Biographical Characteristics

Biographical Characteristics are personal characteristics such as age, gender, race and length
of tenure that are objective and easily obtained from personnel records.
In other ways biographical characteristics are personalities or characters that influence a person.
Biographical characteristics are important in predicting both employee performance and job
satisfaction.

Age
The relationship between age and job performance can be an issue during the next decade. Because it is
widespread that the job performance declines with the increase in age.
For example older workers are perceived to be lacking flexibility and being resistant to new technology.
But the positive qualities an older worker are experience, judgment, a strong work ethic, and commitment
to quality. They are no less productive than younger workers. They are also less likely to leave their
organization.
Gender
The question is whether women perform jobs as well as men do? There are, no consistent male-female
differences in problem ability, analytical skills, competitive drive, motivation, sociability, or learning ability.
Productivity: There are few important differences between men and women that will affect their job
performance.
Absence: The research on absence consistently indicates that women have higher rates of absenteeism
than men do.
Turnover: Research indicates that women quit rates are similar to those of men.
Race
Differences among employees related to race are particularly difficult to identify, as race is hard to define.
In employment settings, there is a tendency for individuals to favor colleagues of their own race in
performance evaluations, promotion decisions, and pay raises.
Tenure
Tenure is the length of time in a persons current employment. People with job tenure (seniority at a job)
are more productive, absent less frequently, have lower turnover, and are more satisfied.
Other biographical characteristics:

Religion: Religion is a touchy subject. Religion matter is especially problematic in the workplace

Sexual Orientation

Federal law does not protect against discrimination (but state or local laws may).

Domestic partner benefits are important considerations.

Gender Identity: Relatively new issue transgendered employees who change genders.
Learning

Any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience

Learning components:

Involves Change

Is Relatively Permanent

Is Acquired Through Experience

Theories of Learning

1. Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is a type of conditioning in which an individual responds to some stimulus that
would not ordinarily produce such a response.
Classical conditioning occurs when a conditioned stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
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Pavlovs Dog Drool

Classical conditioning grew out from an experiment on a dog done by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov in
the early 1900.
In his experiment-when Pavlov presented a piece of meat before the dog, the dog showed a noticeable
increase in salivation. When he held back the presentation of meat and merely rang a bell, the dog did
not salivate. Then Pavlov continuously linked the meat and the ringing of the bell. After repeatedly
hearing the bell before getting food, the dog began to salivate as soon as the bell rang.
After a while, the dog would salivate at the sound of the bell, even no food was offered.
In effect, the dog had learned to respond-that is, to salivate-to the bell

Key Concepts:
Unconditioned stimulus

Unconditioned stimulus is a naturally occurring phenomenon. In Pavlovs experiment the meat was an
unconditioned stimulus.

Unconditioned response

Unconditioned response is the naturally occurring response to a natural stimulus or unconditioned

stimulus. In Pavlovs experiment the noticeable increase in salivation in response to the smell of food is
unconditioned response.

Conditioned stimulus

Conditioned stimulus is an artificial stimulus introduced into the situation. In Pavlovs experiment the bell
was a conditioned stimulus.

Conditioned response

Conditioned response is the response to the artificial stimulus. In Pavlovs experiment dogs salivation in
ringing of the bell alone is the conditioned response

Classical conditioning is a passive form of learning.

It is reflexive and not voluntary
It is not the best theory for OB learning.

2. Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning argues that behavior is a function of its consequences. People learn to behave to
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get something they want

Or avoid something they dont want.

So Operant Conditioning is a type of conditioning in which learning occurs through rewards and
punishments for behavior.

Operant conditioning was a part of B. F. Skinners concept of Behaviorism which argues that
behavior follows stimuli in a relatively unthinking manner.
Some key concepts in operant conditioning:

Reinforcement:
Reinforcement is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of
reinforces:
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Positive reinforcement: This is the process of getting something pleasant as a result of a desired
behavior. Example: providing reward

Negative reinforcement: This is the process of terminating an unpleasant consequence when the desired
behavior occurs. Example: removal of fine
In both of these cases of reinforcement, the behavior increases.
Punishment
Punishment is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease in the behavior it
follows. There are two kinds of punishment:
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Positive punishment involves applying an unpleasant condition to eliminate an undesirable

behavior. Example: paying fine
Negative punishment, also known as punishment by removal, occurs when a favorable event or
outcome is removed after a behavior occurs. Example cutting salary

In both of these cases of punishment, the behavior decreases.

3. Social-Learning Theory

Social-Learning Theory is based on the idea that people can learn indirectly by observation,
reading, or just hearing about someone elses a models experiences.
Key Concepts:

Attentional processes

Attention means the extent to which we notice the behavior. People learn from a model only when they
recognize and pay attention to critical features to learn. Individuals are influenced by models that are
attractive, repeatedly available, important to us, or similar to us in our estimation.

Retention processes

Retention means how well the behavior is remembered. The behavior may be noticed, but is it not always
remembered which obviously prevents imitation (copy). A models influence depends on how well the
individual remembers the models action after the model is no longer reach available.

Motor reproduction processes

Reproduction is the ability to perform the behavior that is observed and retained. After a person has seen
a new behavior by observing the model, the watching must be converted to doing. This process then
states that the individual can perform the models activities.

Reinforcement processes

Individuals are motivated to show the modeled behavior if positive incentives or rewards are provided.
Behavior that are positively reinforced are given more attention, learned better, and performed more
often.
Shaping Behavior
When a systematic attempt is made to change individuals behavior by directing their learning in graduated
steps, it is called shaping behavior.
Methods of shaping behavior:
There are four methods of Shaping Behavior. They are as follows:
1. Positive reinforcement
This is the process of getting something pleasant as a result of a desired behavior, to strengthen the
same behavior. People engage in behaviors in order to get positive reinforces.
For example, Bonuses paid at the end of a successful business year, Employees will work hard for a
raise or a promotion are examples of positive reinforcement.
2.

Negative reinforcement

This is the process of terminating an unpleasant consequence

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When the desired behavior occurs or

In order to strengthen or increase the probability of a response.

People also engage in behaviors to avoid or escape unpleasant conditions.

For example, scholarship is withdrawn from the student who has not done well on the examination.
3. Punishment
Punishment means applying an unpleasant condition to eliminate an undesirable behavior. This is the
process of getting a punishment as a consequence of a behavior.
For example, employees have to pay fine for coming late to office.
4. Extinction

This is the process of eliminating any reinforcement (either positive or negative) that is maintaining a
behavior. It is equivalent to ignoring the behavior. When the behavior is not reinforced then it becomes
end.
College instructor who wish to discourage students from asking questions in class can eliminate this
behavior by ignoring those students who raise hands to ask questions. Hand raising will become extinct.
Schedule of Reinforcement
The two major types of reinforcement schedules are:
1. Continuous reinforcement
Continuous reinforcement means reinforcing a desired behavior each and every time it is demonstrated.
Nature: Reward given after each desired behavior.
Effect on behavior: Fast learning of new behavior but rapid extinction.
Example: compliments
2. Intermittent reinforcement:
Intermittent reinforcement means reinforcing a desired behavior often enough to make the behavior worth
repeating but not every time it is demonstrated.
Intermittent reinforcement can be following types-

Ratio: Depends on the number of responses made.

Interval: Depends on the time between reinforcements.
Fixed: Rewards are given at uniform time intervals or after a set number of responses.
Variable: Rewards that are unpredictable or that vary relative to the behavior.
Reinforcement
schedule
Fixed-interval

Variable-interval

Fixed-ratio

Variable-ratio

Definition

Effect on behavior

Rewards are given at

uniform time intervals

Average and regular

performance with rapid
extinction
Moderately high and
stable performance
with slow extinction

Weekly
paychecks

High and stable

performance attained
quickly but also with
rapid extinction
Very high performance
with slow extinction.

Piece rate pay

Rewards that are

unpredictable or given
at variable time
intervals
Rewards are given
after a fixed number
of responses.
Rewards that vary
relative to the
behavior of the
individual.

Example

Pop quizzes

Commissioned
sales

Behavior Modification
Behavior modification refers to the techniques used to try and decrease or increase a particular type of
behavior or reaction.
Follows the Five-Step Problem-Solving Model:
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Identify critical behaviors:

The first step in the OB Mod is identification of performance related behaviors. First of all the behavior
should be identified as desirable or undesirable from the point of view of the organization. Then the
critical behaviors that have significant impact on the employees performance should be identified.
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Develop baseline data:

The second step requires the manager to develop some baseline performance data by determining the
frequency of the critical behavior over time

Identify behavioral consequences:

At third step, the managers will have to do a functional analysis of the behavior that requires modification.
This analysis will determine what circumstances lead to a particular type of behavior, what are the
consequences of such behavior etc.
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Develop and apply intervention:

Once the functional analysis is complete, the manager is ready to develop and implement and
intervention strategy (positive or negative reinforcement, extinction or punishment) to strength desirable
behaviors and weakens undesirable behaviors.
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Evaluate performance improvement:

The last step in OB Mod is the evaluation whether the intervention strategies are working properly or not.
The basic purpose of OB Mod is to bring change in undesirable behaviors so as to improve performance.
Problem with OB mod:

OB Mod ignores thoughts and feelings.

OB Mod may not explain complex behaviors that involve thinking and feeling.

Stimuli may not be consciously given as a means of shaping behavior.

Modern managers and OB theorists are using cognitive approaches to shaping behavior