BETRAYAL, NEGLECT AND EXISTENTIAL STRUGGLE:

A REVIEW OF DEATH OF A SALESMAN

BY

AKINYEMI OLUWATOMIWO IYANU

Matric no, 070101061

BEING

LONG

ESSAY

SUBMITTED

TO

THE

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH STUDIES, ADEKUNLE AJASIN

UNIVERSITY, AKUNGBA AKOKO. IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT
OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF BACHELOR OF
ARTS (B.A.) DEGREE IN ENGLISH STUDIES.

DECEMBER, 2012.

DEDICATION
This long essay is dedicated to the Almighty God for enabling me to
carry out this research. I owe you all for how you have graciously kept
and protected me since the day you sent me to this earth. All glory,
honour and adoration are due to you alone.

CERTIFICATION
I hereby certify that this project work was carried out by Akinyemi
Oluwatomiwo Iyanu, Matriculation Number 070101061, of the
Department of English Studies, Adekunle Ajasin University, AkungbaAkoko, Ondo State, Nigeria.

_________________________

___

Dr (Mrs.) O.O Oloruntoba Oju

SUPERVISOR

_________________________

___

Dr (Mrs.) O.O Oloruntoba Oju

HEAD OF DEPARTMENT

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I want to acknowledge the Almighty God for seeing me through this
Programme successfully; to you only all honour is due.
My wonderful parents, Mr.G.k Akinyemi and Mrs. Temiloluwa
Akinyemi, I will like to appreciate you for the priceless contributions
that you have made to my life since the day I had my first breath, I
pray that the Almighty God will reward you richly.
My siblings, Tolu, Toni, Tosin and Tokesi, are also appreciated from
the bottom of my heart for their immeasurable contributions and
sacrifices. I could not have wished for better siblings.
Deep appreciation also goes to other members of my family who have
influenced me positively one way or the other especially my UnclesGboyega Akerele,Pastor Gbenga Akerele, Tunji Ashaolu; my Aunts,
Mrs. Remi Balogun fondly called mummy New York; for the
impartation of knowledge while growing up. I pray that God will
remember you for good in Jesus Name Amen.
My late grandfather, Chief S.A. Akerele, and grandmother Mrs. C.A.
Akerele, are also appreciated for the impact they had on my life while
growing up. I am happy I learnt a lot before you moved on to a better
place.
I will also like to appreciate my supervisor, Dr (Mrs.) Oloruntoba-Oju
for her guidance and patience towards the successful completion of this
work.
My appreciation also goes to Mr. Ayoola for instilling the confidence in
me to succeed;. Your labour of sacrifice is not forgotten. and My
friends; Fatuki Toluwani, Osifo Akioya, Adeniyi Oluwafemi, Ojeaga
3

Evans, Aghedo Charles, Adetuyi Adetayo, Omolola Omolere and all

others who have contributed to my life one way or another, I say a big
thank you from the bottom of my heart.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title
Pages

Certification
Dedication
Acknowledgements
Table of contents
iv
1 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1-4
1.1. Background to the Study
1
1.2. Aims and Objectives
1
1.3. The Significance of the Study
1
1.4. Research Methodology
2
1.5. Brief Biography of the Author of Death of a Salesman
2

2 CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

5-24 2.1. Introduction
5
2.2. What is Tragedy?
8
2.2.1. The Aristotelian Concept of Tragedy
8
2.2.2. The Concept of Arthur Millers Tragedy
9
2.3. What is Existentialism?
10
2.3.1. Suicide
17
2.3.2. Acceptance of the Absurd
17
2.4.The Relationship between Existentialism and Human Existence
18
CHAPTER THREE: TEXTUAL ANALYSIS OF DEATH OF A
SALESMAN 25-43 3.1. Introduction
25
3.2. Summary of the Play
25
3.3. The Issue of Struggle
26
3.4. The Issue of Neglect
30

3.4.1. Neglect by the Country

30
3.4.2. Neglect by the Family
31
3.5. The Issue of Betrayal
32
3.6. The Existential Issue
393.7. The Major Techniques in Death of a Salesman
40
3.7.1. Symbolism and Imagery
41
3.7.2. The Society
41
3.7.3.Absurdity of life
42
3.7.4. Death as a Means of Redemption
42 3.7.5.The Conflicts in the play
42
3.7.5.1. External Conflicts
42
3.7.5.2. Internal Conflicts
42

3.8. Tragic Elements

43

CHAPTER FOUR: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

44-45

4.1. Summary
44
4.2.Conclusion
45
WORKS CITED
46-4 Primary Source
46
Secondary Sources
46
Web Sources
47

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1

Background to the Study

In Death of a Salesman, we are presented with issues of social context, a situation of

betrayal between father and sons, America, self-deceit and self-righteousness etc.
The basis for the dramatic conflict in Death of a Salesman lies in Arthur Millers
strained relationship with his uncle Manny Newman who is also a Salesman. Newman
imagined a continuous competition between his son and Miller. Newman refused to accept
failure and demanded the appearance of utmost confidence in his household.
In his youth, Miller had written a short story about an unsuccessful Salesman. His
relationship with Manny revived his interest in the abandoned manuscripts. He transformed
the story into one of the most successful drama in the history of American stage. In
7

expressing the emotions that Manny Newman inspired through the fictional character of
Willy Loman, Miller managed to touch deep chords within the national psyche.

1.2

Aims and Objectives

It is of major importance to note that before a work is written, it must have a message

it intends to pass across. Therefore, the major aims and objectives of this essay are to explore
the various issues of betrayal, neglect and existential struggle and attempt to relate it to
everyday human existence. Its major background will be woven around these themes as
contained in the text of Arthur Millers Death of a Salesman; and also to relate these themes
to the present day American and some selected continents around the Globe.

1.3 Significance of the Study

The significance of this study cannot be underestimated; this is due to the fact that
humans face various issues that serve as threat to their existence such as struggles,
frustration, abandonment, betrayal, etc. and it is these threats that fully define our existence.
The purpose of this study is to expose these issues that threaten our existence and to proffer a
solution to those issues so that they can be taken care of in order to grant us opportunities to
become a better person in the society.

1.4

Research Methodology
This research work will explore various literary theories. These theories include

existentialist school of thought, the Marxist school of thought and so on.

These various research methods to be carried out will be extremely important to the
issues of betrayal, neglect and existential struggle to be considered in this long essay. Also in
order to collect the needed data from Death of a Salesman, the content analysis method will
be adopted.

1.5

The Brief Biography of the Author of Death of a Salesman

Arthur Asher Miller was born on October 17, 1915, in Harlem, New York, the second

of three children of Isidore and Augusta Miller, Polish-Jewish immigrants. His father owned
8

a women's clothing manufacturing business employing some 400 people. He became a

wealthy and respected man in the community. (BBC TV Interview; Miller and Yentob;
'Finishing the Picture,' 2004)
The family, including his younger sister Joan, lived on East 110th Street in Manhattan
and owned a summer house in Far Rockaway, Queens.
In the Wall Street Crash of 1929, the family lost almost everything and moved to
Gravesend, Brooklyn. As a teenager, Miller delivered bread every morning before school to
help the family.
After graduating in 1932 from Abraham Lincoln High School, he worked at several
menial jobs to pay for his college tuition.
At the University of Michigan, Miller first majored in journalism and worked as a
reporter and night editor for the student paper, the Michigan Daily. It was during this time
that he wrote his first play, No Villain. Miller switched his major to English, and
subsequently won the Avery Hopwood Award for No Villain. The award brought him his
first recognition and led him to begin to consider that he could have a career as a playwright.
Miller enrolled in a playwriting seminar taught by the influential Professor Kenneth Rowe,
who instructed him in his early forays into playwriting; Rowe emphasized how a play is built
in order to achieve its intended effect, or what Miller called "the dynamics of play
construction". Rowe provided realistic feedback along with much-needed encouragement,
and became a lifelong friend. Miller retained strong ties to his alma mater throughout the rest
of his life, establishing the University's Arthur Miller Award in 1985 and Arthur Miller
Award for Dramatic Writing in 1999, and lending his name to the Arthur Miller Theatre in
2000.
In 1937, Miller wrote Honors at Dawn, which also received the Avery Hopwood
Award.
In 1938, Miller received a bachelor of arts in English. After graduation, he joined the
Federal Theater Project, a new deal agency established to provide jobs in the theater. He
chose the theater project although he had an offer to work as a scriptwriter for 20th century
fox. However, Congress was worried about possible Communist infiltration and closed the
project
In 1939, Miller began working in the Brooklyn Navy Yard while continuing to write
radio plays, some of which were broadcast on Colombian broadcasting service (C.B.S.).
On August 5, 1940, he married his college sweetheart, Mary Slattery, the Catholic
daughter of an insurance Salesman. The couple had two children, Jane and Robert.
9

