Holzman LC 2 02

Sensor Fundamentals, Technologies and Platforms at a Glance
Dr. Clemens Holzmann

Upper Austria University of Applied Sciences, Mobile Computing
http://www.fh-ooe.at/mc
Why Sensors for Green IT?

Sensors are needed whenever physical quantities of the environment have to be
measured in order to be used by electronic devices.
Sensors (will) play a big role in green IT to maximize energy efficiency!
temperature and humidity sensors allow to reduce the amount of cooling
and/or the fan speed in data centers to the current needs
acceleration sensors detect movement in order to disable energy-expensive
GPS when there is no movement
motion sensors detect the presence of humans, which can be used to
automatically turn off lights or other consumers like displays
position sensors enable sensor nodes of a wireless sensor networks to send
data packets only in the right direction to reduce communication
light sensors allow to adapt the brightness of a display to the ambient light
Page 2
Contributing Technology Trends

Computing, Miniaturization, Sensors, Communication, Materials Data
Processing and Storage
Trends: Computing
Moores Law, 1965
logarithmic
scale!
The number of transistors that

can be placed inexpensively on
an integrated circuit doubles
approximately every two years
The trend has continued for
more than half a century
The law is named after Intel
co-founder Gordon E. Moore
Exponential growth
[http://en.wikipedia.org]
See [C. Decker: Ubiquitous Computing, University of Karlsruhe, 2008] for technology trends
Page 4
Trends: Computing
But: Battery development is only linear
Just 20% in 10 years!
Therefore, the power supply of mobile devices is a crucial problem today
especially in always-on scenarios
Page 5
Trends: Miniaturization
Embedded Systems
Embedded processors with integrated functions:
RAM, program memory / hard drive, I/O, power
regulation, clock generation
smallest processor: Microchip PIC10F
[http://www.microchip.com]
A chip is not a system! A system contains additional
components which can not or hardly be integrated
wireless platform for smart sensors: MICA2DOT Mote
[http://www.xbow.com]
25mm quarter-sized, multi-channel transceiver, TinyOS,
analog and digital I/O, on-board temperature sensor
sensor and data acquisition boards available
Page 6
Trends: Miniaturization
Embedded processors where are they?
98% of all processors are embedded, only 2% are used for Computers
Allow for smart everyday objects
mobile phones, microwave ovens, cameras, MP3/CD/DVD player etc.
but also cups, clothes, furniture, etc.
they are small, cheap, lightweight
problem of waste
Allow for new integrated functions
TV, cameras and MP3 in mobile phones
position and orientation awareness of digital cameras
energy saving functions based on motion sensing
Page 7
Trends: Sensors
Sensors are becoming ubiquitous
small, energy efficient, often low-precision, inexpensive
MEMS (Micro-Electromechanical-Systems)
[http://mina.ubc.ca]
integration of mechanical elements, sensors, actuators, and electronics

on a common silicon substrate through microfabrication technology
makes the realizations of systems on a chip (SoC) possible
examples: accelerometers and gyroscopes (see later), blood pressure sensors,
RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) Systems
remote identification and tracking using radio waves
different technologies (active/passive, low/high frequency, )
used for key cards, near-field-communication (NFC),
electronic article surveillance, animal identification,
[http://systemid.com]
Page 8
Trends: Communication
Mobile Communication
GSM, UMTS (up to 2 Mb/s), LTE (up to 300 Mb/s, launched in 2010)
Wireless LAN (IEEE 802.11b/g/n, bis 11/54/600 Mb/s)
Bluetooth: 720 kb/s, 25 $, 10x10mm; 10 m range
802.15.4/ZigBee: 250 kb/s, 8$, 8x8mm
Powerline Communication
Nearly all consumer devices can be reached via PLC
Up to 10 Mb/s, de-facto industry standard
Page 9
Quantitative Growth of the Internet
[http://www.internetworldstats.com]
Page 10
The internet of the future will be used for machine-to-machine communication
expected expansion of the internet to everyday objects (Internet of Things)
one of the most important application areas will be energy saving
[F. Mattern: Ubiquitous Computing: Scenarios for an informatized world, Springer-Verlag, 2004]
Page 11
Trends: Data Processing and

Storage
Capacity
Portable Media Players: 80 GB
capacity, camera and integrated
DivX encoding
Harddrive:
up to 2 TB (3,5)
up to 500 GB (2,5)
up to 250 GB (1,8)
128 GB microSD in 2011 (announced by Sandisk)
[Spektrum der Wissenschaft, 5/2007]
Potential
Continuous audio recording (mono) for 1 year = 0,36 TB
Continuous video recording for 1 month = 0,3 TB
Nearly unlimited (offline) storage of sensor data
Page 12
Trends: Data Processing and

