.4
4.4.1
4.4.2
4.4.3
4.4.4
PHASE RELATIONSHIP
PHASE DIAGRAM
VOID RATIO (E)
MOISTURE CONTENT (WATER CONTENT) (W)
POROSITY (N)
12
12
13
13
13
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4.4.5
4.4.6
4.4.7
4.4.8
4.4.9
4.4.10
4.4.11
4.4.12
OSN - Lecture Notes
SPECIFIC VOLUME (V)

RELATIVE DENSITY (SPECIFIC GRAVITY) (GS)
DEGREE OF SATURATION (SR )
AIR CONTENT (A)
DENSITY OF SOLIDS (S)
BULK DENSITY ()
SATURATED DENSITY (SAT)
DRY DENSITY (D)
13
14
14
15
15
15
15
15
SOIL INVESTIGATIONS / EXPLORATION ....................................... 16

5.1
PURPOSE OF SOIL EXPLORATION
16
5.2
5.2.1
5.2.2
5.2.3
PLANNING AN EXPLORATION PROGRAMME

RECONNAISSANCE OF THE AREA
PRELIMINARY SITE INVESTIGATION
DETAILED SITE INVESTIGATION
16
16
16
17
5.3
5.3.1
5.3.2
METHODS OF EXPLORATION
TEST PITS
BORINGS AND SAMPLING
17
17
17
5.4
FIELD IN-SITU TESTS
19
5.5
GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
19
5.6
LABORATORY METHODS
20
BEARING CAPACITY OF SOILS ....................................................... 21

6.1
INTRODUCTION
21
6.2
COMMON TYPES OF SOILS AND THEIR BEARING CAPACITY

CHARACTERISTICS
21
6.2.1
6.2.2
6.2.3
6.2.4
6.2.5
ROCK
GRAVEL
SAND
CLAY
SILT
21
21
21
21
22
6.3
6.3.1
6.3.2
6.3.3
DESIGN PRINCIPLES
FOUNDATION TYPE
METHODS OF ASSESSING SOIL PROPERTIES
DISPLACEMENT AND SETTLEMENT OF FOUNDATIONS
22
22
23
24
SHEAR STRENGTHS AND EFFECTIVE STRESSES ............................. 25

7.1
INTRODUTION
25
7.1.1
7.1.2
SHEAR STRENGTH IN SOILS

THE MOHR COULOMB FAILURE CRITERION
26
26
7.2
7.2.1
DETERMINATION OF SHEAR STRESS PARAMETERS

DIRECT SHEAR TEST
29
30
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SOIL COMPACTION ........................................................................ 34

8.1
INTRODUTION
34
8.2
8.2.1
8.2.2
THEORY OF COMPACTION
GENERAL
VARIATION IN COMPACTION CURVE
34
34
35
8.3
LABORATORY COMPACTION TESTS
36
8.4
8.4.1
8.4.2
8.4.3
FIELD COMPACTION
COMPACTION
FIELD CONTROL OF COMPACTION
SPECIFICATION OF THE FIELD COMPACTED DENSITY
37
37
38
39
LATERAL PRESSURES AND RETAINING WALLS .............................. 40

9.1
INTRODUTION
40
9.2
CATERGORIES OF EARTH PRESSURE
41
9.2.1
9.2.2
9.2.3
AT REST EARTH PRESSURE

ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE
PASSIVE EARTH PRESSURE
41
41
42
9.3
9.3.1
9.3.2
CALCULATING LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS

AT REST COEFFICIENT
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE COEFFICIENT
42
42
43
9.4
EARTH PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
46
9.5
9.5.1
APPLICATIONS
RETAINING WALLS
47
47
10
ROAD DESIGN ................................................................................ 48
10.1
ROAD PAVEMENT
48
10.2
FACTORS INFLUENCING DESIGN OF THE PAVEMENT
48
10.3
ROAD CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
48
10.4
PAVEMENT DESIGN PHILOSOPHY (CRITERIA)
48
10.5
10.5.1
10.5.2
PAVEMENT TYPES
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS
RIGID PAVEMENTS
48
48
49
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OVERVIEW
1.1
COURSE DESCRIPTION AND OUTLINE
This course is an intr oductory part of Civil Engineering, which focuses on soil
Mechanics.
The Course Outline in summarized below;
a) Soil properties, Soil investigation, methods adopted in soil investigation. Various
types of soils;
b) Load bearing capacity of soils and foundations;
c) Shear Strengths and effective stresses,
d) Soil compaction
e) Lateral Pressures and Retaining Walls
f) Road design
1.2
PREREQUISITE
None
1.3
STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOME
Upon successful completion of this course, the students should acquire the following
knowledge:
a) Developed competence in the principles of soil mechanics and application
in engineering practice.
b) Ability to list the relevant engineering properties of soils and their characteristics and
describe the factors which control these properties.
c) Ability to identify common situations when the soil becomes a factor in an
engineering or environmental problem.
d) Ability to apply basic analytical procedures to obtain the engineering
quantity desired and understand their limitations.
1.4
TEACHING METHODOLOGY AND TECHNIQUES
This course relies on lectures and Power Point presentation by the lecturer. Worked
examples will be offered. Students will then be required to contribute to discussions
based on the explanations and will need to read the corresponding section in the
assigned textbook.
UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI
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1.5
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REQUIRED TEXT BOOKS

a) Modern Geotechnical Engineering, CBS Publishers & Distributors, New Dheli
b) Geotechnical Engineering (Basics of Soil Mechanics), S. Chand & Company Ltd,
New Dheli
c) Foundation Engineering Handbook, CBS Publishers & Distributors, New Dheli.
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2
2.1
OSN - Lecture Notes
INTRODUCTION TO SOIL MECHANICS

DEFINITION OF SOIL
Soil is the relatively loose mass of mineral and organic materials and sediments
found above the bedrock, which can be relatively easily broken down into its
constituent mineral or organic particles.
Fig. 2.1: Soil layers
Soil consists of layers of minerals constituents of variable thickness, which differ from
the parent materials in the morphological, physical, chemical and mineralogical
characteristics, as shown in Fig. 2.1. It is thus a natural product of weathering of
rocks and decomposition of organic matter. It is an accumulation of individual
particles that are bonded together by mechanical or attractive means, the strength of
the bonds being a small fraction of the mineral particles. The particles may range
from colloidal size to small boulders.
Soil can also be referred to as regolith, or loose rock material.
2.2
SOIL MECHANICS AND GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