In 1940, Miller wrote The Man who had All the luck which was produced in New
Jersey and won the Theatre Guild's National Award. The play closed after four performances
and disastrous reviews.
In 1946, Miller's play All My Sons, the writing which started in 1941, was a huge
success on Broadway (earning him his first Tony Award, for Best Author) and his reputation
as a playwright was established.
In 1948, Miller constructed a small studio in Roxbury, Connecticut.in less than a day,
he wrote the first act of Death of a Salesman. in six weeks, he completed the rest of the play.
On February 10, 1949 Death of a Salesman premiered on Broadway at the Morosco
Theatre, The play was commercially successful and critically acclaimed, winning a Tony
Award for Best Author, the New York Drama Circle Critics' Award, and the Pulitzer Prize
for Drama. It was the first play to win all three of these major awards. The play was
performed 742 times.
In June 1956, Miller left his first wife Mary Slattery married Marilyn Monroe. Miller
and Monroe had met in April 23, 1951, when they had a brief affair, and had remained in
contact since then.
In 1962, Monroe died of a possible drug overdose. In the same year, Miller married
photographer Inge Morath and the first of their two children, Rebecca, was born that
September.
In November 1966, his second son Daniel was born with down syndrome which led to
him being institutionalized and excluded from the Millers' personal life at Arthur's insistence.
The couple remained together until Inge's death in 2002. Arthur Miller's son-in-law, actor
Daniel Day-Lewis, is said to have visited Daniel frequently, and to have persuaded Arthur
Miller to reunite with his adult son.
In 1993, he was awarded the National Medal of Arts.
In 1999 Miller was awarded The Dorothy and Lillian Gish Prize, one of the richest
prizes in the arts, given annually to a man or woman who has made an outstanding
contribution to the beauty of the world and to mankinds enjoyment and understanding of life
In 2001 the National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH) selected Miller for the
Jefferson Lecture, the U.S. federal government's highest honor for achievement in the
humanities.
On May 1, 2002, Miller was awarded Spain's Principe de Asturias Prize for Literature as
"the undisputed master of modern drama". Later that year, Ingeborg Morath died of
lymphatic cancer at the age of 78. The following year Miller won the Jerusalem Prize.

10

In December 2004, Miller announced that he had been in love with 34-year-old
minimalist painter Agnes Barley and had been living with her at his Connecticut farm since
2002, and that they intended to marry. Hours after Miller's death, Rebecca Miller ordered
Barley to vacate the premises, having consistently opposed the relationship.

Arthur Miller died of heart failure in his Connecticut home on the 10th of February, 2005
Aged 89. His memorial service held at Roxbury New York.
Millers career as a writer spanned over seven(7) decades with some of his works
namely: No Villain (1936) They Too Arise (1937, based on No Villain), Honors at Dawn
(1938, based on They Too Arise),The Grass Still Grows (1938, based on They Too Arise),
The Great Disobedience (1938), The Man Who Had All the Luck (1940), The Half-Bridge
(1943), Death of a Salesman (1949), An Enemy of the People (1950, based on Henrik Ibsen's
play An Enemy of the People), The Crucible (1953), A View from the Bridge (1955),
After the fall (1964), The Price (1968) etc.

CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Introduction
To review a literature simply means to constructively study what scholars have said about
issues that are peculiar to a discourse. For the purpose of this literature review, I shall be
explaining the concept and idea of existentialism and its relevance to our existence. There is
no gainsaying the fact that a work of art can be seen as an American Literature as long as it is
produced in the United States and its preceding colonies. An American Literature is one that
examines the American people; and the economic, political events that go on in the country.
In the 20th century, the American novelists were expanding fictions and social spectrum to
encompass both high and low life; and this is connected to the naturalist school of realism.
Writers of this period wrote about the raging issues of their time.
The 20th century was the period of the great depression as a result of the Wall Street crash. It
was a very difficult era in the American history as a result of the economic sag. This saw
writers of this period writing about this very issue.
11

In one of her best book entitled The Age of Innocence, Edith Wharton (1862-1939)
scrutinized the upper class eastern sea land society where she grew up. The book centers on a
man who chose to marry a conventionally and socially accepted woman rather than a
fascinating outsider.
Scott F. Fitzgerald, Toni Morrison, Mark Twain, Willa Cather, Henry Miller all explored
similar issues in their works which seems synonymous with class struggle; an issue that
seemed to characterize that era. The Literature of this period was extremely blunt in social
criticism because it bore the mark of the depression. The works of this period focuses mainly
on the struggles of the upper class and the poor masses; also the struggle to make a decent
and honest living for themselves. Take for instance; John Steinbecks work entitled The
Grape of Wrath which is mainly concerned on the struggle for a decent life. This work talks
about the Story of the Joads, a poor family from Oklahoma; and their journey to California in
search of a better life. A valid inference could be deduced that the depression era literature
deals with the struggle to attain the American dream of success, popularity and ultimately,
prosperity.
The dream is a national ethos of the United States of America in which freedom
includes a promise of the possibility of popularity and success.
In the definition of the American dream by James Truslow Adams (1931) in his book
entitled The Epic of America. He posited that:
but there has been also the American dream; the dream of a land in which life should be
better and richer and fuller for every man with opportunity for each according to his ability
or achievement. It is a difficult dream for the European upper classes to interpret adequate
It is not a dream of motor cars or high wages merely; but a dream of social order in which
each man and each woman shall be able to attain to the fullest stature of which they are
innately capable, and be recognized by others for what they are; regardless of the fortuitous
circumstances of birth or position
The idea of this dream is also entrenched in the Declaration of Independence that was
adopted by the Congress on July 4, 1776.
According to Thomas Jefferson, he proclaims that:
We hold this truth to be self-evident that all men are created equal and they are endowed by
their Creator with certain inalienable rights including life, liberty and the pursuit of
happiness (.line 2)
This sentence, has according to scholars, been called one of the best sentences in English
Language, and the most potent and consequential words in American history. This passage is
not just an ordinary passage as it has been used to promote the rights of marginalized people
throughout the world; and came to represent a moral standard for which the United States
should strive for.
The pursuit of this dream or happiness has been the concern of writers of
American Literature such as Mark Twains The Adventure of Huckleberry Finn (1884).Scott
Fitzgeralds The Great Gatsby (1925); Toni Morrisons Song of Solomon (1977).
For the purpose of this work, the pursuit of this dream is the central focus of the play to be
considered. This play symbolizes the myth behind the American dream which is viewed as a
fruitless pursuit. This is because since America is a capitalist society where we are presented
12

with the situation whereby the rich (bourgeois) gets richer; and the poor (proletariat) gets
poorer.
In the considered play, Arthur Miller is presenting an idea that is different from the ethos
that has been laid down. In Death of a Salesman, the idea of equality is thrown into the bush
as it is an undeniable fact that in every given society, everyone has to struggle to attain
success. Thus America is seen to be preaching a false idea of equality to the citizenry; more
so with reference to the second line of the Declaration of Independence, which talks about
equality and the chance to pursue happiness. This connotes that:
Though all are called to attempt the pursuit of happiness, not everyone will necessarily attain
it. In a literal sense, you dont meet everything you pursue; therefore everyone cannot attain
happiness. This is therefore viewed as a blind faith in the American milieu of the American
dream; as pursuit of this dream can be termed a rat-race which realistically everyone
cannot attain.
2.2 What is Tragedy?
A tragedy occurs when the central character of a work of art dies as a result of various
circumstances, seen or unforeseen.
We have different forms of tragedy which are: the old tragedy (Aristotelian); the middle
tragedy (Shakespearian); and the modern tragedy (Arthur Millers).
Aristotle defines tragedy as:
an imitation of an action of high importance, complete and of some amplitude; in language
enhanced by distinct and varying beauties; acted not narrated; by means of pity and fear
effectuating its purgation of these emotions.