Storage
Microsoft MyLifeBits
Gordon Bell records his whole life (audio, video, e-mails, images, texts, locations, ...)
Recording of telephone calls, TV and radio programs, queries, webpages,
Appliance: SenseCam (automatically makes pictures of interesting situations)
Bells Growth: 1GB/month, 1TB/life
[http://research.microsoft.com/en-us/projects/mylifebits]
Page 13
Trends: Materials
Printable Electronics
Common printing techniques are used in conjunction with
conductive electronic inks to print electronic circuits
Goal: thin, flexible and cheap electronic circuits
Usable for displays, RFID tags, sensors, photovoltaic cells,
item-level tagging by printing RFID tags instead of barcodes
[http://gizmag.com]
Electronic Textiles
Fabrics with electronics and interconnections woven into them
can be worn in everyday situations where currently
available wearable computers would hinder the user
Possible integration of textile sensors
measure touch, pressure, ECG, heart rate, respiration,
May become important for Human-Computer Interaction
[http:// textileweb.com]
Page 14
Ubiquitous Computing
[T. Strang, 2005]
Page 15
Sensor Fundamentals
Functional Principle of Sensors, Sensor Performance Characteristics,
Resistive and Capacitive Sensors
How Does a Sensor Work?

For example, an airbag system uses a series of sensors, including acceleration
and pressure sensors, to detect an impact and trigger the ignition of gas
requires an interface between the human world and the electronics world
requires an interface between the analog systems and the digital systems
The content of the following slides is to a large extent taken from:

[J. Luecke: Analog and Digital Circuits for Electronic Control System Applications, Elsevier, 2004]
[J. S. Wilson: Sensor Technology Handbook, Elsevier, 2005]
Page 17
From Analog to Digital (and

from Digital to Analog)
A typical system dealing with sensors is composed of the following
functional blocks:
analog circuits, digital circuits and conversion circuits are needed
Page 18
Analog to Digital
Page 19
Sensing the Signal

Most of natures inputs such as temperature, pressure, humidity, wind
velocity, speed, flow rate, linear motion or position are not in the form to input
them directly into an electronic system.
They must be changed to an electrical quantity a voltage or a current in

order to interface to electronic circuits.
Definition:
A sensor is a device that converts a physical phenomenon into an electrical
signal. As such, sensors represent part of the interface between the physical
world and the world of electronic devices. The other part of this interface is
represented by actuators, which convert electrical signals into physical
phenomena. [J. S. Wilson]
Page 20
Conditioning the Signal

Conditioning means that some characteristic of the signal is being changed
Typical conditioning functions:

Amplification (e.g. operational amplifier)
Attenuation, reduction (e.g. voltage divider)
Filtering (e.g. RC-network)
Impedance conversion (e.g. operational amplifier)
Page 21
Analog-To-Digital Conversion
The analog signal is changed to a digital code which can be recognized by a
digital system
Consists of two sub-functions:
Sample and Hold: needed because the analog signal is changing
continuously and the conversion takes some time
timing circuits set the sample interval (dependent on ADC conversion speed)
allows to holdthe
voltage for along time
Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC): generates a digital code whose value is

equivalent to the sample-and-hold value
causes quantization error (diff. between sampled analog and digital signal)
Page 22
Analog-To-Digital Conversion
Example: Successive approximation ADC
fast as it works similar to the concept of binary search
Page 23
Sensor Performance
Characteristics Definitions
Sensitivity
Defined in terms of the relationship between input physical signal and
output electrical signal
it is generally the ratio between a small change in electrical signal to a small
change in physical signal (defines the slope of the curve)
typical units are V/C, mV/kP etc.
A thermometer would have high sensitivity if a small temperature change
resulted in a large voltage change
Example: LIS3L02AQ 3-axis accelerometer, supplied with Vdd=3V, acceleration
range set to 2g: sensitivity is typically 600 mV/g
Sensitivity Error
It is a departure from the ideal slope of the characteristic curve
Example: LIS3L02AQ 3-axis accelerometer: sensitivity error of 10%
Page 24
Sensor Performance
Sensitivity and Sensitivity Error
+F(x)
y
x
Sensitivity = y / x
-x
0, 0
+x
-F(x)
Page 25
Sensor Performance
Offset
Output that will exist when it should be zero (i.e. at zero input) or,
alternatively, the difference between the actual output value and the specified
output value under some particular set of conditions
Example: LIS3L02AQ 3-axis accelerometer, supplied with 3V: offset 1.5 V
no acceleration will output 1.5 V
Offset is sometimes temperature sensitive