Soil mechanics is a branch of engineering mechanics that describes the behaviour of
soils. Soil mechanics provide the theoretical basis for analysis in geotechnical
engineering.
Geotechnical Engineering is the branch of civil engineering concerned with the
engineering behaviour of earth materials. It uses principles of soil mechanics, rock
mechanics and engineering geology to investigate subsurface conditions and
materials, determine the relevant physical/mechanical and chemical properties of the
materials, evaluate stability of natural slopes and man-made soil deposits, access
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risks posed by site conditions, design earthworks and structure foundations and
monitor site conditions, earthwork and foundation construction.
A typical geotechnical engineering project begins with a review of project needs to
define the required material properties. Then follows a site investigation of soil,
rock, fault distribution and bedrock properties on and below an area of interest to
determine their engineering properties.
Site investigations are needed to gain an understanding of the area in or on which
the engineering will take place. Investigations can include the assessment of the risk
to humans, property and the environment from natural hazards such as earthquakes,
landslides, soil liquefaction, debris flows and rock falls.
A geotechnical engineer then determines and designs the type of foundations,
earthworks and pavement subgrades required for the intended man-made structures
to be built. Foundations are designed and constructed for structures of various sizes
such as high-rise buildings, bridges, medium to large commercial buildings, and
smaller structures where the soil conditions do not allow code-based design.
Foundations built for above-ground structures include shallow and deep foundations.
Retaining structures include earth-filled dams and retaining walls. Earthworks
include embankments, tunnels and sanitary landfills.
Geotechnical engineering is also related to coastal and ocean engineering. Coastal
engineering can involve the design and construction of wharves (structures on the
shore of harbour where ships may dock to load and unload cargo or passengers) and
jetties (structures that projects into a body of water to influence the current or tide
or to protect a harbour or shoreline from storms or erosion).
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SOIL FORMATION
3.1
DEFINITION
Soil formation is the process by which soil is created. The formation of soil happens
over a very long period of time. Soil is formed from the weathering of rocks and
minerals.
3.2
WEATHERING
3.2.1
Introduction
Weathering is the process of breaking down rocks. Weathering occurs in situ or
with no movement, and thus should not be confused with erosion, which
involves the movement of rocks and minerals by agents such as water, ice,
wind, and gravity.
Two important classifications of weathering processes exist Physical and
Chemical Weathering
3.2.2
Physical weathering
Involves the breakdown of rocks and soils through direct contact with
atmospheric conditions, such as heat, water, ice and pressure, without any
change in chemical condition. The soil formed due to physical weathering will
be cohesionless (sand and gravel).
In summary, the physical agencies causing mechanical weathering of rocks are;
(i) Daily and seasonal temperature changes.
(ii) Flowing water, glaciers and wind, which produce impact and abrasive
action on rock.
(iii) Splitting action of ice.
(iv) Growth of roots of plants in rock fissures and to a minor degree burrowing
activities of small animals like earthworms.
3.2.3
Chemical weathering
Chemical weathering changes the composition of rocks by decomposing the
parent minerals, transforming them into new compounds such as clay silica
particles, carbonates and iron oxides.
The
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
decomposition of rock is the result of the following reactions;

Oxidation
Carbonation
Hydration
Leaching
i)
Oxidation
Within the weathering environment, oxidation of a variety of metals occurs. The

most commonly observed is the oxidation of Fe2+ (iron) and combination with
oxygen and water to form Fe3+ hydroxides and oxides such as goethite, limonite
and hematite. This gives the affected rocks a reddish-brown coloration on the
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surface which crumbles easily and weakens the rock.

known as rusting.
OSN - Lecture Notes
This process is better
ii) Carbonation
Carbonation of rock material is caused by carbon dioxide in the presence of
water. Limestones are very much affected by carbonation.
iii) Hydration
Mineral hydration is a form of chemical weathering that involves the rigid
attachment of H+ and OH- ions to the atoms and molecules of a mineral. When
rock minerals take up water, the increased volume creates physical stresses
within the rock. For example iron oxides are converted to iron hydroxides and
the hydration of anhydrite forms gypsum. Another example of hydration is the
chemical decomposition of mineral fieldspar in granite to form kaolite.
iv) Leaching
Leaching is the process in which percolating water washes out water-soluble
salts from the soil.
Soil produced by chemical weathering of rocks will be cohesive (silt and clay).
3.3
TYPES OF SOILS
3.3.1
Sandy Soil
This soil type has the biggest particles; and the bigger size of the particles in a
soil the better is aeration and drainage of the soil. This soil is granular and
consists of rock and mineral particles that are very small. Sandy soil is formed
by the disintegration and weathering of rocks such as limestone, granite, quartz
and shale. Sandy soil is easier to cultivate if it is rich in organic material, but
then it allows drainage more than is needed, thus resulting in over-drainage and
dehydration of the plants.
3.3.2
Silty Soil
Silty soil has much smaller particles than sandy soil so its smooth to the touch.
When moistened, its soapy slick. When you roll it between your fingers, dirt is
left on your skin.
3.3.3
Clay Soil
Clay soil has the smallest particles among the three so it has good water storage
qualities. Its sticky to the touch when wet, but smooth when dry.
3.3.4
Peaty Soil
Peaty soil is dark brown or black in color, soft, easily compressed due to its high
water content, and rich in organic matter. Peat soil started forming over 9,000
years ago, with the rapid melting of glaciers. This rapid melt drowned plants
quickly and died in the process. Their decay was so slow underwater that it led
to the accumulation of organic area in a concentrated spot.
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3.3.5
OSN - Lecture Notes
Saline Soil
The soil in extremely dry regions is usually brackish because of its high salt
content. Known as saline soil, it can cause damage to and stall plant growth,
impede germination, and cause difficulties in irrigation.
The salinity is due to the buildup of soluble salts in the rhizospherehigh salt
contents prevent water uptake by plants, leading to drought stress.
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SOIL PROPERTIES
4.1
INTRODUCTION
Soil is comprised of minerals, soil organic matter, water, and air. The composition
and proportion of these components greatly inuence soil physical properties,
including texture, structure, and porosity, the fraction of pore space in a soil. In turn,
these properties affect air and water movement in the soil, and thus the soils ability
to function. Although soil organic matter comprises a relatively small portion of soil,
typically only 14%, it plays a key role in many soil processes
4.2
SOIL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
4.2.1
Soil Texture
Soil texture can have a profound effect on many other properties and is
considered among the most important physical properties. Texture is the
proportion of three mineral particles, sand, silt and clay, in a soil. These particles
are distinguished by size, and make up the ne mineral fraction (Table 4.1).
Table 4.1: Diameter and approximate size of four soil particles.

Soil Particle
Diameter (mm)
Approximate Size
Gravel
>2.0
Sand
0.05 2.0
Silt
0.002 0.05
Clay
<0.002
Invisible to naked eye
Particles over 2 mm in diameter (the coarse mineral fraction) are not

considered in texture, though in certain cases they may affect water retention
and other properties.
The relative amount of various particle sizes in a soil defines its texture, i.e.,
whether it is a clay, loam, sandy loam or other textural category (Fig. 4.1).
Texture is the result of weathering, the physical and chemical breakdown of
rocks and minerals. Because of differences in composition and structure,
materials will weather at different rates, affecting a soils texture. For example,
shale, an easily weathered rock, forms clay-rich soils, whereas granite, a slow
weathering rock, usually forms sandy, coarse soils. Since weathering is a
relatively slow process, texture remains fairly constant and is not altered by
management practices.
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Fig. 4.1: Textural triangle showing a soils textural class according to the
percentage of sand, silt and clay it contains. Note that a solid with 25% clay and
40% silt is loam.
4.2.2
Soil Structure
Soil structure is the arrangement and binding together of soil particles into
larger clusters, called aggregates. Aggregation is important for increasing
stability against erosion, for maintaining porosity and soil water movement, and
for improving fertility in the soil. Granular structure consists of loosely packed
spheroidal aggregates that are glued together mostly by organic substances.
Fig. 4.2. Soil Structure Close-up
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Only about 50% of soil is solid material. The remainder is pore space. It is in
these spaces that the action happens. Water is stored there. Organisms live
there. Organic matter and nutrients accumulate there. Small pores within the
aggregates provide storage and refuge. The larger pores (and fissures) between
the aggregates are the pathways for liquids, gases, roots and organisms.
Cracks and channels between aggregates are important for water, air, and
solute transport and deep water drainage. Finer soils usually have a stronger,
more defined structure than coarser soils due to shrink/swell processes
predominating in clay-rich soils and more cohesive strength between particles.
Types of soil structures

