Internal Forced Convection

Pipe circular cross section.

Duct noncircular cross section.
Tubes small-diameter pipes.
The fluid velocity changes from zero at the surface
(no-slip) to a maximum at the pipe center.
It is convenient to work with an
average velocity, which remains
constant in incompressible flow
when the cross-sectional area
is constant.

Average Velocity

The value of the average velocity is determined from

the conservation of mass principle

m Vavg AC

u r dAC

(1)

Ac

For incompressible flow in a circular pipe of radius R

u r dA

Vavg

Ac

AC

u r 2 rdr
R 2

2
2 u r rdr
R 0
(2)

Average Temperature

It is convenient to define the value of the mean

temperature Tm from the conservation of energy
principle.
The energy transported by the fluid through a
cross section in actual flow must be equal to the
energy that would be transported through the
same cross section if the fluid were at a constant
temperature Tm
pTm c pT r m
E fluid mc
m

c T r u r VdA
p

Ac

(3)

 For incompressible flow in a circular pipe of radius R

c T r u r 2 rdr

c pT r m

Tm

p
mc

Ac

Vavg R 2 c p
R

(4)

T r u r rdr
2
Vavg R 0
The mean temperature Tm of a fluid changes during
heating or cooling.

Idealized

Actual

Laminar and Turbulent Flow in Tubes

For flow in a circular tube, the Reynolds number is

defined as
Vavg D Vavg D
(5)
Re

For flow through noncircular tubes D is replaced by

the hydraulic diameter Dh.
4 Ac
Dh
(6)
P
laminar flow: Re<2300
fully turbulent: Re>10,000.

The Entrance Region

Consider a fluid entering a circular pipe at a uniform

velocity.
Because of the no-slip condition a velocity gradient
develops along the pipe.
The flow in a pipe is divided into two regions:
the boundary layer region, and
the and the irrotational (core) flow region.

The thickness of this

boundary layer
increases in the flow
direction until it
reaches the pipe
center.

Irrotational Boundary
layer
flow

 Hydrodynamic entrance region the region from

the pipe inlet to the point at which the boundary layer
merges at the centerline.
Hydrodynamically fully developed region the
region beyond the entrance region in which the
velocity profile is fully developed and remains
unchanged.
The velocity profile in the fully developed region is
parabolic in laminar flow, and
somewhat flatter or fuller in turbulent flow.

Thermal Entrance Region

Consider a fluid at a uniform temperature entering a circular
tube whose surface is maintained at a different temperature.
Thermal boundary layer along the tube is developing.
The thickness of this boundary layer increases in the flow
direction until the boundary layer reaches the tube center.
Thermal entrance region.
Thermally fully developed region the region beyond the
thermal entrance region in which the dimensionless
temperature profile
expressed as
(Ts-T)/(Ts-Tm)
remains unchanged.

 Hydrodynamically fully developed:

u r , x

0 u u r

x
Thermally fully developed:

Ts x T r , x

0
x Ts x Tm x

(7)

(8)

T r r R
Ts T

f x ((9)

r Ts Tm r R
Ts Tm

 Surface heat flux can be expressed as

k T r r R
T
qs hx Ts Tm k
hx
10)
r r=R
Ts Tm
For thermally fully developed region From (Eq. (8-9))

r r R

Ts Tm

f x

hx f x

Fully developed flow

hx constant Fully developed flow

The Heat Transfer coefficient and Friction factor

Developing
region

Fully
developed
region

Entry Lengths

Laminar flow
Hydrodynamic

Lh ,laminar 0.05 Re D

(11)

Thermal

Lt ,laminar 0.05 Re Pr D Pr Lh ,laminar

(12)

Turbulent flow
Hydrodynamic
Lh ,turbulent 1.359 D Re1 4

(13)

Thermal (approximate)
Lh ,turbulent Lt ,turbulent 10 D

(14)

Turbulent flow Nusselt Number

The Nusselt numbers are much

higher in the entrance region.
The Nusselt number reaches
a constant value at a distance
of less than 10 diameters.
The Nusselt numbers for the
uniform surface temperature and uniform surface heat
flux conditions are identical in the fully developed
regions, and nearly identical in the entrance regions.
Nusselt number is insensitive to the type of
thermal boundary condition.

General Thermal Analysis

In the absence of any work interactions, the conservation

of energy equation for the steady flow of a fluid in a tube

p Te Ti
Q mc

(W)

(15)

The thermal conditions at the surface can usually be

approximated as:
constant surface temperature, or
constant surface heat flux.

The mean fluid temperature Tm must

change during heating or cooling.
Either Ts= constant or qs = constant at the surface of a
tube, but not both.

Constant Surface Heat Flux

In the case of constant heat flux, the rate of heat transfer can
also be expressed as
(17)
p Te Ti (W)
Q qs As mc
Then the mean fluid temperature at the tube exit becomes
qs As
(18)
Te Ti
p
mc
The surface temperature in the case of constant surface heat
flux can be determined from
qs
(19)
qs h Ts Tm Ts Tm
h

 In the fully developed region, the

surface temperature Ts will also
increase linearly in the flow direction
Applying the steady-flow energy
balance to a tube slice of thickness
dx, the slope of the mean fluid
temperature Tm can be determined

dTm qs p
p dTm qs pdx
mc

constant (20)
p
dx mc
Noting that both the heat flux and h
(for fully developed flow) are
constants
dTm dTs
(21)

dx
dx

 In the fully developed region (Ts-Tm=constant)

Ts T

x Ts Tm

1 Ts T
T dTs

Ts Tm x x
x dx

(22)

Combining Eqs. 20, 21, and 22 gives

T dTs dTm qs p

constant
p
x dx
dx mc

(23)

For a circular tube

2qs
T dTs dTm

constant (24)
x dx
dx
Vavg c p R

Constant Surface Temperature

The energy balance on a differential control volume

p dTm h Ts Tm dAs
Q mc

(27)

Since the mean temperature of the fluid Tm increases in

the flow direction the heat flux decays with x.
The surface temperature is constant (dTm=-d(Ts-Tm)) and
dAs=pdx, therefore,

d Ts Tm
Ts Tm

hp

dx
p
mc

(28)

 Integrating Eq. 28 from x=0 (tube inlet where

Tm=Ti) to x=L (tube exit where Tm=Te) gives
Ts Te
hAs
ln

p
Ts Ti
mc

(29)

Taking the exponential of both sides and solving

for Te
or

p
Te Ts Ts Ti exp hpL mc
p
Tm x Ts Ts Ti exp hpx mc

(30)

 The temperature difference between the fluid and the

surface decays exponentially in the flow direction, and the
rate of decay depends on the magnitude of the exponent
p
hAs mc
This dimensionless parameter is
called the number of transfer
units (NTU).
Large NTU value increasing tube
length marginally increases heat
transfer rate.
Small NTU value heat transfer increases
significantly with increasing tube length.

 Solving Eq. 29 for mcp gives

hAs
p
mc
ln Ts Te Ts Ti

(31)

Substituting this into Eq. 815

p hAs Tln
Q mc

(32)

Ti Te
Te Ti
Tln

ln Ts Te Ts Ti ln Te Ti

(33)

where

DTln is the logarithmic mean temperature

difference.

Laminar Flow in Tubes

Assumptions:
steady laminar flow,
incompressible fluid,
constant properties,
fully developed region,
and
straight circular tube.

The velocity profile u(r)

remains unchanged in
the flow direction.
no motion in the radial
direction.
no acceleration.

 Consider a ring-shaped
differential volume element.
A force balance on the volume
element in the flow direction
gives

2 rdrP x 2 rdrP x dx
2 rdr r 2 rdr r dr 0
(34)

Dividing by 2drdx and rearranging

Px dx Px r r dr r r
r

0
dx
dr

(35)

 Taking the limit as dr, dx 0 gives

dP d r
r

0
dx
dr

(36)

Substituting =(du/dr) gives

d du dP
r
r dr dr dx

(37)

Rearranging and integrating it twice to give

1 dP
u r

C1 ln r C2
4 dx

(38)

Boundary Conditions:
symmetry about the centerline u/r=0 at r=0,
no-slip condition u=0 at r=R.

 Eq. 38 with the boundary conditions

R 2 dP
r2
(39)
u r

1 2
4 dx R
Substituting Eq. 39 into Eq. 2, and performing the
integration gives the average velocity
R
R
2
2 R 2 dP
r2
Vavg 2 u r rdr 2

1 2 rdr
R 0
R 0 4 dx R

R 2 dP
(40)

8 dx
Combining the last two equations, the velocity profile is
rewritten as

r2
u r 2Vavg 1 2 ; umax 2Vavg (41)
R

Pressure Drop

One implication from Eq. 37 is that the pressure

drop gradient (dP/dx) must be constant (the left
side is a function only of r, and the right side is a
function only of x).
Integrating from x=x1 where the pressure is P1 to
x=x1=L where the pressure is P2 gives
dP P2 P1

dx
L

(43)

Substituting Eq. 43 into the Vavg expression in

Eq.40
P P1 P2

8 LVavg
R

32 LVavg
D

(44)

 A pressure drop due to viscous effects represents an

irreversible pressure loss.
It is convenient to express the pressure loss for all types
of fully developed internal flows in terms of the
dynamic pressure and the friction factor
dynamic pressure

friction
2
factor L
Vavg
(45)
PL
f

D
2
Setting Eqs. 44 and 45 equal to each other and solving
for f gives
Circular tube, laminar:

64
64
f

(46)
DVavg Re

Temperature Profile and the Nusselt Number

Energy is transferred by mass in the

x-direction, and by conduction in the
r-direction.
The steady flow energy balance for a
cylindrical shell element can be
pTx mc
pTx dx Q r Q r dr 0
expressed as mc
Substituting
m uAc u 2 rdr
and dividing by 2rdrdx gives, after rearranging
Tx dx Tx
1 Q r dr Q r
c pu

dx
2 rdx
dr

(49)

(50)

 Or

T
1
Q
u

x
2 c p rdx r

Q
T
Since
k 2 rdx
r r
r

(51)

2 kdx r

(52)

Eq 51 becomes
T T
u

x r dr r

cp

(53)

Constant Surface Heat Flux

Substituting Eqs. 24 and 41 into Eq. 53

r2
u r 2Vavg 1 2
R

2qs
T

constant
x Vavg c p R

(41)

(24)

T T
u

x r dr r

4qs
kR

(53)

r 2 1 d dT (55)
1 2
r

R r dr dr

 Separating the variables and integrating twice

qs 2 r 4
T
r 2 C1r C2
kR
4R

(56)

Boundary conditions
Symmetry at r=0:
At r=R:

T r 0
r

T(r=R)=Ts

qs R 3 r 2
r4
T Ts
2 4
k 4 R
4R

C1=0
C2

(57)

 The bulk mean temperature Tm is determined by ubstituting

the velocity and temperature profile relations (Eqs. 41 and
57) into Eq. 4 and performing the integration
(58)

11 qs R
Tm Ts
24 k

qs h Ts Tm

24 k 48 k
k
h

4.36
11 R 11 D
D

(59)

Constant heat flux (circular tube, laminar)

hD
Nu
4.36
k

(60)

Constant Surface temperature (circular tube, laminar)

hD
Nu
3.66
k

(61)

Laminar Flow in Noncircular Tubes

The friction factor (f)

and the Nusselt number
relations are given in
Table 81 for fully
developed laminar flow
in tubes of various cross
sections.

Developing Laminar Flow in the Entrance Region

For a circular tube of length L subjected to constant

surface temperature, the average Nusselt number for
the thermal entrance region (hydrodynamically
developed flow)
0.065 D L Re Pr
(62)
Nu 3.66
23
1 0.04 D L Re Pr
For flow between isothermal parallel plates

Nu 7.54

0.03 Dh L Re Pr
1 0.016 Dh L Re Pr

(64)
23

Turbulent flow in Tubes

Most correlations for the friction and heat transfer

coefficients in turbulent flow are based on experimental
studies.
For smooth tubes, the friction factor in turbulent flow can
be determined from the explicit first Petukhov equation

f 0.79 ln Re 1.64

3000<Re<5 106 (65)

For fully developed turbulent flow the Nusselt number

(DittusBoelter equation)
n 0.4 heating
0.8
n Re 10, 000
Nu 0.023Re Pr

0.7 Pr 160 n 0.3 cooling

(68)

 Modified correlations are available for/due to :

liquid metals (Pr<<1),
large variation in fluid properties due to a large
temperature difference,
surface roughness,
flow through tube annulus.

Original correlations are also approximately

valid for:
developing Turbulent Flow in the Entrance
Region,
turbulent Flow in Noncircular Tubes.

Problem: Steam is condensed (0.15 kg/s) by cooling water flowing inside copper
tubes. The average heat transfer coefficient and the number of tubes needed are to be
determined.

Problem: Air enters in a rectangular duct as shown. The exit temperature of the air,
the rate of heat transfer, and the fan power are to be determined.