LIS3L02AQ: Zero-g level vs. temperature 1.5 mg/C delta from +25C
Page 26
Sensor Performance
Offset
+F(x)
-x
Offset
0, 0
+x
-F(x)
Page 27
Sensor Performance
Transfer Function
Shows the functional relationship between physical input signal and electrical
output signal
Usually represented as a graph: F(x) = offset + x * sensitivity
May be used to predict the behavior of the sensor and contains information
about the sensitivity and the offset at the output of the sensor.
Example: LIS3L02AQ 3-axis accelerometer, supplied with 3V, acceleration
range set to 2g (proportional to Vdd):
mV
V ( Acc) 1.5V Acc 600
g
offset
sensitivity
Page 28
Sensor Performance
Transfer Function
the sensitivity can be expressed as the derivate of the transfer function
with respect to the physical signal
+F(x)
y
x
Sensitivity = y / x
-x
Offset
0, 0
+x
-F(x)
Page 29
Sensor Performance
Dynamic Range (Span)
The range of input physical signals that may be converted to electrical signals
by the sensor is the dynamic range or span
signals outside of this range are expected to cause unacceptably large
inaccuracy (specified sensitivity is not guaranteed)
This span or dynamic range is usually specified by the sensor supplier as the
range over which other performance characteristics described in the data
sheets are expected to apply
Typical units are Kelvin, Pascal, Newton etc.
Example: LIS3L02AQ 3-axis accelerometer: 2g guaranteed minimum 1.8g
with specified sensitivity, the device can withstand up to 3000g for 0.5ms, or
10000g for 0.1ms
Page 30
Sensor Performance
Dynamic Range (Span)
+F(x)
ymax
Dynamic Range
-x
0, 0
+x
ymin
-F(x)
Page 31
Sensor Performance
Linearity and Nonlinearity
The maximum deviation of the measured curve from a linear transfer
function over the specified dynamic range
usually, the output of a transducer is not perfectly linear
There are several measures of this error. The most common compares the
actual transfer function with the best straight line, which lies midway
between the two parallel lines that encompass the entire transfer function
over the specified dynamic range of the device.
other reference lines may be used, so the user should be careful to
compare using the same reference
Example LIS3L02AQ:
best fit straight line, full-scale = 2g, X and Y axis 0.3% FS (Full Scale)
best fit straight line, full-scale = 2g, Z axis: 0.6% FS
Page 32
Sensor Performance
Linearity and Nonlinearity
max. input deviation
Nonlin.(%)
100
max. full scale input
+F(x)
Maximum Error
-x
0, 0
+x
-F(x)
Page 33
Sensor Performance
Resolution
Smallest detectable incremental change of input parameter that can be
detected in the output signal
Resolution can be expressed either as a proportion of the reading (or the fullscale reading) or in absolute terms
Many sensors are limited by noise with a white spectral distribution
Example LIS3L02AQ: the resolution is 100 g/Hz
Sensors sometimes have an ADC integrated, in which case the resolution
is determined by that of the ADC
Example ADXL345: 3-axis accelerometer with
in built ADC provides resolution of up to 13-bit
at 16 g (maintaining 4 mg/LSB)
Page 34
A Basic Example
Automobile fuel gauge
Page 35
Resistive Sensors
Resistive sensors change their resistance in response to external stimuli
Examples:
Light intensity: Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
Temperature: NTC, PTC (Pt100, Pt1000)
resistance decreases
with increasing light
intensity
notlinear;must
be compensated
LDR
Page 36
Resistive Sensors
Resistance can be measured with a simple voltage divider by
forcing a current to flow and
measuring the voltage drop.
A simple current source consists of
a voltage source and
a reference resistor whose resistance is much larger than the one
to be measured in order to offer good linearity.
Improvement:
Wheatstonebridge
Page 37
Resistive Sensors
Wheatstone bridge
Improvement on the simple voltage divider
the voltage divider is combined with a second voltage divider composed of
fixed resistors only
a second voltage divider provides a reference voltage that is the same as
the output of the sense voltage divider at some nominal value of the sense
resistance
senseresistor
A differential amplifier (such as an
instrumentation amplifier) is used
to produce the difference between
these two voltages
Page 38
Capacitive Sensors
Many sensors respond to physical signals with a change in capacitance C:
A
C
dielectric constant can be changed

e.g. moisture, temperature and ageing
separation d can be changed
How is capacitance measured?
1
1
all capacitors have an impedance: X C

jC j 2fC
f oscillation frequency (Hz)
angular velocity (radians/s)
j phase shift between current through and voltage across the capacitor
all advantages of bridges are available for capacitance measurement
RC voltage divider circuits can be used, operated with AC (DC not possible)
AC has to be converted to DC for a microprocessor interface
Page 39
Capacitive Sensors
Example: Accelerometer (see later)
capacitive sensing cell formed from semiconductor material
beams attached to a movable central mass that move between fixed beams
movable beams can be deflected from their rest position by subjecting the
system to an acceleration
change in distance is a measure of acceleration
Page 40
Smart Sensors
Resistance
NTC
Voltage
Transformer
Voltage
Amplifier
ADC
digital value
Software:
linearization, filtering,
correction,
C
temperature
When and what to send:

cyclic, request, delta,
Transceiver
Sensor Network
Page 41
Sensor Technologies
Example: Inertial Sensors (Accelerometers and Gyroscopes)
Accelerometer
What is acceleration?
the time rate of change of velocity
the time rate of change of the time rate of change of distance
acceleration is measured in m/s
Acceleration is often given in terms of g-force
a g is a unit of acceleration equal to Earths gravity at sea level
1 g = 9.81 m/s
Accelerometers measure acceleration experienced relative to free fall
first MEMS accelerometer in 1979 (IEEE Trans. Electron. Devices)
many different technologies; the most commonly used are capacitive,
piezoelectric and piezoresistive accelerometers
there are many current and future fields of application
Page 43
Accelerometer
Many accelerometers are based on a mass spring system
springs are governed by a physical principle known as Hooke's law
it states that a spring will exhibit a restoring force F which is directly

proportional to the amount it has been stretched or compressed
F=kx, where k is the spring constant in [N/m] and x the displacement in [m]
the displacement has to be measured and converted into an electrical signal
Newton's second law of motion states that a force operating on a mass
which is accelerated will exhibit a force with a magnitude F=ma
a=(kx)/m
[http://ccrma.stanford.edu]
Page 44
Accelerometer
Example: Analog Devices ADXL50
micro-machined accelerometer which consists of a mass spring system
as well as a system to measure displacement
the mass responds to accelerations that occur in line with its length
the amount of acceleration is proportional to the displacement of the mass
the displacement is measured with capacitors
sensing fingers
4tethers attached
to each corner
barof silicon
[http://ccrma.stanford.edu] [http://www.analog.com]
Page 45
Accelerometer
Capacitive sensing of mass displacement:
displacement measurement is based on the electrical property of capacitance
the capacitance between two plates is

dependent on their distance
often differential capacitive sensing, where a part of the mass makes up the
middle of three plates and thus creates two different capacitors, are used
when device is at rest, the spacing between

the three plates is x0
a shift in the mass position alters the distance

between the plates, making one longer (+x)
and the other one shorter (-x)
[http://ccrma.stanford.edu]
Page 46
Accelerometer
ADXL50 differential capacitive sensing in detail:
0.1g proof mass, 0.1pF capacitance per side for the differential capacitor,
1.3m gaps between capacitor plates, 20aF (10-18 F) smallest detectable
capacitance change, 42 sensing fingers (21 on each side)
[http://www.analog.com]
Page 47
Accelerometer
ADXL50 sensing fingers
the interdigitated fingers can be used for capacitive sensing
anchor
suspension beam
proof mass
interdigitated capacitive
sensing fingers
C1
C2
Page 48
Accelerometer
In order to get the acceleration and magnitude in two or three dimensions,
two or three orthogonally placed accelerometers are required
cross-axis sensitivity is a major issue with multiaxis accelerometers
e.g. dual-axis accelerometer ADXL202 2g
Page 49
Accelerometer
Piezoresistive sensing of mass displacement:
use of silicon resistors in a Wheatstone bridge configuration
a resistors value decreases when it is subjected to a compressive force,
and it increases when a tensile force is applied
the resistors are bonded to a cantilever beam that bends in response to
acceleration forces and thus changes resistance
available for dynamic ranges of up to 2000g, but high temperature sensitivity
piezo resistor
[S. Beeby: MEMS Mechanical Sensors, Artech House Inc., 2004]
Page 50
Accelerometer
Tilt sensing using linear accelerometers
Important e.g. for automatic screen alignment on handhelds
The effect of gravity (1g) on the seismic mass is used as input acceleration to
determine the tilt (note: accelerometers cannot distinguish gravity and motion!)
requires typically 2g accelerometers with a low bandwidth
the accelerometer will experience acceleration in the range from
-1g to +1g through 180 of tilt
Measuring tilt using one axis:
tilt along the x-axis, the
y-axis remains at 0g
sensitivity
Vout Voff S 1g sin

[K. Tuck: Tilt Sensing Using Linear Accelerometers, Freescale Semiconductor, 2007]
Page 51
Accelerometer
The angle of tilt can be solved as follows:
sin 1
Vout Voff
1 g S
inaccurate near
the 1grange!
working zone
sin(1) = 0.017452 change of 17.45 mg/

sin(89) = 0.999848 change of 0.152 mg/
Page 52
Accelerometer
Problems using just one axis for tilt measurement:
inaccurate near the 1g range
no possibility to distinguish between 30 and 150 by looking at the
accelerometer output (the output is a sine function!)
Measuring tilt with a two axis solution:

vertical mounting of the accelerometer
so that the y-axis is parallel to gravity
gravity on the x-axis follows the sine
function, y-axis follows the cosine function
maximum tilt sensitivity through a 360 rotation
the sign is important!
combining the acceleration outputs of the x- and y-components due to gravity