Soil material fits and binds together in many different ways. With some, the
bonding is very weak, in others very strong. With some, the size of aggregates
is very fine, in others coarse and large. With some the aggregates are dense
containing few pores, in others quite open with plenty of pores. There are six
broad categories of soil structures:
a) Granular
Are individual particles of sand, silt and clay grouped together in small, nearly
spherical grains. Water circulates very easily through such soils. They are
commonly found in the A-horizon of the soil profile;
b) Blocky
Are soil particles that cling together in nearly square or angular blocks having
more or less sharp edges. Relatively large blocks indicate that the soil resists
penetration and movement of water. They are commonly found in the Bhorizon where clay has accumulated;
c) Prismatic
Are soil particles which have formed into vertical columns or pillars separated
by miniature, but definite, vertical cracks. Water circulates with greater
difficulty and drainage is poor. They are commonly found in the B-horizon
where clay has accumulated;
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d) Platy
Is made up of soil particles aggregated in thin plates or sheets piled
horizontally on one another. Plates often overlap, greatly impairing water
circulation.
4.2.3
Soil Porosity
Many important soil processes take place in soil pores (the air or water-lled
spaces between particles). Soil texture and structure inuence porosity by
determining the size, number and interconnection of pores. Coarse-textured
soils have many large (macro) pores because of the loose arrangement of larger
particles with one another. Fine-textured soils are more tightly arranged and
have more small (micro) pores. Macropores in ne-textured soils exist between
aggregates. Unlike texture, porosity and structure are not constant and can be
altered by management, water and chemical processes. Surface crusting and
compaction decrease porosity and inhibit water entry into the soil.
4.3
SOME USEFUL TERMS AND ASSOCIATED SYMBOLS

Table 4.2 is a list of some useful terms and associated symbols for phase relationships.
Table 4.2: List of useful terms
SYMBOL
DEFINITION
DIMENSION
Void Ratio
LL or WL
Liquid Limit
Ms
Mass of Solids
Mw
Mass of Water
Porosity
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Sr
Degree Of Saturation
Va
Volume of Air
L3
Vs
Volume of Solids
L3
Vv
Volume of Voids
L3
Water Content
Dry Density
M/L3
Density of Solids
M L3
sat
Saturated Density
M/L3
Density of Water
M/L3
Bulk Density
M/L3
4.4
PHASE RELATIONSHIP
4.4.1
Phase diagram
Soils are generally composed of three distinct phases. These are solids, water and
air. The space occupied by water and air is defined as the void of the soil. The void
may be partially or wholly filled by water or air. A completely dry or completely
saturated soil will have only two phases. The components parts may be illustrated as
in Fig. 4.3 and Fig. 4.4 by a phase diagram.
Fig. 4.3: Three Typical Phase Diagrams of Soil
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Fig. 4.4: Phase diagram of soil mass

The relationships shown derived here in Section 4.4 are commonly used in
geotechnical engineering. They are derived with reference to Fig. 4-4.
4.4.2
Void ratio (e)

This is the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of the solids;
e
4.4.3
Vv
Vs
Moisture content (Water content) (w)

Is the ratio of mass of water to mass of solids;
4.4.4
Mw
Ms
Porosity (n)
This is the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume;
n
4.4.5
Vv
Vv
e
V Vv Vs 1 e
Specific Volume (v)

Is the total volume of the soil which contains a unit volume of solid particles. Fig.
4.5 shows a soil model with unit volume of solids.
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Fig. 4.5: Soil model with unit volume of solids
4.4.6
Relative Density (Specific Gravity) (Gs)

The relative density (specific gravity) of soil particles is the ratio of the density of
solids to the density of water. It is a measure of heaviness of material.
Gs
4.4.7
s
w
Degree of Saturation (Sr)

Is the ratio of the volume of water to the volume of voids usually expressed as a
percentage.
Sr
Vw
Vv
The voids may be filled with air or water or both. If only air is present, then the
soil is dry and the degree of saturation is zero. If on the other hand the voids are
filled with water the degree of saturation is 100%.
The degree of saturation can be expressed in terms of Gs and e and derived
below;
Sr
Vw M s M w Vs
Vv M s M w Vs
Where;
Vv
Vs
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Gs
s M s Vw
w Vs M w
Mw
Ms
Sr
4.4.8
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w Gs wGs
e
e
Air Content (A)

Is the ratio of the volume of air to the total volume of the soil
4.4.9
Va
V
Density of Solids (s)

Is the ratio of the mass of the solids to the volume of the solids.
Ms
Vs
4.4.10 Bulk Density ()

Is the ratio of the total mass of soil to the total volume of the soil.
M
V
4.4.11 Saturated Density (sat)

The saturated density sat is the bult density of a soil mass when fully saturated.
4.4.12 Dry Density (d)

Is the mass of soil solids per unit of total volume of a dry soil mass.
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SOIL INVESTIGATIONS / EXPLORATION
5.1
PURPOSE OF SOIL EXPLORATION

The purpose of soil exploration is to find out strength characteristics of the sub-soil over which
the structure has to be built. Soil characteristics vary both with respect to depth from the ground
surface and stretch in the horizontal direction. It is, therefore, the prime objective of soil
exploration for a building, bridge or other Civil Engineering works, to analyze the nature of soil in
all respects.
The main purposes of soil exploration are: a.
Selection of alternative construction sites or the choice of the most economical sites.
b.
Selection of alternative types or depth of foundation
c.
Selection of alternative methods of construction.
d.
Evaluation of the safety of existing structure.
e.
Location and selection of construction materials.
The soil exploration should provide the following data:
1.
Soil parameters and properties of different layers (e.g. for classification, bearing capacity
or settlement calculation)
2.
Thickness of soil layers and depth to bedrock (stratification of soil)
3.
Location of ground water level.
5.2
PLANNING AN EXPLORATION PROGRAMME

The planning of a program for soil exploration depends upon;
i.
The nature of sub-soil
ii.
The type of structure
iii.
The importance of structure
The soil engineer should constantly keep in mind, when planning the exploration program, the
purpose of the program and the relative costs involved. Normally, the cost involved in the soil
exploration is a function of the total cost of the project. It is always advisable to spend a little more
on soil investigation to understand clearly the nature of the soil so that suitable foundation can be
recommended. Often an indication of the extent of an exploration of program can be estimated
from the history of foundations successes and failures in an area. Also, for planning the program,
the engineer should be well acquainted with the current methods of soil boring, sampling and
testing and have some idea of the limitations on both the field and laboratory equipments and
methods. The actual planning of a subsurface exploration program includes some or all of the
following steps: -
5.2.1
Reconnaissance of the Area

Assembly of all available information on type and use of the structure, and also of the
general topographic and geological character of the site. This also involves inspection of
behavior of adjacent structures, rock outcrops, cuts, etc.
5.2.2
Preliminary Site Investigation

This is usually in the form of a few borings or a test pit to establish the types of materials,
stratification of the soil, and possibly the location of the ground water level. For small projects
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this step may be sufficient to establish foundation criteria, in which case the exploration program
is finished.
5.2.3
Detailed Site Investigation