2.2.1. The Aristotelian Concept of Tragedy

In the Aristotelian concept of tragedy, we are presented with a situation where the fall of the
tragic hero is foreseen already; the fall is believed to be caused by supernatural forces,
therefore there is nothing that the tragic hero can do to alter his destiny. The tragic heros
downfall is fuelled by the inherent weakness in him.
Taking into account Sophocles Oedipus the King(429b.c); and Ola Rotimis The Gods are
not to Blame(1971), both tragic heroes downfall had been foretold by an oracle; and there
was nothing they could possibly do to change their respective fates.
Furthermore Aristotle stated that a tragic hero must be of royal blood; and that
tragedy is presented in a pitiful and terrible way. In this kind of tragedy, there is always a
reversal of fortune from good to bad. This is known as Peripeteia. The downfall of the
tragic hero in Aristotelian concept of tragedy must lead to what is called catharsis or
purgation of emotions.
2.2.2. Arthur Millers Concept of Tragedy
The modern form of tragedy came into existence with huge difference from the
Aristotelian concept. This is because in the modern form of tragedy, the tragic heros
downfall is not caused by supernatural forces but by mans own actions or freewill. Millers
tragedy argues that tragedy is not restricted to Kings and Queens; Miller believes that
Tragedy should also apply to everyone in similar emotional situations. This he expressed in
his work entitled Tragedy and the Common Man.
13

In this Essay published in the New York Times on February 27th 1949, in
the fourth paragraph, Miller States that:
as a general rule, to which there may be exceptions unknown to me, I
think the tragic hero is evoked in us when we are in the presence of a character who is ready
to lay down his life if need be, to secure one thing- his sense of personal dignity. From
Orestes to Hamlet, Medea to Macbeth, the underlying struggle is that of the individual
attempting to gain his rightful position in the society.
From this statement, a tragic heroes attempt to gain his rightful place in the society as a result
of his displacement exposes what is called a tragic flaw in the character.
The flaw in the tragic hero, leads him gradually to his downfall without his awareness of the
destructive effect of the flaw. In this form of tragedy, the tragic heroes destruction is caused
by his own actions and freewill.
.
In Arthur Millers concept of tragedy, the basic thematic thrusts include issues of
fatherly guilt, betrayal, neglect etc. It is therefore of major importance to note that the past
exerts an inescapable influence on the present. Embattled fathers and sons; and competitive
brothers being all guilt ridden must atone for their betrayal.
Like Joe Keller in All My Sons, Willy Loman, the most famous guilty father in Death
of a Salesman also commits suicide thereby completing the disfiguring role he has
bequeathed or handed over to his sons.
Millers plays are often characterized with the unfolding of individual guilt; these are
evident in his later works which include Incident at Vichy (1964); The Price (1968) etc.
2.3 What is Existentialism?
Existentialism can be explained as a term applied to a school of 19th century and 20th
century philosophers. Despite their several doctrinal differences, they have been able to share
the belief that philosophical thinking begins with the human subject; not only the thinking
subject, but the living, acting, feeling individual.
In existentialism, the starting point of an individual begins with what we call existential
attitude; or a sense of disorientation and confusion in the face of an apparently meaningless
or absurd world.
The early 19th century philosopher, Soren Kierkegaard, who is widely regarded as the father
of existentialism, maintained that the individual is solely responsible for giving his or her
own life meaning; and this in spite of many existential obstacles and distractions including
despair, angst, absurdity, alienation, and boredom.
Taking into account Jean Paul Sartres No exit which was written towards the climax of the
Second World War (1939-1945), he ironically allegorizes the existentialist philosophy in his
one act play. Portraying the society as hell, he reiterates the effects the iconic war had on the
faithless era; which made Jean Paul Sartre an example of excellence in the existentialist
school of thought.
Brian Willkie and James Hurt writes in Literature of the Western World volume II, For
many of his contemporaries, even those who knew his work only secondhand, existentialism
was the only persuasive faith in a frightening age notably lacking in faith; and Sartre was
existentialisms exemplary figure... (1870)
Due to the fact that No Exit is one of Sartres most accomplished works, it explores the
existentialist significance and imparting to it a universal and timeless quality. The
existentialism constituents include the following God is dead, Man is alone and life is absurd.
In jean Paul Sartres No Exit trinity of the damned. The three characters Garcin, Inez and
Estele represent the three constituents of existentialism.
14

Garcin the deserter concludes his final dwelling in life is absurd

Soliloquy: This bronze. Yes, nows the moment; Im looking at this thing on the mantelpiece,
and I understand that Im in hell. I tell you, everythings been thought out beforehand. They
knew Id stand at the fireplace stroking this thing of bronze, with all those eyes intent on me.
Devouring me. What? Only two of you? I thought there were more; many more. So this is
hell. Id never have believed it. (1899)
Inez, the gynocentric concludes, Dead! Dead! Dead! Knives, poison, ropes--all useless. It
has happened already, do you understand? Once and for all. So here we are, forever (1899),
in a God is dead rhetoric.
And as the baby-killer Estelle points out, in finding she will be living without a reflection,
When I cant see myself I begin to wonder if I really and truly exist. I pat myself just to
make sure, but it doesnt help much (1883).
Through this observation, she illustrates the man is alone element. From the three
constituents listed above, the existentialists believe man is alone without anyone to depend
on because there is no supreme being. Therefore they believe that man has his own freewill
and choice to live his life whichever way he chooses.
Existentialists believe that man determines his own destiny and the choice he makes depends
solely on him. Another existentialist thinker Soren Kierkegaard, who is often regarded as the
father of existentialism, sees existentialism as a situation where it is mans sole responsibility
to give meaning to his life irrespective of the obstacles he faces such as despair, boredom,
angst, absurdity, alienation etc.
Existentialism as a movement is concerned with the questioning of how a fulfilling life is
acquired and the obstacles man has to overcome to achieve that life which includes the
internal and external forces involved including the potential consequence of the existence and
non-existence of God.
Existentialism as a movement became fashionable in post-world war years as a way of
reasserting the importance of humans individuality and freedom.
The existentialist philosophers present two arguments regarding the existence and
non-existence of God. Soren Kierkegaards knight of faith and Friedrich Nietzsches
ubermensch is a representative of people who exhibit freedom.
In Kierkegaards knight of faith credited to a pseudonymous author. Kierkegaard
sees the knight of faith as a person who gracefully embraces life.
Kierkegaard puts it in Either/or:
When around one everything has become silent, solemn as a clear, starlit night, when the
soul comes to be alone in the whole world, then before one there appears, not an
extraordinary human being, but the eternal power itself, then the heavens open, and the I
chooses itself or, more correctly, receives itself. Then the personality receives the accolade of
knighthood that ennobles it for an eternity .
Kierkegaard believes in the idea that life is absurd; that Man needs God to make meaning out
of the meaninglessness of life.
In Kierkegaards philosophy, he believes that life is lived in three different stages which are:
the aesthetic stage, ethical stage and the religious stage.
Man in the aesthetic stage lives a life based on the sensual level, a life that is self and
pleasure centered. Man on this level could be very cultivated but nevertheless his life
revolves around himself and other material things; whether sex, art, music or whatever brings
15