constant sensitivity of 17.45 mg/ (addition of the two acceleration vectors)
Page 53
Limitation of Accelerometers
An accelerometer sitting stationary on the Earth with its sensitive axis pointing
vertically downwards will give an output signal equivalent to 1g
if it is rotated 90 and left stationary with its sensitive axis pointing parallel to
the Earths surface, it will produce an output signal equivalent to 0g
in each case, the accelerometer has not been moving
Problem: Both gravity and motion produce accelerations!
a tilt will look like an acceleration and
thus like a change in position
0.3g acceleration
due to motion
accelerometers cannot tell the difference

between motion and tilt
gyroscopes are needed to distinguish
tilt from acceleration
1g acceleration
due to gravity
apparent tilt
Page 54
Gyroscope
Gyroscopes are used to measure angular rate (i.e. how quickly an object turns)
first MEMS gyroscope in 1991 (Draper Laboratory, Cambridge)
angular rate is measured in /s
rotation is measured in reference to one of three axes: yaw, pitch or roll
a gyroscope with one axis of sensitivity can also be used to measure other
axes by mounting the gyro differently (see right-hand diagram)
differentmounting yaw
axis becomes the rollaxis
[http://www.analog.com/library/analogdialogue/archives/37-03/gyro.pdf]
Page 55
Gyroscope
Example use of a gyroscope:
a yaw-axis gyro that is mounted on a turntable rotating at 33 1/3 rpm
(revolutions per minute) would measure a constant rotation of 360 times
33 1/3 rpm divided by 60 seconds, or 200/s
the gyro would output a voltage proportional to the angular rate, as
determined by its sensitivity, measured in mV//s
the full-scale voltage determines how much angular rate can be measured,
so in the example of the turntable, a gyro would need to have a full-scale
voltage corresponding to at least 200/s
e.g., the Analog Devices ADXRS150 handles a full scale range of 300/s
There are many practical applications, like e.g. inertial navigation or
electronic stability programs (ESP) and rollover detection in vehicles
Page 56
Gyroscope
Coriolis effect
MEMS gyroscopes usually measure angular rate by means of Coriolis acceleration
they rely on a mechanical structure that is driven into resonance and
excites a secondary oscillation due to the Coriolis force
the amplitude of this secondary oscillation is directly proportional to the
angular rate signal to be measured
The Coriolis force is a virtual force that depends on the inertial frame of the
observer, which can be explained as follows:
Consider yourself standing on a rotating platform, near the center. If you were to
move to a point near the outer edge of the platform, your speed would increase
relative to the ground. The rate of increase of your tangential speed, caused by
your radial velocity, is the Coriolis acceleration.
Page 57
Gyroscope
Example: Analog Devices ADXRS gyros
the ADXRS150/ADXRS300 gyros have a full-scale range of 150/s and 300/s
the ADXRS gyros take advantage of the Coriolis effect by using a resonating
mass analogous to the person moving out and in on a rotating platform
reactionforceonthe
frametotheleft
massmovesoutwards
accelerationtotheright
Page 58
Gyroscope
To measure the Coriolis acceleration, the frame containing the resonating mass is
tethered to the substrate by springs at 90 relative to the resonating motion
this figure also shows the Coriolis sense fingers that are used to capacitively
sense displacement of the frame in response to the force exerted by the mass
Schematic of a gyros mechanical structure:
Page 59
Gyroscope
As the resonating mass moves, and as the surface to which the gyro is
mounted rotates, the mass and its frame experience the Coriolis acceleration
and are translated 90 from the vibratory movement.
As the rate of rotation increases, so does the displacement of the mass, and
the signal derived from the corresponding capacitance change between the
Coriolis sense fingers.
Page 60
Gyroscope
Differential sensing is realized with two mechanically independent resonators that
operate anti-phase, which cancels non-rotational signals affecting both sensors
measure the same magnitude of rotation, but give outputs in opposite directions
the difference between the two sensor signals is used to measure angular rate
Page 61
Orientation Sensor
Example: InterSense InertiaCube3
provides full 360 orientation in yaw, pitch and roll by combining angular
rates, linear accelerations and magnetic field components along all 3 axes
the angular rates are integrated to obtain the orientation of the sensor
accelerations and compass measurements are used to stabilize the
orientation to the Earths gravitational and magnetic fields
Key performance specifications:
alsoavailableas
wirelesssensor
full 360 in all three axes