For complex projects or where the soil is of poor quality and/or erratic, a more detailed
investigation may be undertaken. This may involve sinking several boreholes, taking soil
samples for laboratory investigations, conducting sounding and other field tests.
5.3
METHODS OF EXPLORATION
Methods of determining the stratification and engineering characteristics of sub-surface soil
conditions are
i.
Test pits
ii.
Boring and sampling
iii.
Field tests
iv.
Geophysical methods
v.
Laboratory tests
5.3.1
Test pits
The simplest and cheapest method of shallow soil exploration is to sink test pit to depths of 3
to 4 m. The use of Test pits enables the in-situ soil conditions to be examined visually, thus
the boundaries between strata and the nature of any macro-fabric can be accurately
determined. It is relatively easy to obtain disturbed or undisturbed soil samples: in cohesive
soils block samples can be cut by hand from the bottom of the pit and tube samples can be
obtained from the sides of the pit.
5.3.2
Borings and Sampling

(1) Borings
This is the most widely used method. It provides samples from shallow to deeper depths for
visual inspection as well as laboratory tests. The most commonly used methods of boring
are:
i. Auger boring
ii. Wash boring
iii. Percussion drilling
iv. Rotary drilling
(i)
Auger boring
Operated by hand or by power. Hand operated augers, diameter 15 20cm, are of two
types; Hand augers and helical augers. They are used for shallow borings, depth 3 to
7.5m in soils, which possess sufficient cohesion. This boring method provides highly
disturbed soil samples. Power operated augers (helical) can be used to great depths,
even to 30m, and used in almost all types of soils above water table.
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Fig. 5.1: Hand Augers

(ii) Wash boring
Power operated. Hole is advanced by chopping, twisting action of alight chopping bit and
jetting action of drilling fluid, usually water, under pressure. Loosened soil particles rise as
suspended particles through the annular space between casing and drill rod. This method
best suits in sandy and clayey soils and not in very hard soil strata (i.e. boulders) and rocks.
Depth of boring could be up to 60m or more. Changes in soil strata are indicated by
changes in the rate of progress of boring, examination of out coming slurry and cutting in
the slurry. Undisturbed samples whenever needed can be obtained by use of proper
samplers.
Fig. 5.1: Wash Augers
Page 18
(iii)
OSN - Lecture Notes
Percussion boring
Power operated. Hole is advanced by repeated blows of a heavy chisel into the bottom
of the hole. The resulting slurry formed at bottom of borehole is removed by bailer or
sand pump. Because of the deep disturbance of the soil this method of boring is not
favored. Casing is generally required. Maximum depth of boring is 60m.
(iv)
Rotary boring
Power operated. Hole is advanced by a rapidly rotating bit which cuts the material at
the bottom of the hole into small particles which are removed by circulating fluids,
which may be water, bentonite slurry or mud slurry. This is the most rapid method
for penetrating highly resistant materials (e.g. bed rock). In this method undisturbed
samples can be obtained at desired depths by using suitable samplers. Maximum
depth of drilling is 80 to150m.
(2) Soil sampling

There are two main types of soil samples which can be recovered from bore holes or trial
pits. These are: Disturbed and Undisturbed samples.
a) Disturbed Samples
Are samples where the structure of the natural soil has been disturbed to a
considerable degree by the action of the boring tolls or excavation equipment.
Disturbed samples, however, need to be truly representative of the stratum. Disturbed
samples are satisfactory for performing classification tests such as, sieve analysis,
Atterberg limits etc.
b) Undisturbed Samples
Are samples, which represent as closely as is practicable, the true in-situ structure and
water content of the soil. Undisturbed samples are required for determining reliable
information on the shearing resistance and stress-deformation characteristics of a
deposit. Undisturbed samples in cohesionless deposits are extremely difficult to obtain.
Because of this the above characteristics are provided by field tests.
5.4
FIELD IN-SITU TESTS

These tests are valuable means of determining the relative densities; shear strengths and
bearing capacities of soils directly without disturbing effects of boring and sampling.
The most commonly used field tests are; i. Penetration or sounding tests
ii. Vane shear test
iii. Plate loading test
iv. Pile loading test
5.5
GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
These comprise the seismic and resistivity methods. These methods are usually limited to
establishing location of bedrock underlying softer material (by seismic method) or locating gravel or
sand deposits (by resistivity method). The seismic method is based on the fact that sound waves
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OSN - Lecture Notes
travel faster through rocks than through soils. The resistivity method makes use of the fact some
soils (e.g. soft clays) have low electrical resistivity than others (e.g. sand or gravel). These methods
are normally employed as preliminary or supplementary to other methods of exploration.
5.6
LABORATORY METHODS
Laboratory tests are useful in providing reliable data for calculating ultimate bearing capacity of
soils, stability and settlement behavior of foundation, and for determining physical
characteristics of soils. Results of laboratory tests should be used in conjunction with borehole
records and results of field test. The common laboratory tests that concern the foundation
engineers are;
i. Grain size analysis
ii. Atterberg limits
iii. Natural moisture content
iv. Unit weight
v. Unconfined compression test
vi. Direct shear test
vii. Triaxial compression test
viii. Consolidation test
ix. Compaction test
x. Chemical analysis
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OSN - Lecture Notes
BEARING CAPACITY OF SOILS
6.1
INTRODUCTION
The function of the foundation of structures is to transfer the load throughout the
soil without overstressing the soil. Overstressing can result in either excessive
settlement or shear failure of soil. Therefore, in designing foundations the bearing
capacity of soils must be evaluated.
When designing foundations for a structure there is a need to determine the bearing
capacity of the soil. This applies to all forms of foundation, from a simple pad footing
to a pile cap. The bearing stress capacity of the soil is the key variable that has a
direct impact on the form and size of foundations. This topic explains the principles
of how bearing capacity of soils are determined and how it impacts on the design.
There are essentially five different types of soil and/or strata (some of which have
further sub-divisions) that have an impact on the design of foundations. Section 6.2
summarises these soils.
6.2
COMMON TYPES OF SOILS AND THEIR BEARING CAPACITY
CHARACTERISTICS
6.2.1
Rock
Most commonly has a high bearing capacity; its weakness lies with any fissures
that exist within its make-up and its weathering state.
Reinforced pad foundation that serves more to fix the sub-structure to the rock
strata rather than spread its load.
6.2.2
Gravel
These are non-cohesive course soils that tend to be mixed with sand. They have
a high bearing capacity and low compressibility. The presence of ground water
can reduce its bearing capacity by half and the soils relative density also has an
impact on its bearing capacity.
Pad foundations due to the high bearing capacity. Piling is rare in these types of
soils as it is often not needed.
6.2.3
Sand
Similar to gravel in many respects, sandy soils also have a high bearing capacity
and low compressibility. Where it is loosely compacted however, there is a risk of
significant settlement as load is applied. Like gravel, the presence of ground
water has a detrimental effect on both the soils bearing capacity and relative
density.
6.2.4
Clay
Clays are soils that are made up of very small particles and are described as
cohesive. They typically have a lower bearing capacity than non-cohesive soils
and compress when placed under load, which can occur over a long period of
time, causing settlement. This is countered when they are over-consolidated at
which point their properties are very similar to that of sand. Water has a
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OSN - Lecture Notes
significant impact on clay soils with its properties sensitive to the level of
moisture content.
Pad foundations to light 1-2 storey structures and then piled foundations for all
other forms of structure. In cases where settlement is undesirable e.g.
extensions to existing structures, piling may be necessary.
6.2.5
Silt
Silt have a relatively high bearing capacity when confined, but their underlying
structure breaks down when exposed to water. Silts can retain volumes of water
that can freeze, causing the soil to heave.
It is rare for structures to be directly founded upon silt due to its unpredictable
nature. When encountered, a piling solution is adopted that passes through the
silt into a more solid strata.
6.3
DESIGN PRINCIPLES
The bearing capacity of a soil is dependent upon its structure, moisture content and
the type of foundation that is placed upon it. It is important therefore to be familiar
with the various types of soil that can be encountered. From simply knowing the soil
type, it is possible to develop reasonable design solutions for any given substructure.
6.3.1
Foundation Type
There are several core types of foundations that are used within sub-structures. Most
are built using concrete, both mass and reinforced, but it is possible to use steel
sections as piles. They are summarised below;
a) Strip foundation
A strip footing (also known as continuous footing) supports a load bearing wall or
group of columns. Most small buildings of just a floor are constructed with this type
of foundation. Depending on the structural engineers recommendation, the depth of
the foundation could be from 600mm to 1200mm mostly for small scale buildings.
When the soil is excavated, a level at which the concrete will settle evenly is
established, then concrete is poured. This may be from 150mm thick to 450mm
thick.
Fig. 7-2: Strip footing
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b)
OSN - Lecture Notes
Pad foundation
A footing is a relatively small slab giving separate support to a part of a structure. An