him pleasure. The paradox of life on this level is that it leads ultimately to unhappiness. Thus
the aesthetic life leads finally to despair and disillusion.
But this is not the end, for it is at this point a person is ready to live the second stage of
existence, the ethical stage. The transition to this stage is a sort of leap motivated by a high
level of despair where one affirms trans-personal moral values and guides life by those
objective standards. No longer is life lived only for self and pleasure, rather one is
constrained to seek the ethical good and to change ones conduct to bring it into conformity
with that good. Thus man at this stage sincerely tries to bring his life into conformity with the
objective standards of good, but this also ends in unhappiness. As one realizes that the
objective goal cannot be achieved, the more painful it becomes, thus the ethical life when
pursued leads to guilt and despair.
The third stage is the religious stage; here one finds forgiveness of sins and a personal
relationship with God. Only here can we find an intimate communion with ones Creator.
That is why Blaise Pascal asserts that: If man isnt made for God, why is he only happy in
God. From this statement, it is very important to note that without God, mankind cannot
find fulfillment.
Kierkegaard represents the transition to this stage from the ethical as a leap. The decision to
believe criterion less choice is a leap of faith into the dark. Although man can be given no
rational grounds to leap unless he does so, he will remain in despair and inauthentic
existence. Another scholar that is of the theistic school of thought is Blaise Pascal. His
approach is thoroughly Christocentric. The Christian religion, according to him, teaches two
truths which namely are:
1.
There is a God man is capable of knowing
2.
There is an element of competition in men that renders them unworthy to God.
Knowledge of God without knowledge of mans wretchedness begets pride; and
knowledge of mans wretchedness without knowledge of God begets despair. But the
knowledge of Jesus Christ furnishes mans knowledge simultaneously. His apology
comprises two divisions namely;
1.
The mystery of man without God (the mans nature is corrupt)
2.
The happiness of man with God (the redeemer)
Pascal believes:
The human condition is an enigma for man is at the same time miserable and yet great or on
the other hand his misery is as a result of his uncertainty and insignificance
Pascal emphasizes the uncertainty of conclusion reached via a reason and the senses. nothing
seems capable of being known without certainty. reason and nature do not seem to bring
evidence as to whether God exists or not. As man looks around him, all he sees is darkness
and obscurity moreover in so far his scientific knowledge is correct, man learns that he is a
tiny speck lost in the immensity of time and space. His brief life is bounded on either side by
eternity. His place in the universe is lost by the immeasurable infinity of space. Man fails in
his effort to lead a meaningful and happy life. His condition is characterized by
inconsistency, boredom and anxiety. His relationship with is fellow man is warped by selflove. Society is founded on mutual deceit. Mans justice is fickle and relative and no fixed
standard of value may be found.
Despite their predicament, most people refuse to seek an answer or even think about
their problems instead they lose themselves in escape.
16

In describing the reasoning of such a person, Pascal says:

I know not who sent me into this world, nor what the world is nor what I myself am. I am
terribly ignorant of everything I know not what my body is, nor my senses, nor my soul and
that part of me which think what I say. Which reflects upon itself As well as upon all external
things and has no more knowledge of itself than of them
From this statement, it can be asserted that man faces numerous questions regarding his
existence. Because man finds himself in the world without knowing how he got there neither
does he know how is life is going to end.
Pascal ends his statement with the uncertainty of life after death. He concludes by
saying:
As I know not whence I come, so I know not whither I go, I only know that on leaving this
world, I fall forever into nothingness or into the hands of a wrathful God without knowing
which of this two states I shall be everlastingly consigned, such is my condition, weakness
and uncertainty for all this I conclude that I ought to spend every day of my life without
seeking to know my fate ..
I might perhaps be able to find solution to my doubts but I
cannot be bothered to do so. I will not take one step towards its discovery.
From this statement, Pascal believes that mans condition should propel him to seek to
discover whether there is a God or solution to his predicament. But people occupy their
thoughts and time with trivialities and distinctions so as to avoid despair, boredom and
anxiety that would inevitably result if those diversions were removed.
According to Loren Eisely, man is a cosmic orphan; he is the only creature in the universe
who asks. While other animals have instincts to guide them, man has learned to ask
questions. Who am i? Man asks. Why I am here? Where am I going? Since the enlightenment
when he threw of the shackles of religion. The answers that came back were not exhilarating
but dark and terrible:
You are an accidental by product of nature, a result of matter plus time, plus
chance; there is no reason for your existence all you face is death.
Modern man thinks if he gets rid of God, he has freed himself from all that repressed and
stifled him. He discovered that in killing God, he has killed himself. If there is no God, a
mans life is absurd. Man like every biological organism must die without hope of
immortality. If God exists there is hope. If God doesnt then we have despair.
The existentialist scholars such as Albert Camus, jean Paul Sartre, Richard Dawkins
etc. are of the perception that man is alone therefore they are from the atheist school of
thought that does not believe in the existence of God. In Albert Camus Myth of Sisyphus we
are exposed to the absurdist school of thought. In the book, Camus uses the Greek myth
Sisyphus to explore the meaninglessness in existence. Sisyphus is condemned for eternity to
roll a rock up a hill. But when he gets to the summit, the rock will roll to the bottom again.
Camus believes existence is pointless but Sisyphus finds purpose and meaning in the task.
Friedrich Nietzsche is another scholar that doesnt believe in the existence of God. In his
work entitled thus spoke Zarasthura; he emphasized the death of God. He compared the death
of God to the ubermensch also known as Superman. Zarasthura announces the ubermensch as
the goal humanity can set for himself. He sees the ubermensch to be the meaning of the earth
and admonishes his audience to ignore those who promise other worldly hopes in other to
draw them away from the earth. All human life will be giving meaning by how it advanced a
new generation of human beings. The aspiration of a woman would be to give birth to an
17

ubermensch. Zarasthura ties the ubermensch to the death of God while this God was the
ultimate expression of other worldly values and the instincts that gave birth to those values
and belief in that God nevertheless did give meaning to life for a time. God is dead means
the idea that God can no longer provide values with the sole source of values no longer
capable of providing those values. The ubermensch is seen as the creator of new values in
this way, it appears to be the solution to the problem of the death of God or nihilism. Thats
why in the American society, the ubermensch is given national prominence and seen as a
small god to give the kids something to believe in.
Since we know that the world is meaningless and absurd, it is left for man to either
belief that he has the responsibility to give his life meaning or to believe that the Supreme
Being can help him find meaning and purpose in an absurd world.
Kierkegaard and Albert Camus in the Sickness unto Death (1849) and the Myth of Sisyphus
(1942) believe there are ways by which one can find solution to his existence. They are
divided into two namely:
2.3.1. Suicide: this is the first step by which one can escape existence. But Camus and
Kierkegaard dismiss the viability of this option. Camus states that it doesnt counter the
absurd but it becomes more absurd to end ones existence
2.3.2. Acceptance of the Absurd: this is a solution in which one accepts the absurd and
continues to live in spite of it believing that in accepting the absurd, one can have absolute
freedom. This is seen as a rejection of help from a higher power and acceptance of his absurd
and despairing condition.
According to Albert Camus, ones freedom and opportunity to give ones life meaning
rest in the recognition of the absurdity

2.4
The Relationship between Existentialism and Human Existence
The relationship between existentialism and human existence cannot be over emphasized.
This is because existentialism is the mechanism that directs human existence.
Existentialist thinkers believes that humans are responsible for the life they live hence they
have the freewill and choice to make decisions. Existentialists believe that whatever man
chooses to become in a meaningless world depends solely on him. For example someone
who is known to be constantly cruel could be tagged a cruel person; which is the definition
of who he is. Therefore, existential thinkers believe that man is responsible for the identity he
gives himself.
The above idea was brought to the fore by Jean Paul Sartre in his essay entitled
Existentialism is a Humanism (1946) where he states that: Man first of all exists, encounters
himself, surges up in the world, and defines himself afterwards. From this statement, one
can validly assert that the responsibility of defining oneself rely solely on man.
According to Sartre, man is not simply what he conceives of himself, but he is what he wills,
and as he conceives himself after already existing; and what he wills to be after he leaps
toward existence. The first principle of existentialism is that man is nothing but what he
makes himself.
Various works of writers have explicitly expressed the idea of existentialism and
human existence in their work.
Richard Dawkins The God Delusion (2006), contests the existence of God. He
argues that anyone that believes in the existence of God is delusional. The book contains
18