RMS angular rate of 0/s to 1200/s
RMS accuracy of 1 in yaw and 0.25 in roll/pitch
size: 26.2 mm x 39.2 mm x 14.8 mm
[http://www.intersense.com/InertiaCube_Sensors.aspx]
Page 62
Orientation Sensor
Example: Xsens MVN
motion capture solution which consists (only)
of inertial sensors attached to the body
by a lycra suit with embedded cabling
17 MTx inertial trackers (similar to the Inertiacube3)
7 lower- and 11 upper-body sensor positions

wireless measurement range of up to 150m
uses Bluetooth 2.0

used e.g. for the animation of digital characters
or for human movement analysis in sports
[http://www.xsens.com/en/general/mvn]
[D. Roetenberg et al.: Xsens MVN: Full 6DOF Human Motion Tracking Using Miniature Inertial
Sensors, XsensTechnologies, 2009.]
Page 63
InterSense IS-900
(RF&Ultrasonic)
Introduced in 1999, mainly used in the military sector and at research labs
Full 6-DOF (x, y, z; yaw, pitch, roll) for up to four tracked stations
180 Hz update rate, 2.00-3.00 mm (x,y,z) and 0.5 (yaw) / 0.25 (pitch, roll)
static accuracy, 0.75 mm and 0.05 RMS resolution
transmit40kHz
ultrasonicsignals
inertial/acoustic
sensor
[http://www.intersense.com/IS-900_Systems.aspx]
Page 64
InterSense IS-900
(RF&Ultrasonic)
Position and orientation are calculated from gyroscopes and accelerometers,
drift compensation is achieved with acoustic time-of-flight sensing
virtualbinocular
[http://www.intersense.com/IS-900_Systems.aspx]
Page 65
Sensor Platforms
Examples: Arduino, Waspmote, Sun SPOT and BTNode3
For a list of platforms, see e.g. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_wireless_sensor_nodes]
Arduino Overview
Arduino is an open-source electronics prototyping
platform based on flexible, easy-to-use hardware
and software. It's intended for artists, designers,
hobbyists, and anyone interested in creating
interactive objects or environments.
Arduino can sense the environment by receiving input
from a variety of sensors and can affect its
surroundings by controlling lights, motors, and other
actuators.
The microcontroller on the board is programmed
using the Arduino programming language (based on
Wiring) and the Arduino development environment
(based on Processing).
[http://arduino.cc/en/] [http://wiring.org.co/] [http://www.processing.org/]
Page 67
Arduino Overview
The Arduino project began at the Interaction Design Institute Ivrea, Italy in 2005.
its aim was to make a device for controlling interaction design projects less
expensively than other prototyping systems available at the time
the whole project is open source, both in terms of hardware and software
as of February 2010, more than 120,000 Arduino boards had been shipped
An Arduino board consists of an 8-bit Atmel AVR microcontroller with
complementary components to facilitate programming and incorporation into
other circuits.
usually operated with 5V power supply and a 16 MHz crystal oscillator
official Arduino boards have 16-256 kB Flash and 1-8 kB SRAM, 14-54 digital
I/O pins (6-14 with PWM), 6-16 analog inputs, 0.73"x1"-4"x2.1"
communicates with the PC via serial connection over USB or Bluetooth
can be powered from USB or standalone DC power
Page 68
Arduino I/O Boards

Arduino Uno (see later for more details)
basic Arduino USB board with ATmega328 processor
can be extended with a variety of shields (i.e.
interchangeable add-on modules) with specific features
connects to the computer with a standard USB cable
Arduino Nano
compact board designed for breadboard use
connects to the computer with USB Mini-B cable
Arduino Mega2560
microcontroller board based on the ATmega2560
54 digital I/O pins, 16 analog inputs and 4 UARTs
[http://arduino.cc/en/Main/Hardware]
Page 69
Arduino I/O Boards

Arduino LilyPad
designed for wearable application, can be sewn onto fabric
developed by Leah Buechley and SparkFun Electronics
Arduino Fio
designed for wireless applications
includes a socket for an XBee radio, a connector for a
LiPo battery, and integrated battery charging circuitry
Arduino Bluetooth
contains a bluetooth module that allows for wireless
communication and programming
is compatible with Arduino shields
[http://arduino.cc/en/Main/Hardware] [http://web.media.mit.edu/~leah/LilyPad/]
Page 70
Arduino Uno I/O Board

ATmega328 microcontroller
Input voltage of 7-12V
14 Digital I/O Pins
6 PWM outputs
6 Analog Inputs
32k Flash Memory
16Mhz Clock Speed
2.7" x 2.1"
[http://arduino.cc/en/Main/Hardware]
Page 71
Arduino Sensors (Extract)

capacitive touch sensor
rotary encoder
photo cell
piezo vibra
tion sensor
motion sensor
3axisacce
lerometer
potentiometer
reed switch
force sensi
tive resistor
NTCthermistor
[http://www.physicalcomputing.at/shop/article_A-1107500/Sensor-Kit-Basic.html]
Page 72
Arduino Sensors (Extract)

infrared receiver
2axiscompass
ultrasonic
range finder
humidity and
temperature sensor
flex sensor
1axisgyroscope
[http://www.physicalcomputing.at/shop/article_A-1107600/Sensor-Kit-Advanced.html]
Page 73
Arduino XBee Shield