individual footing (also called a pad foundation) supports a single column. This is
where isolated columns (pillars) are casted from the foundation to carry a slab at the
top of the ground.
Fig. 7-1: Pad Foundation

c) Raft foundation
Raft foundation is a thick concrete slab reinforced with steel which covers the entire
contact area of the structure like a thick floor. Sometimes area covered by raft may
be greater than the contact area depending on the bearing capacity of the soil
underneath. The reinforcing bars runs normal to each other in both top and bottom
layers of steel reinforcement. Sometimes inverted main beams and secondary beams
are used to carry column loads that require thicker foundation slab considering
economy of the structure. Both beams cast monolithically with raft slab.
d) Pile foundation
The most expensive and the strongest type of foundation. This requires specialist
engineering to do. The soil are bored deep down the earth and filled with concrete to
be able to support loads of multi-storey building on top. Most skyscrapers are
constructed with this foundation type, a waterlogged area of high building may also
require this.
6.3.2
Methods of Assessing Soil Properties
There are four differing methods that can be applied to the properties of soil. All of
them are equally valid, with the major difference being that some produce more
efficient solutions than others due to greater degrees of accuracy of modelling the
soil conditions.
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OSN - Lecture Notes
a) Geotechnical Design by Calculations

This method is reliant on the quality of data retrieved from geotechnical
investigations carried out on the prospective site. Assumptions are made based
on this data and in some instances simplifications will need to be applied to the
calculation model that can lead to conservative results.
b) Geotechnical design by prescriptive measures
In instances where the soil conditions of the site are well known, it is possible to
prepare a set of parameters against which any sub-structure can be designed.
Due to the generalised nature of this method, its common for it to produce
conservatively designed solutions.
c) Geotechnical design based on load tests and experimental models
In addition to geotechnical investigations that focus on the soil type and location
of the water table, it is possible to carry out tests to determine the soils bearing
capacity. These tests provide unique results for that particular site and thus are
more accurate than making assumptions based on data collected from a standard
investigation. This approach typically results in economical design solutions due
to the accuracy of the data. Load tests however need to be at the correct scale to
ensure the test mirrors the proposed foundation, which can prove to be
expensive.
d) Geotechnical design based on observations
In instances where it is not possible to predict how the soil will interact with a
proposed substructure, it is possible to apply an observational based method of
design. This requires the design of the substructure to be altered as new data is
revealed about the soil during the construction of the foundations. Careful
monitoring is needed throughout the construction process, as well as quick
responses to the data being delivered, in order to prevent delays during the
substructure works. This method is unlikely to provide a practical approach to the
majority of foundation designs and is not recommended for designing
substructures for buildings.
Regardless of the method of soil analysis adopted, all results must be interpreted
by a suitably qualified geotechnical engineer, which can then be passed onto the
designer of the substructure.
6.3.3
Displacement and Settlement of Foundations
In addition to determining the design bearing capacity of soil, it is also necessary to

determine the settlement of the foundations. This is done by using serviceability limit
state principles that rely on the application of characteristic loads.
Page 24
7
7.1
OSN - Lecture Notes
SHEAR STRENGTHS AND EFFECTIVE STRESSES

INTRODUTION
The shear strength of a soil is defined as the maximum, or limiting, value of shear
stress that may be induced within its mass before the soil yields. In other words, if a
point on any plane within a soil mass the shear stress becomes equal to the shear
strength of the soil, then failure will occur on that point.
The safety of any geotechnical structure is dependent on the strength of the soil. If
the soil fails, the structure founded on it can collapse (Fig. 7.1 and 7.2).
Understanding shear strength is the basis to analyze soil stability problems like:
Lateral pressure on earth retaining structures.
Slope stability and
Bearing capacity
Fig. 7.1: Shear Failure in Soils
Fig. 7.2: Slope Failure in Soils
Page 25
7.1.1
OSN - Lecture Notes
Shear Strength in Soils
The shear strength of a soil is its resistance to shearing stresses. It is a measure of

the soil resistance to deformation by continuous displacement of its individual soil
particles. Shear strength in soils depends primarily on interactions between particles.
Shear failure occurs when the stresses between the particles are such that they slide
or roll past each other.
The shear strength () of a soil at a point on a particular plane was originally
expressed by Coulomb as a linear function of the normal stress () on the plane at
the same point:
c tan
where
= shear strength
c = cohesion;
= angle of internal friction;
Soil derives its shear strength from two sources:
a) Shear Strength of Soils - Cohesion
Cohesion (c), is a measure of the forces that cement particles of soils.
b) Shear Strength of Soils Internal Friction
This is the angle of shearing resistance, .
c and are the shear strength parameters commonly described as the cohesion
intercept (or the apparent cohesion) and the angle of shearing resistance, or
internal friction angle respectively.
7.1.2
The Mohr Coulomb Failure Criterion
In soil mechanics the Coulomb-Mohr condition is usually used as the condition of

failure. This theory states that a material fails because of a critical combination of
normal stress and shear stress, and not from their either maximum normal or shear
stress alone. See Fig. 7.3.
1 3
2
c tan
1 3
2
3
1
Fig. 7.3: Coulomb line; envelope line of the Mohrs circles pertaining to the failure
condition
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OSN - Lecture Notes
The Coulomb envelope represented by c tan and shown graphically in Fig.

7.3 is known as the failure envelope (in terms of total stress).
However it is not generally correct to assume that the shear strength of soil is
governed by the total normal stress of the failure surface. Thus in accordance with
the principle that shear stress in a soil can be resisted only by the skeleton of solid
particles, shear strength should be expressed as a function of effective normal stress
at failure (), the shear strength parameters being denoted by c and . Thus:
c tan
Fig. 7.4: Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion based on effective stress
Fig. 7.5 represents the shear failure criterion indicating the failed and stable zone
where = coefficient of friction and ' = effective coefficient of friction.
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OSN - Lecture Notes
Fig. 7.5: Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion
Page 28
7.2
OSN - Lecture Notes
DETERMINATION OF SHEAR STRESS PARAMETERS

The shear strength parameters of a soil are determined in the lab primarily with two
types of tests:
1) Direct Shear Test; and
2) Triaxial Shear Test.
Page 29
7.2.1
OSN - Lecture Notes
Direct Shear Test
The shear test is the simplest, the oldest and the most straightforward procedure for
measuring the shear strength of soils in terms of total stresses.
The essential feature of the apparatus is a rectangular box, divided horizontally into
two halves and containing a rectangular prism of soil. While the prism is subjected to
a constant vertical compressive force, an increasing horizontal force is applied to the
upper half of the box, thus causing the prism to swear along the dividing plane of the
box. A diagram of the apparatus and the shearing action is demonstrated in Fig. 8.6.
The test is normally carried on a number of identical specimens using different
vertical stresses so that a graph of shearing resistance against vertical stress can be
plotted. The vertical movement of the top surface of the specimen, which indicates
changes in volume, is also measured and enables changes in density and voids ratio
during shear to be evaluated.
Shortcoming is that it fails the soil on a designated plane which may not be the
weakest one. Fig. 8.7 shows the schematic of the shearing process.
Grid to improve transmission

of shear load from box to soil
Compressive force
Porous stone
Soil
Shear force
specimen
Line of
shear
Square box
Weep holes for

saturation of
soil
specimen
Porous stone
Fig. 7.6: The Shear Box
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OSN - Lecture Notes
Fig. 7.7: Schematic of the shearing process
Fig. 7.8: Direct Shear Test Set-up
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OSN - Lecture Notes
Fig. 7.9: Direct Shear Test Photographs
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OSN - Lecture Notes
Fig. 7.10: Shear Stress against Displacement
Fig. 7.11: Shear Stress against Normal Stress
Page 33
8
8.1
OSN - Lecture Notes
SOIL COMPACTION
INTRODUTION
Soil compaction is the process of increasing the density of soil by packing the particles
together with reduction in volume of air. The process does not involve removal of water.
The process primarily results in the increase of soil unit weight (density). The reduction of
the air content results in the reduction of pores which act as conduits of water and
consequently reduce the permeability of the soil. In addition compaction reduces the
liquefaction and increases the erosion resistance of the soil. The result is increased shear
strength and less compressibility of the soil.
The purpose of the compaction is to produce a soil having the physical properties
appropriate to the particular project. A good measure of compaction is needed in the
construction of road embankments, improvement of road subgrade, subbase and base
layers. Compaction of materials in dams is needed to ensure stability and water tightness
of the dam walls
8.2
THEORY OF COMPACTION
8.2.1
General
The degree of compaction is measured quantitatively by the dry density (d). The
increase in dry density of soil is a function of the moisture content of the soil and the
compaction effort. The variation of dry density and moisture content (M) is shown in Fig
8.1. Curve is usually plotted by obtaining the dry density from bulk density and water
content measurements as follows;
W Ww Ws Ww / Ws 1 ( w 1)
V
V
V / Ws
1/ d
b
1 w
At low water content, the soil is stiff and difficult to compact. As the water content
increases, the soil is workable facilitating compaction and reduction in air. The dry
density increases. As the air is reduced and replaced by water, at certain water content
the voids are occupied by water and prevent any appreciable decrease in the air voids.
The result is increase in the void ratio and consequent decrease in the dry density. The
curve has a peak which shows an optimum moisture content (OMC) at which the soil
would need to be compacted to achieve the maximum dry density (MDD).
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OSN - Lecture Notes
25
Dry Density (kN/m3)
Dry unit weight (kN/m3)
Power (Zero air voids)
20
MDD
15
10
0.0
OMC10.0
20.0
30.0
Water Content (%)
Fig. 8.1: Typical compaction curve
8.2.2
Variation in Compaction Curve
A) Variation in compaction effort

Increasing the compaction effort results in the increase in the maximum dry density
and a decrease in the optimum moisture content as shown in Fig. 8.2. Thus if light
compaction is used more water would be needed to overcome the resistance of the
soil grains to packing. With more compaction effort the soil grains need less water to
occupy the available pore spaces.
25
Dry unit weight (kN/m3)
Low effort
Zero air voids
High effort
20
15
10
0.0
10.0
20.0
30.0
Water Content (%)
Fig. 8.2: Effect of compaction effort
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OSN - Lecture Notes
B) Variation in soil grading soil type

The particle size distribution influences the arrangement of particles in the
compaction of soils. A well-graded soil will compact to lesser voids than a poorly
graded soil. The effect is that the well-graded soils will have an increased density
and improved properties such as bearing capacity on compaction. These enhanced
strength characteristics of compacted fills are important because of the increasing
need of embankments capable of supporting higher loads.
8.3
LABORATORY COMPACTION TESTS
Three types of compaction tests are explained. The first is the light manual compaction
test with 2.5kg hammer. The second is heavy compaction test in which much greater
compaction is achieved by use of 4.5kg hammer. The third is use of a vibrating hammer
and is intended mainly for granular soils passing 37.5 mm test sieve with no more than
30% retained on a 20mm test sieve. For each type of test a small variation of the test is
done to take recognition of whether the soil crushes during compaction.
The mould for 2.5 kg rammer method is 1000 cm3 and 100mm diameter. The test covers
soil with particles finer than 20mm sieve size. The compaction is effected by free fall of
the 2.5 kg rammer through 300mm in three layers. Each layer receives 27 blows
In 4.5kg method the rammer is 4.5kg. The rammer is made to freely fall through 450mm.
In addition the soil in the same type of mould is compacted through 5 layers. Each layer
receives 62 blows. The test is suitable for soils containing not more than 30% retained on
20mm sieve size. These particles may include particles retained on 37.5mm sieve size.
In the vibratory rammer method the mould is 2360cm3 and 152 mm diameter. The
compaction is effected by placing the rammer on the soil surface and vibrating the
rammer at 602seconds. During this period a steady downward force on the rammer is
applied to enable a force of between 300 and 400 N to be applied on the soil. Like the
method using 4.5 kg rammer the test is suitable for soils containing not more than 30%
retained on 20mm sieve size. These particles may include particles retained on 37.5mm
sieve size. The test is however not suitable for cohesive soils.
After the compaction using any of the three methods the mould is trimmed at the top.
The soil bulk density and moisture content are determined. The soil dry density is then
computed. The procedure is repeated at different moisture contents to enable the
plotting of the compaction curve. The coordinates of the peak dry density define the MDD
and OMC. Typical results are shown on Fig 9.4.
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OSN - Lecture Notes
Dry unit weight (kN/m2 )
22
2.5 kg rammer
4.5 kg rammer
Vibratory rammer
20
Power (0% air voids)

Power (10% air voids)
18
16
14
0
10
15
Moisture content (%)
20
25
30
Fig. 9.4: Laboratory compaction curves
8.4
FIELD COMPACTION
8.4.1
Compaction
In the field, compaction of soil is carried out by applying energy by application of

pressure, Impact or vibration or combination of two or three of the ways. The application
of energy is effected by different machinery including rollers, rammers, vibrators,
tampers and construction equipment. The type of compaction method to be adopted in
the field depends on the kind of soils and the level of compaction required. Table 9.1
shows the different varieties of compaction equipment. A brief outline of the various
compacting equipment is now presented.
Table 9.1: Varieties of compaction equipment
Rollers
Rammers
Vibrators
Construction
equipment
Smooth wheeled rollers
Dropping wheel
Out of balance weight
Lorries
Vibratory rollers
Internal
combustion
Pulsating hydraulic
Scrapers
Pneumatic tired rollers
Pneumatic type
Excavators
Sheeps foot rollers
Piling equipment
Graders
Construction equipment
The smooth wheeled rollers have their dead weight increased by water or sand. A
smooth surface is generally achieved after compaction. The compacted layers are
laminated. These rollers can be fitted with vibratory equipment for more effective
compaction. They generally come in three tandem or three axle tandem rollers and are
particularly good for finishing works on embankments and roads.
The pneumatic tired rollers are good for coarse and fine grained soils. They are set
on two axles. Usually the rear axle may have three wheels while the front axle has two
wheels. In between the axles a platform is mounted which carries loads for providing the
Page 37
OSN - Lecture Notes
needed pressure on the soils under compaction. The tires are wide and increase in
pressure increases the compaction effort. It is common to have the rollers towed by
tractors.
The sheeps foot rollers consists of a roller with hollow steel drums acting as wheels
fitted with numerous tapered or club shaped feet projecting from a drum surface. The
feet take the shape of a sheeps foot and hence the name. Initially a soft soil is
penetrated by the sheeps foot. As the soil increases in density upon rolling of the roller,
the sheeps foot rises to the surface. The penetrating feet mix the soil up bonding it
together. This type of roller is suitable for water retaining earthworks.
Rammers are usually employed when the site conditions are such that conventional
rollers are not suitable. They are usually in various shapes and are used by manual
labour. They are particularly useful in compacting corners and crevices. They are used for
compacting backfill soil below ground floor slabs
Vibrators are generally used for compacting coarse grained soils. They are attached to
smooth wheeled rollers and fitted with out of balance weights or pulsating type engine is
fitted to the vibrator.
Construction equipment can be utilized to compact soils to a reasonable degree of
compaction. This type of compaction has been used in reclaiming swampy fields where
the quality of the final surface need not be of high quality. In the field compaction
equipment employed is usually in different types depending on the complexity of the
works. This construction traffic should be channelled and directed on the earthworks
systematically on the loose earthworks to achieve beneficial compaction. The construction
equipment comes in an array of different types such as;
i)
Lorries
ii)
Scrapers
iii)
Excavators
iv)
Graders
v)
Etc
8.4.2
Field Control of Compaction
Tests for determination of bulk density and water content during earthwork construction
must be carried out at every layer of the compacted earthworks. In the least at least four
density tests per 8 hour shift with a minimum one test for every 400m3 of earthworks are
needed. Bulk density determination may be carried out by means of a core cutter, sand
replacement method or nuclear radiation.
In the core cutter method undisturbed sample is obtained by pushing a thin walled
cutter, 10cm in diameter and 12.5 cm high into a compacted soil. The bulk density and
the moisture content are determined to enable determination of the field dry density.
The sand replacement is by far the most widely used method. In this method a hole of
100x150mm (diameter x depth) is dug at the test site. The mass of soil from the hole is
carefully retrieved and weighed. The volume from where the soil has been excavated is
gotten by pouring loose dry sand from a fixed height through a cone shaped stand.
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OSN - Lecture Notes
The nuclear radiation technique uses a nuclear gauge. In the usage of the gauge, an
aluminum probe is inserted in the compacted soil. Neutrons are then released from a
source. The neutrons loose energy depending on the soil density and water content as
they pass through the soil. The instrument is calibrated to give water content, bulk
density and the dry density of the soil. The instrument should be calibrated against the
sand replacement test results.
8.4.3
Specification of the Field Compacted Density
The compacted density is usually specified as a percentage of the MDD as determined in

the laboratory. In some instances the moisture content is required to be within a small
band above or below the OMC. In rare instances the air content is specified. The
specification usually ranges from 95-100% MDD when a 2.5 kg hammer is used the field
control. A minimum number of roller passes is usually required to reach the desired
compaction. The usual range is between 3 and 12 passes.
In road work embankments the specification for the lower layers is usually a minimum of
95% MDD. The compaction for the upper subgrade and the pavement layers should
however be raised to between 100 and 105 MDD.
Page 39
9
9.1
OSN - Lecture Notes
LATERAL PRESSURES AND RETAINING WALLS

INTRODUTION
Retaining walls are structures that support backfill and allow for a change of grade. For
instance a retaining wall can be used to retain fill along a slope or it can be used to
support a cut into a slope as illustrated in Fig. 10.1.
Fig. 9.1: Retaining walls to support a fill and a cut

Retaining wall structures can be gravity type structures, semi-gravity type structures,
cantilever type structures, and counterfort type structures. Walls might be constructed
from materials such as fieldstone, reinforced concrete, gabions, reinforced earth, steel
and timber. Fig. 10.2 shows the various types of retaining walls. Each of these walls
must be designed to resist the external forces applied to the wall from earth pressure,
surcharge load, water, earthquake etc. Prior to completing any retaining wall design, it is
first necessary to calculate the forces acting on the wall.
Fig. 9.2: Various types of retaining walls
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OSN - Lecture Notes
Lateral earth pressure is the pressure that soil exerts against a structure in a sideways,
mainly horizontal direction. The common applications of lateral earth pressure theory are for
the design of ground engineering structures such as retaining walls, basements, tunnels,
and to determine the friction on the sides of deep foundations. Fig. 10.3 shows an example
of lateral earth pressure overturning a retaining wall.
Fig. 9.3: An example of lateral earth pressure overturning a retaining wall
9.2
CATERGORIES OF EARTH PRESSURE
There are three categories of lateral earth pressure and each depends upon the
movement experienced by the vertical wall on which the pressure is acting as shown in
Fig. 9.4. The wall could be a basement wall, retaining wall or earth support system such
as sheet piling.
The three categories are:
1) At rest earth pressure
2) Active earth pressure
3) Passive earth pressure
Fig. 9.4: Wall movement: Active, at rest and passive cases
9.2.1
At rest earth pressure
The at rest pressure develops when the wall experiences no lateral movement. This
typically occurs when the wall is restrained from movement such as along a
basement wall that is restrained at the bottom by a slab and at the top by a floor
framing system prior to placing soil backfill against the wall.
9.2.2
Active earth pressure
The active pressure develops when the wall is free to move outward such as a typical
retaining wall and the soil mass stretches sufficiently to mobilize its shear strength.
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9.2.3
OSN - Lecture Notes
Passive earth pressure
On the other hand, if the wall moves into the soil, then the soil mass is compressed,
which also mobilizes its shear strength and the passive pressure develops. This
situation might occur along the section of wall that is below grade and on the
opposite side of the retained section of fill.
From Fig. 9.4 it is evident that:
As the wall moves away from the soil backfill (left side of Fig. 9.4), the active
condition develops and the lateral pressure against the wall decreases with
wall movement until the minimum active earth pressure force (Pa) is reached.
As the wall moves towards (into) the soil backfill (right side of Fig. 9.4), the
passive condition develops and the lateral pressure against the wall increases
with wall movement until the maximum passive earth pressure (P p) is
reached.
Thus the intensity of the active / passive horizontal pressure, which is a function of
the applicable earth pressure coefficient, depends upon the degree of wall movement
since movement controls the degree of shear strength mobilized in the surrounding
soil.
9.3
CALCULATING LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS
Lateral earth pressure is related to the vertical earth pressure by a coefficient termed the:
At Rest Earth Pressure Coefficient (Ko)
Active Earth Pressure Coefficient (Ka)
Passive Earth Pressure Coefficient (Kp)
The lateral earth pressure is equal to vertical earth pressure times the appropriate earth
pressure coefficient. There are published relationships, tables and charts for calculating
or selecting the appropriate earth pressure coefficient.
9.3.1
At rest coefficient
In a homogeneous natural soil deposit, the ratio h/v is a constant known as

coefficient of earth pressure at rest (K0).
Fig. 9.5: Stress conditions in an element of soil