consciousness raising messages about how atheists should be proud of their beliefs because
atheism is evidence of a healthy independent life.
Dawkins is of the opinion that man doesnt need religion to be morally good. He
advocates the theory of religion as an accidental by-product; a misfiring of something useful.
In his criticism of religion, he is of the opinion that: the theory of the universe without God
is preferable to the theory of a universe with a God.
According to him, he believes that man doesnt need God to make meaning out of his
life, but life is lived based on an individuals freewill and choice. In the following excerpts in
The God Delusion, this idea is made evident:
There is something infertile in the presumption that somebody else has a responsibility to
give your life meaning and point.
The truly adult view by contrast is that our life as meaningful as wonderful as we choose to
make it.
Therefore, Dawkins is trying to create awareness that a mans life is based on his own
philosophy and decisions. He infers that the responsibility to give ones life meaning depends
solely on the man.
Another work that discusses the existential issue of freewill and choice is Jean Paul Sartres
The Age of Reason (1945) where he asserts that humans are free to decide what they want
for their life; and that the choice to live life positively or negatively depends solely on the
man. He asserts that:
He was free, free in every way to behave like a fool or a machine, free to accept, free to
refuse, free to equivocate, to marry, to give up the game, to drag his death weight about with
him for years to come he could do what he liked, no one had the right to advise him, and
there would be for him no good or evil unless he thought it into being.
Jean Paul Sartre from this statement asserts that freewill is given to everyman to
make decisions. If any man chooses to live positively or negatively, it depends solely on him
and the choices he makes are purely his.
The issue of mans freewill is also discussed in Jean Paul Sartres essay entitled
Existentialism is Humanism (1946). He states that:
In life man commits himself and draws his own portrait outside of which there is nothing. No
doubt this thought may seem harsh to someone who has not made success in life but on the
other hand, it helps people to understand that reality also counts and that dreams,
expectations and hope only serve to define a man as a broken dream, aborted hopes and futile
expectation.
From this statement, Jean Paul Sartre is explaining that whatever happens to man, he
is responsible for it; that man defines his own self, and the struggle towards the attainment of
an unrealized dream portrays a man with a broken dream.
Also, in Jean Paul Sartres essay entitled Existentialism and Human Emotions (1957),
he discusses how man is entitled to his own freewill. According to him, he asserts that:
First of all, man exists, turns up, appears on the scene, and, only afterwards, defines himself.
If man, as the existentialist conceives him, is indefinable, it is because at first he is nothing.
Only afterward will he be something, and he himself will have made what he will be.
19

From this statement, it can be explained to mean that man is responsible for whatever
he chooses to make of himself. not only is man what he conceives himself to be, but he is
also only what he wills himself to be after this thrust toward existence.
Another Scholar that is of the perspective that man is responsible for the definition of
self is Simone de Beauvoir. In her work entitled The Ethics of Ambiguity (1948), Beauvoir
characterizes oppression as having at least two characteristics:
1) It aims to reduce the oppressed to the status of an object (thereby regarding the oppressed
as pure facticity).
2) It excludes the oppressed from the community of those regarded as having the capacity,
and the authority to make meanings and establish values (thereby diminishing prospects for
transcendence).
Beauvoir specifically identifies manipulation of desire as the chief mechanism through
which oppression is exercised and finds its most destructive effects. If desire or passion as
Beauvoir and Sartre describe it, is important for the realization of our freedom, destroying
desire or mutilating it in some way would have severe consequences for the pursuit of the
creation of a life of meaning and purpose.
In The Ethics of Ambiguity, Beauvoir casts her own light on the situation of human existence
neither god nor thing, we live as liminal creatures who often find themselves drawn to one or
the other end of this pole. Sartre, of course, names that longing to be either god (for Sartre,
pure transcendence, absolute subjectivity), or thing (pure immanence, absolute objectivity) is
bad faith. For Sartre, the temptations of bad faith are numerous, nearly everywhere, and it
becomes difficult to see how we are anything but damned, or how a meaningful social
existence is possible.
Beauvoir is similarly wary of bad faith. Her Ethics of Ambiguity operates within a Sartrean
ontological framework; but for her, the trap of bad faith is not inevitable: she distinguishes
the desire to disclose being from the wish to possess or coincide with the object of desire.
She sees human beings as realizing their existence in disclosing possible ways of being and
bringing forth their meanings. Beauvoir herself puts it thus: human existence has its being in
"vitality, sensitivity, and intelligence," which are not themselves "ready-made qualities, but a
way of casting oneself into the world and of disclosing being":
Every man casts himself into the world by making himself a
lack of being; he thereby contributes to reinvesting it with human signification. He discloses
it. And in this movement even the most outcast sometimes feel the joy of existing. There is
vitality only by means of free generosity. Intelligence supposes good will, and inversely, a
man is never stupid if he adapts his language and his behavior to his capacities, and
sensitivity is nothing else but the presence which is attentive to the world and to itself. The
reward for these spontaneous qualities issues from the fact that they make significances and
goals appear in the world. They discover reasons for existing. They confirm us in the pride
and joy of our destiny as man (pp. 41-42).
Beauvoir describes our living out this destiny as "living warmth," or passion, and she
associates it with love and desire. It is a kind of loving that invests human activity with
meaning, a kind of loving that bestows human existence itself with value. Such desire is
directed by ends, no doubt, but its pleasure is not sustained by acquiring those ends.
The pleasure of desire, desire's delight, unfolds in the perpetual pursuit and recreation
of those ends. And this is what grounds our pursuit of freedom for others, according to
20

Beauvoir. We desire the freedom of others to multiply these possibilities. The freedom of the
other provides an opening to the social in which the meanings that we make take on their
significance.
Another notable fact in understanding the concept of existentialism is the fear of
uncertainty regarding the future.
In the work of Raymond Carver entitled Where Im Calling From: New and Selected
Stories (1982), he states that: this is awful; I dont know what is going to happen to me or
anyone else in the world. From this statement, we live a life filled with fear without the
certainty of what will happen in the future. Therefore, each day is lived with insecurity as a
result of fear of the unknown.
In Koko Abes work entitled The Woman in Dunes, She asserts that:
There wasnt a single item of importance (in the newspaper) a tower of illusion, all of it,
made of illusory bricks and full of holes. If life were made only of important things, it really
would be a dangerous house of glass scarcely to be handled carelessly but everyday life was
exactly like the headlines and so everybody knowing the meaninglessness of existence sets
the Centre of his compass at his own home
From Koko Abes perspective, she views a world filled with illusions by comparing
the world to a newspaper. This is because the newspaper is filled with a lot of events both
good and bad. So according to her, she believes that the world is no different from a
newspaper as a result of the meaninglessness and absurdity that exists in the world.
By way of illustration, various issues that have served as a threat to human existence
will be explored.
Existentialism as an ideology began after the Second World War which lasted for six
years (1939-1945). After the war, various scholars began to explore the meaninglessness in
the world. As a result of the war, it came to mind that it was easier to destroy than to build.
This is because so many infrastructures that had lasted for decades; which took time and
energy to build, fell in seconds during the war; notably among which are the power plants in
Hiroshima; and Nagasaki in Japan which till today still suffers earthquake as a result of the
aftermath of the war.
Existential issues are those occurrences that serve as threat to our existence.
Considering the American society, the major existentialist issue was the great depression of
the early 20th century which destroyed the American economy as a result of the Wall Street
crash. This led to a very high rate of migration at the time in order to find a healthy means of
living.
Since then, there are lots of events that has threatened the existence of America
notably the World Trade Centre bombings of the twin towers, and the Pentagon on
September 11, 2001. Over 3000 civilians lost their lives.
Coming home to Nigeria, there are various events that has threatened our existence
since we gained independence in 1960. The first being the Nigeria civil war that lasted
between 1967-1970. The inter-ethnic war questioned the unity of Nigeria which served as the
first real test.
According to Malcolm Fabiyi, he says that if Nigeria had gained anything at all from
the war, it was this: we learned the lesson that Nigerias unity is not some esoteric sacrosanct
21

entity that cannot be questioned, or some infallible natural law that is beyond reproach.
Loyalty from the Nigerian people, to the Nigerian state must be earned.
The Biafra war demonstrated, that when a Nation fails in its duty to protect its
citizens, when it fails to safeguard its citizens essential rights to freedom and life, then it is
possible, that those citizens might seek to renegotiate the terms of their engagement with the
state.
Other existential threats include: the Niger Delta crisis which has denied the people
fairness in accessing the resources they had been blessed with; the Boko haram menace
which is tearing the country apart at the moment, with no end in sight etc.