Allows an Arduino board to communicate wirelessly using Zigbee
range of 30m indoors and 100m outdoors (with line-of-sight)
[http://www.sparkfun.com/products/8471] [http://www.arduino.cc/en/Main/ArduinoXbeeShield]
Page 74
Arduino Example (Digital Out)

Making LEDs blink
this program sends HIGH and LOW voltage pulses out digital pin 0
makes the LED blink on for 1000 ms and off for 500 ms
digital P0
(HIGH or LOW)
voidsetup(){
//initializethedigitalpinasanoutput:
pinMode(0,OUTPUT);
}
470
voidloop(){
digitalWrite(0,HIGH);//settheLEDon
delay(1000);//waitforasecond
digitalWrite(0,LOW);//settheLEDoff
delay(500);//waitfor500ms
}
digitalpin 0
Page 75
Arduino Example (Analog In)

Measuring light level using a photoresistor
the voltage sensed at analog pin 3 is sent to the serial monitor for viewing
output of 0 represents 0V and 1023 represents 5V (10-Bit ADC)
5V
//middleterminalofvoltagedividercircuit
int analogPin=3;
int val=0;//variabletostoreread
photoresistor
analog
pin 3
10k
voidsetup(){
Serial.begin(9600);//setupserialdisplay
}
voidloop(){
val=analogRead(analogPin);//analogread
Serial.println(val);//printvaluetoserial
monitor
}
Page 76
Waspmote Overview
Commercial sensor node of Libelium Comunicaciones
Microcontroller: ATmega1281 (8 MHz)
7 analog and 8 digital I/O, 1 PWM, 2 UARTs, 1 I2C, 1 USB
Hibernate mode: 0,7 A, deep sleep mode: 62 A
Up to 40 km range with 868 MHz radio
ZigBee, Bluetooth and GSM/GPRS modules available
Open source API, compiler and code samples
builds on top of the Arduino compiler
Different sensor boards available (gases, pressure, tilt, ...)
[http://www.libelium.com/products/waspmote]
Page 77
Waspmote Agriculture Sensor

Board
Enables up to 14 environmental parameters to be monitored in a sensor network:
air temperature
air humidity
soil temperature
soil moisture
leaf wetness
atmospheric pressure
solar radiation
ultraviolet radiation
trunk/stem/fruit diameter
wind speed/direction
rainfall
[http://www.libelium.com/libeliumworld/articles/101651651444]
Page 78
Sun SPOT Overview

Today the internet is made of millions of computers, but the very nature of the
network is changing. New types of devices are connecting to the net every day.
Soon cars, medical devices and even toys will be streaming control and data to
each other and the world. The number of these devices will overwhelm the number
of computers. Already over 1.5 billion Java enabled cell phones communicate with
each other on a regular basis. We foresee a day when trillions of such devices form
an internet of things.
Project Sun SPOT was created to encourage the development of new applications
and devices. It is designed from the ground up to allow programmers who never
before worked with embedded devices to think beyond the keyboard, mouse and
screen and write programs that interact with each other, the environment and their
users in completely new ways. (Sun SPOT World, 2010)
Main application areas: (i) education and (ii) rapid prototyping in research
[Sun SPOT World, http://www.sunspotworld.com]
Page 79
Sun SPOT Overview
Program the World!
[The SPOTs project, https://spots.dev.java.net]
opensource software
andhardware
Page 80
Sun SPOT Hardware

Processor Board
180 MHz 32 bit ARM920T CPU, no FPU
sensor board
512K RAM, 4M Flash (contains Squawk VM)

IEEE 802.15.4 radio with antenna (250 kbps)
processor board
AT91 timer chip, USB interface
battery
Sensor Board
2g/6g three-axis accelerometer, temperature (0.25 C) and light sensor (600 nm)
2 momentary switches, 8 tri-color LEDs (255 s update rate)
6 analog inputs, 5 GPIO pins and 4 high-current output pins
10-Bit Analog Devices ADC
Battery
3.7 V rechargeable 720 mAh lithium-ion battery, 32 A deep-sleep mode
Page 81
Sun SPOT Solarium Emulator

Emulates Sensors and Radio
Also supports a radio view to discover and graphically depict the radio topology
But there is no radio simulation yet (transmission power, dropped packets etc.)
[Solarium Users Guide, version 5.0, 2009, http://www.sunspotworld.com/docs/]

[Sun SPOT Emulator Tutorial, http://www.sunspotworld.com/docs/Red/Tutorial/tutorial1.html]
Page 82
Sun SPOT Accelerometer