Depending upon whether the soil is loose sand, dense sand, normally consolidated
clay or over consolidated clay, there are published relationships that depend upon
the soils engineering values for calculating the at rest earth pressure coefficient. One
common earth pressure coefficient for the at rest condition in granular soil is:
Ko = 1 sin
Where: Ko is the at rest earth pressure coefficient and is the soil friction value.
Page 42
OSN - Lecture Notes
Importantly, at K0 state, there are no lateral strains

9.3.2
Active and passive coefficient
When discussing active and passive lateral earth pressure, there are two relatively
simple classical theories (among others) that are widely used:
Rankine Earth Pressure Theory
Coulomb Earth Pressure Theory
The Rankine Theory assumes:
1) There is no adhesion or friction between the wall and soil
2) Lateral pressure is limited to vertical walls
3) Failure (in the backfill) occurs as a sliding wedge along an assumed failure
plane defined by .
4) Lateral pressure varies linearly with depth and the resultant pressure is
located one-third of the height (H) above the base of the wall.
5) The resultant force is parallel to the backfill surface.
Case 1: Active Earth Pressure
In granular soils v = z. Initially, there is no lateral movement.
h = K0 v = K0 z
As the wall moves away from the soil (Fig. 9.6), v remains the same; and h
decreases till failure occurs.
Fig. 9.6: Wall moving away from soil
Page 43
OSN - Lecture Notes
Fig. 9.7: h decreases till failure occurs
Fig. 9.8: Failure envelope for active case
[ h ' ]active K a v '

Ka
1 sin
tan 2 (45 / 2)
1 sin
Ka is Rankines coefficient of active earth pressure.
Page 44
OSN - Lecture Notes
Case 2: Passive Earth Pressure

Initially, soil is in K0 state. As the wall moves towards the soil (Fig. 9.8), v remains
the same, h increases till failure occurs.
Fig. 9.9: Wall moving towards soil
Fig. 9.10: h increases till failure occurs
Page 45
OSN - Lecture Notes
Fig. 9.11: Failure envelope passive case
[ h ' ] passive K P v '

KP
1 sin
tan 2 (45 / 2)
1 sin
Kp is Rankines coefficient of passive earth pressure.
9.4
EARTH PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION

PA and PP are the resultant active and passive thrusts on the wall (Fig. 10.11).
Fig. 9.12: Earth pressure distribution
Page 46
9.5
APPLICATIONS
9.5.1
Retaining walls
OSN - Lecture Notes
Page 47
OSN - Lecture Notes
10 ROAD DESIGN
10.1
ROAD PAVEMENT
Is that component of a road system that is designed, constructed and maintained to

ensure that stresses, strains and deflections that emanate from traffic loading as well as
from changes in foundation and environmental conditions do not result into premature
failure of the road.
10.2
FACTORS INFLUENCING DESIGN OF THE PAVEMENT
10.3
ROAD CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
10.4
Soils
Rock
Binders bitumen, tar, cement, lime,
Water
Plastics/Geofabrics/Geotextiles
Steel
PAVEMENT DESIGN PHILOSOPHY (CRITERIA)
10.5
Traffic loading
Foundation condition
Environmental condition e.g. weather, rainfall, temperature etc
Material characteristics
Performance characteristics
Cost consideration
Resistance
Resistance
Resistance
Resistance
to deformation
to cracking
to breaking, crushing of granular materials
to weathering
PAVEMENT TYPES
10.5.1 Flexible pavements

Is pavement structure that allows a certain amount of flexibility while maintaining
sufficient rigidity to resist deformation.
It comprises of a number of layers being dependent on loading, soil quality,
availability of materials etc.
A typical flexible pavement structure consists of the surface course and the
underlying base and subbase courses. Each of these layers contributes to structural
support and drainage. The surface course is the stiffest and contributes the most to
pavement strength. The underlying layers are less stiff but are still important to
pavement strength as well as drainage and frost protection.
Page 48
OSN - Lecture Notes
Surface course
Base Course
Subbase course
Subgrade (existing soil)
Fig. 10.1: Earth pressure distribution

Surface Course: The surface course is the layer in contact with traffic loads and
normally contains the highest quality materials. It provides characteristics such as
friction, smoothness, noise control, rut and shoving resistance and drainage. In
addition, it serves to prevent the entrance of excessive quantities of surface water
into the underlying base, subbase and subgrade.
Base Course: The base course is immediately beneath the surface course. It
provides additional load distribution and contributes to drainage and frost resistance.
Subbase Course: The subbase course is between the base course and the
subgrade. It functions primarily as structural support.
Subgrade Course: This is the existing soil that forms the formation level for the
road
10.5.2 Rigid pavements
Bases comprise of Ordinary Portland Cement concrete.
Page 49

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University of Nairobi

Department of Real Estate and Construction Management

DR. NYAMBANE OSANO

BCM 112 CIVIL ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION I

OSN - Lecture Notes

COURSE DESCRIPTION AND OUTLINE

STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOME

TEACHING METHODOLOGY AND TECHNIQUES

REQUIRED TEXT BOOKS

INTRODUCTION TO SOIL MECHANICS ............................................. 3

SOIL MECHANICS AND GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

SOIL FORMATION ............................................................................ 5

SOIL PROPERTIES ........................................................................... 8

SOIL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

SOME USEFUL TERMS AND ASSOCIATED SYMBOLS

BCM 112 CIVIL ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION I

OSN - Lecture Notes

SPECIFIC VOLUME (V)

SOIL INVESTIGATIONS / EXPLORATION ....................................... 16

PURPOSE OF SOIL EXPLORATION

PLANNING AN EXPLORATION PROGRAMME

FIELD IN-SITU TESTS

BEARING CAPACITY OF SOILS ....................................................... 21

COMMON TYPES OF SOILS AND THEIR BEARING CAPACITY

SHEAR STRENGTHS AND EFFECTIVE STRESSES ............................. 25

SHEAR STRENGTH IN SOILS

DETERMINATION OF SHEAR STRESS PARAMETERS

BCM 112 CIVIL ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION I

OSN - Lecture Notes

SOIL COMPACTION ........................................................................ 34

LABORATORY COMPACTION TESTS

LATERAL PRESSURES AND RETAINING WALLS .............................. 40

CATERGORIES OF EARTH PRESSURE

AT REST EARTH PRESSURE

CALCULATING LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS

EARTH PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION

ROAD DESIGN ................................................................................ 48

FACTORS INFLUENCING DESIGN OF THE PAVEMENT

ROAD CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

PAVEMENT DESIGN PHILOSOPHY (CRITERIA)

BCM 112 CIVIL ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION I

OSN - Lecture Notes

COURSE DESCRIPTION AND OUTLINE

STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOME

TEACHING METHODOLOGY AND TECHNIQUES

BCM 112 CIVIL ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION I

OSN - Lecture Notes

REQUIRED TEXT BOOKS

BCM 112 CIVIL ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION I

OSN - Lecture Notes

INTRODUCTION TO SOIL MECHANICS

Fig. 2.1: Soil layers

SOIL MECHANICS AND GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

BCM 112 CIVIL ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION I

OSN - Lecture Notes

BCM 112 CIVIL ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION I

OSN - Lecture Notes

decomposition of rock is the result of the following reactions;

Within the weathering environment, oxidation of a variety of metals occurs. The

BCM 112 CIVIL ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION I

surface which crumbles easily and weakens the rock.

OSN - Lecture Notes

This process is better