CHAPTER THREE

TEXTUAL ANALYSIS OF ARTHUR MILLERS

DEATH OF A SALESMAN

3.1 Introduction
For the purpose of this chapter, I shall be summarizing the play entitled Death of a Salesman
by Arthur Miller; and exemplifying the issues that can be found in the play.
3.2 Summary of the Play
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Death of a Salesman by Arthur Miller was written in 1949 and it is divided into three main
parts namely: act one, act two and a requiem. The play consists of thirteen(13) characters.
The play revolves around the last twenty-four(24) hours of the life of Willy Loman
who was a salesman. It opens with Willy being frustrated on his return from a business trip to
Boston; this was caused by Willys inability to make enough commission from the trip.
As a result of this frustration, Linda was concerned about her husbands state of
mind and the recent car crashes. Due to this, she advises Willy to tell his boss Howard
Wagner to permit him to work in the home city, so he wouldnt have to go through the stress
of going back and forth.
Willy also complains to Linda about their son Biff; how he hasnt made a good life for
himself despite being a promising athlete. Biff flunked Maths thus preventing him from
going to College. From the first act of the play, it was evident that Willy is suffering from
mental degeneration which leads him to constantly talk to himself.
In the play, Willy was destroyed by the idea of the American dream which is success
and prosperity. Owing to his obsession with the idea of the dream, he envies successful
people like B.F Goodrich, Thomas Edison and his brother Ben etc.
The decline in the life of Willy was caused by his inability to distinguish the difference
between the dream, and the significance of his own existence.The decline of Willy
throughout the play revolved around his mind. Due to Willys failure to attain the dream, he
didnt want his sons to go down the same path thus his desire for them to succeed.
Due to Biffs football prowress, Willy saw a positive future for his son. However,
during his trip to Boston to tell his father he flunked Maths,Biff found out his father has been
cheating on Linda, and this led to a loss of enthusiasm in pursuing the dream.
Willy was dejected on seeing that he had failed his family; this led him to commit suicide so
that Biff will be able to have a decent living from his life insurance of twenty thousand
dollars. hence his saying:
you end up worth more being dead than alive

3.3 The issue of struggle

This is a very important issue in any discourse. This is because in day to day human
existence, we are always faced with the issue of struggle. We encounter struggles in all facets
23

of life such as: the office, at school, amongst our peers etc. The fundamental principle about
struggle is its inevitability. There is no way human beings can escape struggle.
In life, the struggles we face can either affect us positively or negatively which connotes that
struggles define our lives.
According to Karl Marx and Fredrick Engels, they see struggle in Marxist terms as two
diametrically opposing forces which struggle to hold the means of production.
Under the capitalist mode of production, this struggle manifests between the minority
(bourgeoisie) who owns the means of production, and the vast majority of the population
who are called the working class (proletariat); and are responsible for the production of
goods and services.Therefore,it is understood that Marxist theory is concerned with class
struggle. As a result of this, Marxist analysis draws the conclusion that capitalism oppresses
the proletariat; leading to what is called proletariat revolution.
In Death of a Salesman, this issue of struggle which is evident from the first act of the play,
serves as a destructive mechanism that shaped Willy Lomans life and ultimately led to his
downfall.
In the first act, despite the fact that Willy got a commission from his trip to Boston, the
Loman family still owed numerous debts which is evident in this conversation between Willy
and Linda.
Willy: The trouble was that three out of the stores were half closed for inventory in
Boston otherwise I woulda broke records
Linda: Well, it makes seventy dollars and some pennies. Thats very good
Willy: What do we owe?
Linda: Well on the first, theres sixteen dollars on refridgerator
Willy: Why sixteen?
Linda: Well, the seat belt broke, so its a dollar eighty
Willy: But its brand new
Linda: Well, the man said thats the way it is. Till they work themselves in y know
(ACT ONE)
They owed other debts which includes washing machine debt, carburetor debt etc.
As a result of these debts, it is evident that living was very difficult for the Lomans family.
During the period this play was written, to make a living was very difficult for the working
class American.
24

Another issue of struggle can be seen in the troubles encountered by Willy Loman. After
travelling back and forth as a result of his job, the wife is trying to encourage him to let his
boss know about his situation.
Linda: Willy dear, talk to them again; theres no reason why you cant work in New York
Willy: They dont need me in New York. Im New England man. Im vital in New England
Linda: But youre sixty years old. They cant expect you to keep travelling every week
(ACT ONE)
From this situation, it was evident that Willy had been struggling his whole life to the extent
that even in his old age, he still has to travel back and forth. We can see in the conversation
that ensued above that his wife is extremely concerned about his well-being especially as a
result of his deteriorating health.
Another very important issue, is that of uncertainty regarding the future. In the conversation
that ensued between Biff and Happy in act one, this issue is expatiated.
Happy: But I think if you got started. I mean is there any future for you out there ?
Biff: I tell ya Hap, I dont know what the future is. I dont know what Im supposed to want.
Happy: What do you mean?
Biff: Well I spent six or seven years after high school trying to work myself up. Shipping
to clerk, salesman, business of one kind or another and its a measly manner of existence
devote your whole life to keeping stock, or making phone calls
and always to have to get ahead of the next fella and still thats how you
build a future
Happy: Well you really enjoy it on a farm? Are you content out there?
Biff: Hap, Ive had twenty or thirty different kinds of job since I left home before the war,
and it always turns out the same.
From this conversation, it portrays the level at which Biff struggles a lot by working
numerous jobs and emphasizing the fact that there is no hope for him.
From an economic standpoint, Willy struggles to pay his mortgage. Above all, the insurance
resonate for theatre goers who themselves increasingly feel the financial pressure exerted
upon them by an increasingly capitalist or at least westernized world.
On a domestic level, global audiences respond to the plays exploration of the primal family
unit; also the presentation of the dynamics of the relationship between husbands and wives,
also between parents and children; all these in a country where social security is more of a lie
25

of the mind than political fact. Willy being fired after thirty-four years with the firm
annihilates the Emersonian notion of self-reliance.
Willy finds himself in a world that increasingly detaches herself from him; reminding him
daily of his own insignificance, whether driving seven hundred miles only to be denied a
sale; or meeting his sons for dinner only to be abandoned by them. Willy believes it is more
profitable for him to die than stay alive hence his suicidal tendency; which is reflected in the
statement below:
Does it take more guts to stand here the rest of my life ringing up a zero?
(ACT TWO)
After dealing with feelings of innocence and guilt, protection and betrayal; and
celebration and loss of reason, Willy became exhausted and suicidal.
You end up worth more dead than alive
This was why he saw his plan for suicide a profitable option to staying alive; thus his
son Biff will have a good life with his twenty thousand dollars insurance death benefit.
3.4 The Issue of Neglect
Another important issue in Death of a Salesman is that of neglect which is a very sensitive
issue. We must note that neglect connotes abandonment; and this exists in everyday human
existence.
From my understanding of the play, I have been able to infer that two kinds of neglect exists
in Death of a Salesman. They are:
3.4.1 Neglect by the Country
I shall be discussing the issue of abandonment by the country in Death of a Salesman.
In a capitalist society like America, you are of major importance when you are young and
agile.This is the period where a persons productive years are utilized after which such a
person is no more useful to the country. In Nigeria for example, government workers are
called civil servants which I see as a degrading title. It means that the civil servants are
owned by the Government and the latter can do whatever it deems fit at anytime.
This scenario is evident in Arthur Millers Death of a Salesman. Willy Loman was
abandoned by his country when he needed her most despite his past records of service.
Making reference to 1928 when Willy Loman grossed over 170 dollars a week, it is evident
that the capitalist society is concerned with the present and not the past; you are only
26

important during your productive years . The scene in Howards office where Willy is to be
fired buttresses this idea.
Willy: I put 34years into this firm Howard and now I cant pay my insurance. You cant
just eat the orange and throw the peel away; a man is not a piece of fruit
(ACT TWO)
The phrases you cant just eat the orange, and a man is not a piece of fruit are being used
by Miller to convey how the capitalist society treats the working class after their productive
years has been utilized.
3.4.2 Neglect by the Family
Neglect by the family takes different types of dimension. In Death of a Salesman, the neglect
of Biffs study was encouraged by his father. Biff had a great future ahead of him but after
flunking Maths, his father advised him wrongly. According to Willy, it doesnt matter if you
do poorly in school; he believes that being liked is the center of lifes philosophy.
Bernard: Biff, listen, Biff, I heard Mr. Birnbaum say that if you dont start studying Maths,
hes gonna flunk you and you wont graduate. I heard him
Willy: You better study with him Biff. Go ahead now
Bernard: I heard him
Biff; Oh pop, didnt you see my sneakers?
Willy: Hey thats a beautiful job of printing
Bernard: Just because he printed Virginia on his sneakers doesnt mean theyve got to
graduate him Uncle Willy
Willy: With scholarship to three Universities theyre gonna flunk him.
Willy Loman encourages Biff throughout the play. Willy had been blinded by the idea that
likeness connotes success. Willy believes that because Biff is liked, he will have edge over
Bernard five times over:
Thats just what I mean; Bernard can get the best marks in School, yunderstand but when he
gets out in the business world, you are going to be five times ahead of him be liked and
You never want.
(ACT ONE)

Willy believes in his warped version of the American dream; which is that likeness opens the
windows of opportunities and it transcends academic success. This false idea effectively
27

affected Biff when he thought because he was liked, Oliver will render assistance to him and
his brother,Happy to start a business. At the end of the day, he was refused the money he
wanted to borrow; therefore throwing the idea that likeness connotes opportunities into the
bush.
3.5 The Issue of Betrayal
This is a very important issue in American literature. This is because in works of writers like
Lorraine Hansberry, Scott F. Fitzgerald, John Steinbeck etc, this issue is very dominant.
The 20th century American writers were majorly concerned with this issue of betrayal of the
American dream as against the notion portrayed in the declaration of independence.
Therefore, I can say the American dream is make believe. In Death of a Salesman, this
make believe leads Willy to a psychological decline because he is unable to differentiate
the importance of his life to the dream.
Throughout the play, the mind was the vehicle that ruined Willy. In Death of a Salesman, it is
evident that America preaches a false idea of the American dream and this is what effectively
ruined Willys life. This is seen by taking into consideration the way the working class is
treated by the capitalist society, where the productive years of a working class is utilized
after which such a person will become surplus to requirements.
In this kind of situation, the past does not matter; only the present matters, taking the
following excerpts into consideration:
Willy: The year al smith was nominated; your father came to me .
Howard: Ive got to see some people kid
Willy: there were promises made across this desk. You mustnt tell me youve got people
to see- I put 34 years into this firm Howard and now I cant pay my insurance, you cant eat
the orange and throw the peel away; a man is not a piece of fruit.
(ACT TWO)
This statement you cant eat the orange and throw the peel away by Loman,
questions the way the capitalist society treats the working class.
Willy knows America is no isocracy in which all people have equal power. Adding to
Willys tragic stature are those singular moments when he honestly assesses his overall
predicament as seen when he connects with his sons in a restaurant. Biff was trying to
explain his experiences with Oliver to Willy but he cuts him short.
Biff: Why dont you let me finish?
28

Willy: Im not interested in stories about the past or any crap of that kind because the woods
are burning boys you dont understand? There is a big blaze going all around, I was fired
today.
Biff: How could you be?
Willy: I was fired today and Im looking for a little good news to tell your mother .
Biff: Jesus! dad
Willy: You mean you didnt go up there
Happy: Sure he went up there
Biff: I did, I saw him, how could they fire you.
(ACT TWO)
Willy Loman had intended to meet Howard about the idea of transferring him to New York
but at the end of the day, he was relieved of his job because of his age.
Another important issue of betrayal to note is one between husband and wife. It is extremely
evident from the first act of the play that Linda loves her husband. This is because anytime
Willy gets depressed, Linda is always there to encourage him. This is an instance:
Willy: I gotta overcome it; Im not dressing to advantage maybe
Linda: Willy, darling, youre the handsomest in the world
Willy: Oh Linda
Linda: To me you are the handsomest
(ACT ONE)
Despite the love that Linda has for Willy, he eventually betrayed the love by having an affair
with the character, The Woman. The symbol of Willys infidelity is the stockings made by
Linda which Willy gives to the character The Woman. here are some instances of Willys
betrayal:
Willy: You picked me hah?
The Woman: Sure, because you are so sweet and such a kidder
Willy: Well I see you next time Im in Boston
The Woman: Ill put you right through to the buyer
Willy: (slapping her bottom) right, well, bottoms up
The woman: You just kill me, Willy you kill me and thanks for the stockings. I love a lot
stockings well, good night.
(ACT ONE)
29

Some other instances of Willys betrayal is stated below when Biff came to see his father in
Boston and met him with the character, The Woman in an hotel.The following conversation
ensued.
The Woman: Arent you going to answer the door? .
Willy: I am not expecting anybody
The Woman: Whynt have another drink honey and stop being so damn self-centered
Willy: Im so lonely
The Woman: You know you ruined me Willy? Willy you ruined me
Willy: Thats nice of you to say that.
The knocking by Biff intensified and despite the womans persuasion of Willy to
open the door, he says:
Willy: They are knocking the wrong door
The Woman: But I felt the knocking and he heard us talking in here. Maybe the hotel is on
fire
Willy: Its a mistake
The Woman: Then tell them to go away
Willy: Theres nobody there
The Woman: Its getting on my nerves .
Willy: All right stay in the bathroom here and dont come out .
There is no fire
Biff: Why didnt you answer?
Willy: Biff what are you doing in Boston?
Biff: Why didnt you answer? Ive been knocking for five minutes. I called you on the
phone.
Willy; I just heard you. I was in the bathroom and had the doors shut. Did anything happen
home?
Biff: Dad, I let you down
Willy: What do you mean?
Biff: Dad
Willy: Biffo, whats this about .
Biff: I flunked Maths
(The Woman laughs)
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Willy: Hurry downstairs and .

Biff: Somebody in there?
Willy: No thats the next door
Biff: Somebody got into your bathroom
Willy: No its the next room; there is a party
The Woman: Can I come in? There is something in the bath tub Willy and its moving
Willy: Ah, you better go back to your room. They must be finished painting by now. They
are painting her room so I let her take a shower here; go back go back.
The Woman: But Ive got to get dressed, Willy I cant.
Willy: Get out of here, go back go back .
The Woman: But my clothes, I cant go out naked in the hall
Willy: Get outta here, go back, go back.
The Woman: Where is my stockings? You promised me stockings
Willy: I have no stockings here
The Woman: You have two boxes of size nine sheers for me. I want them
Willy: Here for Gods sake, will you get out of here
The Woman: I just hope there is nobody in the hall thats all I hope .
(ACT TWO)
As a result of this betrayal, Biff loses respect for Willy. After The Woman departs the Hotel,
Biff remained shell shocked and he refused to answer Willy.
Willy: All right, get my suit (Biff doesnt move). Now stop crying and do as I say, I gave
you an order. Biff, I gave you an order. Is that what you do when I give you an
order? How dare you? Now look Biff, when you grow up youll understand about
these things
Biff: Never mind
Willy: Never mind, hes going to give you those points; Ill see to it
Biff: He wouldnt listen to you
Willy: He certainly will listen to me. You need those points for U of Virginia
Biff: I am not going there .
As a result of his fathers infidelity, Willy Loman loses all the respect Biff had for
him and the former tried to defend himself.
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Biff: Dad
Willy: Oh my boy
Biff: Dad
Willy: Shes nothing to me, Biff I was lonely, I was terribly lonely
Biff: You gave her Mamas stockings
Willy: I gave you an order
Biff: Dont touch me you liar
Willy: Apologize for that
Biff: You fake, you phony little fake! you fake
(ACT TWO)
Willy tried justifying his infidelity by telling Biff he was lonely; but it took nothing from the
fact that he betrayed Lindas love, and the trust Biff had for him.
Another issue of betrayal is Biff betraying Olivers trust when he decides to steal from him
Biff; I wonder if Oliver still thinks I stole that carton of basketball
Happy: Oh, he probably forgot that long ago. Its almost ten years. Youre too sensitive.
Anyway he didnt really fire you
Biff: Well, I think he was going to. I think thats why I quit. I was never sure whether he
knew or not. I know he thinks the world of me. Though I was the only one hed let
lock up the place.
(ACT ONE)
He betrays Olivers trust by stealing a ball in the locker room because his coach asked
him to practice more. Instead of Willy to challenge him, he encouraged him.
Willy: (to Biff) coach will probably congratulate your initiative.
Biff: Oh, he keeps congratulating my initiative all the time, pop
Willy: Thats because he likes you. If somebody else took that ball, thered be an uproar.
So whats the report, boys what the report.?
(ACT ONE)
As a result of Biffs previous act of betrayal, he feels guilty thinking whether Oliver still
remembered his previous act. And Happy tried encouraging him that Oliver would have
forgotten since it was a long time ago.
3.6 The Existential Issue
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In every day human existence, we face various issues in our day to day life. When we talk
about existential issues. We simply mean the various issues that can make or mar a mans
existence.
Existentialist philosophers main concern is the human state of mind which includes feelings,
pain, guilt, regret and so on
In Death of a salesman, we could see from the first act that Willy Loman had been tired of
living. He had made attempts on his own life, and he makes ironic comments such as:

I am tired to the death

Another instance can be found in the conversation that took place between Biff and
Linda.
Biff: Why, is he dying?
Linda: Hes been trying to kill himself
Biff: How?
Linda: I live from day to day. Remember I wrote you that he smashed up the car again in
February?
Biff: Well
Linda: The insurance Inspector came. He said that they have evidence all these accidents in
the last year werent accidents
(ACT ONE)
Another instance can be found when Willy had a rubber pipe in the fuse box.

3.7The Literary Techniques and What Characters Symbolize in

Arthur Millers Death of a Salesman

3.7.1 Symbolism and Imagery

Willy: Willy Loman symbolizes the common man. By common man, I mean the proletariat.
Through the character of Willy Loman, we are exposed to the experiences of the common
man.Willy symbolized the cruel paradox of human existence. He seeks to discover a design
in the paradoxical movement of life; to impose upon it a sense of meaning greater than that
33

conferred upon it by reality. He has high ideals perhaps unattainable ones. He wants to be
loved by all, wants to succeed by terms that do not meet his nature, wants to leave his mark
upon the world. When Willy finally evaluates his performance, he realizes that he has fallen
short of his goals at that point, suicide becomes an act of valour for him.
Biff: Biff Loman represents a symbol of hope and a good future for the Loman family as a
result of his football prowess.
Ben: Willys brother represents all that Willy wishes the boys to be, yet his actions in the past
are not firmly established. Ben is for Willy a symbol of all that is good in the land of
opportunity.
The garden is symbolic of Willy needing to leave something behind for people to remember
him by.
3.7.2 The Society
In the Society we live in, money defines success. People are judged by the amount they
aquire. That is why Willy feels he has to succeed; and the only way to show his success is by
the acquisition of money and material goods.
Willys America is a land of opportunity in which ambitious young people like Biff can
accomplish great things. America may be a land of opportunities, it seems to have acquired a
new set of values.
Willy feels he has to be within society yet he looks back to the golden age when life was
simpler. Society in which the Lomans lived is governed by people like Bens ruthless
managers who care little for the opinions of others. In such a society, the Lomans are out of
place; although they occasionally realize it.
There are many forms of failure as well as success that are caused by the American system.
The Lomans are all an example of what life is like if you continually live in a dream world,
and never train yourself for anything. Ben is the only exception of the Loman family; he is
the only one who turned out to be a success.
On the other hand, Charlie and his son Bernard were able to achieve greatness and able to
make the system work for them. In the end, it is glaring that the decision to make it in the
American system is ironically up to the individual.

3.7.3 Absurdity of Life

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Death of a Salesman attempts to explore the implications of life. Willy is disturbed by the
element of rapid obsolescence which is an highly oppressive aspect of life. In general,the
play studies the circumstances which affect human destiny in a moral universe.
3.7.4 Death as a Means of Redemption
The suicide of Willy Loman is obviously intended as a gesture of a heroes victory over
circumstances. It is an act of love intended to redeem his house. The exhausted idealistic man
who has visions of a great future for his sons does not in the end come to terms with reality
but retains his hopes. To Willy, death is the only answer.

3.7.5 The Conflicts in The Play

The Conflicts in Arthur Millers Death of a Salesman can be divided into internal and
external conflicts.
3.7.5.1

External Conflict

Loss of job . Money defines success. By losing his job, Willy has let everyone down; most
of all himself.
3.7.5.2

Internal Conflicts: The inconsistencies displayed by Willy shows the conflict

inside of him. For example, Willy says that his car is the greatest ever built; but later
contradicts himself when he changes his opinion to that goddamn Chevrolet.
He has always been a figure of several faces. To his boys, he must be the successful father; to
Linda, the provider; and to himself, the great Salesman.
Willy needed to believe in himself in order to survive. He couldnt accept the supposed hurt
to his pride that a job offered by Charley might inflict upon him.
3.8 Tragic Elements
The enactment of the suffering, fall, and partial enlightenment provokes a mixed response:
that anger and delight, indignation and sympathy, pity and fear which Aristotle describes as
catharsis.
Tragic feeling is always evoked when we are in the presence of a character who is ready to
lay down his life if need be, to secure one thing, his sense of personal dignity.
In Willy, we see a man who is ready to lay down his life in order to give his family a decent
life. Therefore, I can assert that Willy is a tragic hero. In Willys situation, he attains a tragic
paradox as he moves towards inevitable destruction. He aquires that knowledge, that sense of
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reconciliation which allows him to conceive a redemptive plan for his family; hence the
suicide in order to give Biff a decent life.

CHAPTER FOUR
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
4.1 Summary
This work has been able to study the various issues that threaten our existence. And how
those issues could be handled to foster a healthy living
In the first chapter, which is the introductory chapter, I have been able to explain that
existential threats are inevitable. And this is because they occur at a time when they are least
expected. And a few of the existential occurrences were made mention of such as world war
one (1914-1918), world war two (1939-1945),

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Coming home to Nigeria we had the famous Nigeria civil war (1967-1970), which was also
called the Biafra war. The conflict was as a result of economic, ethnic, cultural and religious
tensions among the various peoples of Nigeria.
In the second chapter, which contains the review of relevant literature, I have been able to
review what scholars such as Albert Camus, jean Paul Sartre, Richard Dawkins, Blaise
Pascal and Simone de Beauvoir have said about existentialist issues.
In this chapter, we have been able to explore that man has freewill, and therefore he is
responsible for his choices; and also defined by those choices he makes.
The third chapter which is entitled textual analysis, I have been able to explain explicitly the
various defining issues that can be found in Death of a Salesman such as betrayal, neglect
and struggle and existentialist issues.

4.2 Conclusion
The considered play Death of a Salesman by Arthur Miller has explained the flaws in the
American dream.
In Arthur Millers Death of a Salesman, we have been exposed to a man who has failed to
distinguish his life from his mind, and as a result of that he felt that he would be worth more
being dead than alive; thus he takes his own life.
In our society today, people see suicide as a way out of pains, depression and so many
problems that befall them.
In conclusion, it is to be understood that we may not always find life easy and it is important
to note that we must not allow the situations that befall us in life to define us but rather, we
must allow it to motivate us towards attaining greater success in life.
Despite the fact that we find ourselves in a meaningless and absurd world where everything
seems surreal, we must not neglect our responsibility to make meaning out of our existence.
Therefore from the life of Willy, whom we have been made to understand to be a common
man cutting across all professions, it can be advised that whatever your profession is, and no
matter how degrading it is, just like in jean Paul Sartres Myth of Sisyphus where Sisyphus
was condemned to roll stone up a rock. As humans we must find purpose in whatever we do
in other to make meaning out of the meaninglessness that exists in the world. This is because
37

in our daily existence, there are various restrictions that life places on us and it is how we
tackle those issues which threaten our existence that will determine how far we will go in life
and the levels of success which will be attained by us.

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