Interface IAccelerometer3D
import com.sun.spot.sensorboard.EDemoBoard;
import com.sun.spot.sensorboard.IAccelerometer3d;
import com.sun.spot.util.Utils;
IAccelerometer3D acc = EdemoBoard.getInstance().getAccelerometer();
while (true) {
double ax = acc.getAccelX(); // getRelativeAccelX() and getTiltX() are also available
if (ax >= 0.25) {
System.out.println(X acceleration above threshold: + ax);
break;
}
Util.sleep(250); // check every 1/4 second
}
The class LIS3L02AQAccelerometer implements IAccelerometer3D
[R. Goldman: Using the LIS3L02AQ Accelerometer, Sun Spot Application Note, 2007]
[Sun SPOT Theory of Operation, version 5.0, 2009, http://www.sunspotworld.com/docs/]
Page 83
BTNode3 Sensor Node

Developed at ETHZ, used in several research projects
Microcontroller: Atmel ATmega 128L (8 MHz @ 8 MIPS)
Memories: 64+180 kB RAM, 128 kB flash, 4 kB EEPROM
Interfaces: ISP, UART, SPI, I2C, GPIO, ADC, timer, 4 LEDs
Two available radios:
Bluetooth 1.2 (2.4 GHz, range ~25 m indoor, 723 kbps)
scatternets with max. 4 piconets and 7 slaves
low-power radio (868 MHz, >100 m outdoor, 76.8 kbps)
Standard C programming, TinyOS compatible
Possibility to connect single sensors or sensor boards
e.g. BTsense board with temperature, light and IR motion sensor
Power supply: 2 AA batteries; 9.9 mW in sleep mode (radio off)
Dimensions: 60x40 mm
[http://www.btnode.ethz.ch] [http://sourceforge.net/projects/btnode]
Page 84

Dr. Clemens Holzmann
Upper Austria University of Applied Sciences, Mobile Computing
http://www.fh-ooe.at/mc

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Sensor Fundamentals, Technologies and Platforms at a Glance

Dr. Clemens Holzmann

Why Sensors for Green IT?

Sensor Fundamentals, Technologies and Platforms at a Glance

Contributing Technology Trends

The number of transistors that

Sensor Fundamentals, Technologies and Platforms at a Glance

Sensor Fundamentals, Technologies and Platforms at a Glance

Sensor Fundamentals, Technologies and Platforms at a Glance

integration of mechanical elements, sensors, actuators, and electronics

Sensor Fundamentals, Technologies and Platforms at a Glance

Sensor Fundamentals, Technologies and Platforms at a Glance

Sensor Fundamentals, Technologies and Platforms at a Glance

Trends: Data Processing and

[Spektrum der Wissenschaft, 5/2007]

Trends: Data Processing and

Sensor Fundamentals, Technologies and Platforms at a Glance

[T. Strang, 2005]

Sensor Fundamentals, Technologies and Platforms at a Glance

How Does a Sensor Work?

The content of the following slides is to a large extent taken from:

Sensor Fundamentals, Technologies and Platforms at a Glance

From Analog to Digital (and

Sensor Fundamentals, Technologies and Platforms at a Glance

Sensor Fundamentals, Technologies and Platforms at a Glance

Sensing the Signal

They must be changed to an electrical quantity a voltage or a current in

Sensor Fundamentals, Technologies and Platforms at a Glance

Conditioning the Signal

Typical conditioning functions:

Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC): generates a digital code whose value is

Sensor Fundamentals, Technologies and Platforms at a Glance

Offset is sometimes temperature sensitive

Sensor Fundamentals, Technologies and Platforms at a Glance

Sensor Fundamentals, Technologies and Platforms at a Glance

Sensor Fundamentals, Technologies and Platforms at a Glance

Sensor Fundamentals, Technologies and Platforms at a Glance

Sensor Fundamentals, Technologies and Platforms at a Glance

Sensor Fundamentals, Technologies and Platforms at a Glance

Sensor Fundamentals, Technologies and Platforms at a Glance

dielectric constant can be changed

all capacitors have an impedance: X C

Sensor Fundamentals, Technologies and Platforms at a Glance

When and what to send:

Sensor Fundamentals, Technologies and Platforms at a Glance

it states that a spring will exhibit a restoring force F which is directly

Sensor Fundamentals, Technologies and Platforms at a Glance

the displacement is measured with capacitors

Sensor Fundamentals, Technologies and Platforms at a Glance

the capacitance between two plates is

when device is at rest, the spacing between

a shift in the mass position alters the distance

Sensor Fundamentals, Technologies and Platforms at a Glance

Sensor Fundamentals, Technologies and Platforms at a Glance

Sensor Fundamentals, Technologies and Platforms at a Glance

Sensor Fundamentals, Technologies and Platforms at a Glance

[S. Beeby: MEMS Mechanical Sensors, Artech House Inc., 2004]

Sensor Fundamentals, Technologies and Platforms at a Glance

Vout Voff S 1g sin

Sensor Fundamentals, Technologies and Platforms at a Glance

sin(1) = 0.017452 change of 17.45 mg/

Sensor Fundamentals, Technologies and Platforms at a Glance

Measuring tilt with a two axis solution: