Learner Guide IRE V1

An Introduction to
Roof Engineering
Learner Guide
MiTek Industries SA 2006
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, or stored in
any retrieval system of any nature, without the written permission of the copyright holder, to whom an application for such permission
shall be made.
MiTek Industries South Africa (Pty) Ltd cannot accept responsibility for any errors resulting from the misuse of this manual or for truss
fabrication or timber size or quality not in accordance with these specifications, or for incorrect storage, erection and bracing of trusses
on site.
An ITC Approved Programme
An Introduction to Roof Engineering

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Table of Contents
Programme Structure
11
Overview....................................................................................................................................13
Learning Outcomes and Objectives ...........................................................................................14
Delivery Mechanisms & Tools....................................................................................................18
Assessment ...............................................................................................................................19
Symbols used in this Unit...........................................................................................................20
Learning Map.............................................................................................................................21
Section 1 Design Framework
23
Legislation .................................................................................................................................25
The National Building Regulations and Building Standards Act ............................................................ 25
The Housing Consumers Protection Measures Act .............................................................................. 26
Standards ........................................................................................................................................... 27
Registered Governing Bodies ....................................................................................................28

Overview............................................................................................................................................. 28
Governing Bodies ............................................................................................................................... 28
Institute for Timber Construction (ITC) .......................................................................................29

Overview............................................................................................................................................. 29
Procedure ........................................................................................................................................... 31
Inspection Details................................................................................................................................ 31
Categories .......................................................................................................................................... 33
Inspection Criteria ............................................................................................................................... 34
Task 1a......................................................................................................................................35
Section 2 Design Environment
37
Definitions..................................................................................................................................39
Overview............................................................................................................................................. 39
Scope & Responsibilities ...........................................................................................................40

Owner Responsibilities........................................................................................................................ 40

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Truss Designer Responsibilities .......................................................................................................... 40

Truss Manufacturer Responsibilities.................................................................................................... 41
Contractor Responsibilities.................................................................................................................. 41
Task 2a......................................................................................................................................43
Section 3 Structural Material
45
Timber .......................................................................................................................................47
Overview............................................................................................................................................. 47
Hardwoods and Softwoods.................................................................................................................. 48
Commercial timber species grown in South Africa, SA Pine................................................................. 48
Properties of local softwoods............................................................................................................... 48
Removing the moisture from the freshly sawn wood ............................................................................ 49
Strength Properties and Grading of SA Pine........................................................................................ 49
Grading for Strength............................................................................................................................ 51
Converting short lengths into longer lengths ........................................................................................ 55
Deterioration of Wood ......................................................................................................................... 58
Wood Preservation.............................................................................................................................. 60
Laminated Timber ............................................................................................................................... 61
Timber Tables............................................................................................................................62
Table 1 - Nominal and Actual Sizes for SA Pine .................................................................................. 62
Table 2 - Grades and Stresses for SA Pine ......................................................................................... 62
Task 3a......................................................................................................................................64
Steel ..........................................................................................................................................65
Task 3b......................................................................................................................................67
Section 4 Roofing Terminology
69
Roof & Layout Terminology........................................................................................................71

Roof & Layout Outline ......................................................................................................................... 71
Terminology ........................................................................................................................................ 72
Trusses......................................................................................................................................73
Types Outline...................................................................................................................................... 73
Types.................................................................................................................................................. 74
Truss Outline ...................................................................................................................................... 75
Components of a truss ........................................................................................................................ 76
Sundry Timbers Connected to Trusses................................................................................................ 77
Dimensioning.............................................................................................................................78
Dimensioning Outline .......................................................................................................................... 78
Terminology ........................................................................................................................................ 79
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Task 4a......................................................................................................................................81
Section 5 Framing and understanding of roof geometry
83
Drawings and Site Plans............................................................................................................84

Overview............................................................................................................................................. 84
Plan View............................................................................................................................................ 84
End & Junction Types ......................................................................................................................... 86
Elevations ........................................................................................................................................... 87
West Elevation.................................................................................................................................... 92
Sections.............................................................................................................................................. 93
Building Ends.............................................................................................................................98
Overview............................................................................................................................................. 98
Gable End and Parapet End................................................................................................................ 98
Framing at Gable and Parapet Ends ................................................................................................... 99
Standard Hip End.............................................................................................................................. 100
Louvre Hip End ................................................................................................................................. 102
Jerkin Hip (Barn Hip End).................................................................................................................. 102
Junctions Parallel Blocks ......................................................................................................104

Overview........................................................................................................................................... 104
Junction: Under-gable ....................................................................................................................... 104
Junction: Valley on Hip...................................................................................................................... 104
Junctions Perpendicular Blocks ............................................................................................106

Overview........................................................................................................................................... 106
T-Junction......................................................................................................................................... 106
T-Junction with Flying Valley ............................................................................................................. 106
Corners....................................................................................................................................108
Overview........................................................................................................................................... 108
L-Corner Equal Spans.................................................................................................................... 108
L-Corners Unequal Spans .............................................................................................................. 108
Hip-Valley Corner (Equal Spans)....................................................................................................... 109
Mono-Pitch Corners.................................................................................................................111
Overview........................................................................................................................................... 111
Mono-pitch with Valley Corner........................................................................................................... 111
Mono-pitch with Hip Corner ............................................................................................................... 112
Other Common Non-Standard Roof Sections ..........................................................................114

Stubbed Sections.............................................................................................................................. 114
Framing Stubbed Sections ................................................................................................................ 114
Cantilevered Sections ....................................................................................................................... 115

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Task 5a....................................................................................................................................118
Section 6 Trigonometry
119
The Angle and sides of triangles ..............................................................................................121

Overview........................................................................................................................................... 121
The Angles ....................................................................................................................................... 121
The Sides ......................................................................................................................................... 121
The Relationship between the Angles and the Sides ......................................................................... 122
The Trigonometry Equations....................................................................................................124

Overview........................................................................................................................................... 124
Labels............................................................................................................................................... 124
The Trigonometric Equations ............................................................................................................ 125
The Oblique Triangle......................................................................................................................... 127
Variables........................................................................................................................................... 127
The Trigonometry in Roofing Calculations ...............................................................................129

Overview........................................................................................................................................... 129
Summary: Hip-Valley Junction, where Girder, G, is at Angle, A, to the Standard Trusses .....139
Span of the Hip-Valley Girder, G...................................................................................................... 139
Pitch of the Hip-Valley Girder, G ...................................................................................................... 139
Span of the diagonal Hip Girder, JG ................................................................................................ 139
Pitch of the diagonal Hip Girder, JG ................................................................................................. 140
Task 6a....................................................................................................................................142
Task 6b....................................................................................................................................143
Task 6c ....................................................................................................................................144
Section 7 The Theory of Structures and Moments
145
Introduction to forces ...............................................................................................................147

Overview........................................................................................................................................... 147
Types of Forces ................................................................................................................................ 148
Force Calculations ...................................................................................................................150

Stress Definition................................................................................................................................ 150
Rules for Design ............................................................................................................................... 150
Design assumptions ................................................................................................................151

Overview........................................................................................................................................... 151
Task 7a....................................................................................................................................152

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Section 8 Loads & Forces
153
Terminology.............................................................................................................................155
Load & Force Terminology ................................................................................................................ 155
Units of Measurement ....................................................................................................................... 157
Types of loadings: (SANS 10160)...................................................................................................... 158
Live Loads ...............................................................................................................................159

Top Chord (Rafter) ............................................................................................................................ 159
Bottom Chord (Tie Beam) ................................................................................................................. 159
Wind Loads....................................................................................................................................... 160
Dead Loads .............................................................................................................................161

Overview........................................................................................................................................... 161
Extract SANS10160 .......................................................................................................................... 162
Top and Bottom Chord Loading Tables ...................................................................................163

Tiles.................................................................................................................................................. 163
Sheeting ........................................................................................................................................... 164
Ceilings............................................................................................................................................. 165
Application of Load ..................................................................................................................166

Overview........................................................................................................................................... 166
Calculation Theory ............................................................................................................................ 166
Example 1 Dead Load.................................................................................................................... 167
Example 2 Box Gutter .................................................................................................................... 168
Example 3 Reaction on Walls ......................................................................................................... 169
Example 4 Reaction on the Girder and on the I beam ..................................................................... 170
Example 5 Point Loads .................................................................................................................. 172
Reaction Tables.......................................................................................................................177
Overview........................................................................................................................................... 177
Maximum Reactions that can be supported by Hangers and Cleats................................................... 177
eCo Truss Hanger............................................................................................................................. 177
Strap Hangers................................................................................................................................... 178
Maximum loads for H Cleats ........................................................................................................... 178
Max loads and max spans for 45vHip Cleats for different roof coverings........................................... 178
Task 8a....................................................................................................................................180
Section 9 Bracing
181
Bracing Components ...............................................................................................................183

Overview........................................................................................................................................... 183
Bracing Design ........................................................................................................................184

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Overview........................................................................................................................................... 184
Bracing Types................................................................................................................................... 184
Bracing Calculations ................................................................................................................185

Overview........................................................................................................................................... 185
Bracing Guidelines...................................................................................................................186
Overview........................................................................................................................................... 186
Task 9a....................................................................................................................................190
Section 10 Measuring Sundry Materials
191
Purlins and Battens..................................................................................................................193

Overview........................................................................................................................................... 193
Purlin ................................................................................................................................................ 193
Batten ............................................................................................................................................... 193
Wallplates ................................................................................................................................194
Overview........................................................................................................................................... 194
Calculations .............................................................................................................................195
Example............................................................................................................................................ 195
Task 10a..................................................................................................................................204
Section 11 Manufacture of Nail Plated Trusses
207
SANS 10243 Unit Standards 1 - 9 : Manufacturing of Nail Plated Timber Roof Trusses ..........209
Overview........................................................................................................................................... 209
Extract .............................................................................................................................................. 209
Plant Management System ......................................................................................................213

Manufacturing Guidelines.................................................................................................................. 213
Costing Method................................................................................................................................. 213
8 pressing points............................................................................................................................... 213
Setup & Assembly............................................................................................................................. 214
Determine the Pitch by Using the Rafter Pitch Conversion Table ....................................................... 215
Setting Out........................................................................................................................................ 216
Assembly .......................................................................................................................................... 219
Plating .............................................................................................................................................. 220
Task 11a..................................................................................................................................222
Section 12 Erection of Prefabricated Trusses
223

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SANS 10243 Unit Standards 1 - 9 : Manufacturing of Nail Plated Timber Roof Trusses ..........225
Overview........................................................................................................................................... 225
Extract .............................................................................................................................................. 225
Site Documentation .................................................................................................................246

Overview........................................................................................................................................... 246
Roof Layout and Applicable Notes..................................................................................................... 247
Diagrams of Trusses ......................................................................................................................... 250
All Relevant Bracing Details .............................................................................................................. 255
A Drawing Waybill ............................................................................................................................. 265
Task 12a..................................................................................................................................269
References
271
Check Sheet
275

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Programme Structure

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Overview
Program Title
Rationale
This programme is designed to assist the candidates with gaining an

understanding of engineering concepts in the roof industry
Target Population
Entry level estimators and designers
Pre-requisites
Candidates entering this programme are competent in:
Learning Time
Gr12 / Std 10
Workshop:
28 hrs
Assessment:
4 hours

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Learning Outcomes and Objectives
Learning
Outcomes
Candidates who have completed this programme are able to demonstrate an

understanding of the following concepts:
Design Framework
Design Environment
Structural Material
Roofing Terminology
Framing and understanding of roof geometry
Trigonometry
The Theory of Structures
Loads & Forces
Bracing
Measuring Sundry Material
Manufacture of Nail Plated Trusses
Erection of Prefabricated Trusses

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Learning
Objectives
The Learning Objectives are as follows:

On completion of this programme, the Candidate will be able to demonstrate
an understanding of the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Design Framework
Legislation
Registered Governing Bodies
Institute for Timber Construction
Design Environment
Definitions
Scope and Responsibilities
Structural Material
Timber as Structural Material
Steel as Structural Material
Roofing Terminology
Roof and Layout Terminology
Trusses
Dimensioning
Framing and understanding of roof geometry
Drawings and Roof plans
Building Ends
Junctions Parallel Blocks
Junctions Perpendicular Blocks
Corners
Mono-pitch Corners
Other Common Non-standard Roof Sections

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6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Trigonometry
The Angle and Sides of Triangles
The Trigonometry Equations
Trigonometry in Roofing Calculations
The Theory of Structures and Moments
Introduction to Forces
Force Calculations
Design Assumptions
Loads & Forces
Terminology
Live Loads
Dead Loads
Top Bottom Chord Loading Tables
Application of Load
Reaction Tables
Bracing
Bracing Components
Bracing Design
Bracing Calculations
Bracing Guideline
Measuring Sundry Material
Purlins and Battens
Wallplates
Calculations

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11.
12.
Manufacture of Nail Plated Trusses
SANS 10243 Unit Standards 1 - 9 : Manufacturing of Nail

Plated Timber Roof Trusses
Plant Management System
Erection of Prefabricated Trusses
SANS 10243 Unit Standards 1 - 9 : Manufacturing of Nail

Plated Timber Roof Trusses
Documents to Site

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Delivery Mechanisms & Tools

Description
Delivery mechanisms and tools are the ways and means that the learning
intervention is delivered to the candidate.
The following delivery mechanisms are utilised in this unit:
Self-study
Workshop
Self Study and Work Application
Tools
Learner Guide
Portfolio of Evidence Workbook
Learning Aids
Delivery Mechanism
Description
Tools
1. Self-study
The Candidate will be required

to do some self-study. All the
information and instructions
needed to complete this unit
are contained in the self-study
guide.
Learner Guide
2. Workshop
The workshop will focus on

theory and the practical
application with regard to the
content of this unit.
Learner Guide
3. Self Study and

Work Application
An important aspect of
acquiring competence is the
ability to practice and apply
the newly acquired skills and
knowledge in the workplace.
The Candidate will be required
to apply the knowledge gained
in the workshop in actual
workplace situations. The
Candidates reflection is
recorded through the
development phase.
Portfolio of Evidence

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Assessment
How and when
assessment takes
place
There will be two types of assessments applicable to this unit, namely:
Formative Assessment.
Summative Assessment.
Each of these types of assessment will be explained in the table below:

Assessment type &
definition
Method/s to be used
When
Exercises in the
Candidates guide.
During the learning

process.
Formative assessment:
These assessments will
include the assessment of
some aspects/components
of a learning process, and
are linked to specific
learning outcomes. It will
also include feedback to
the learner in preparation
for a summative
assessment.
Discussions with the

Candidates fellow
learners/ colleagues.
Summative assessment:
This assessment will
incorporate the
assessment of all
aspects/components to
conclude the learning
process, with the
understanding that the
learner is ready to be
assessed. It is also linked
to specific learning
outcomes.
Performed by trained
assessors.
As per the
Candidates
Assessment Plan.
The assessment will be conducted at the end of learning intervention. The

Candidate will have to demonstrate that he/she have mastered the learning
objectives of this unit. To demonstrate the achievement of the learning
objectives, the Candidate is required to complete a Portfolio of Evidence.

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Symbols used in this Unit

Symbols
The following symbols will be used in this guide to indicate certain activities
that the Candidate will be required to do.
The following is a list of the symbols and their meaning.
Symbol:
Meaning of the symbol:
Points out important facts that the

Candidate needs to remember.
A place for the Candidate to make

notes.
The Candidate is required to

perform an activity. This could
mean either something that the
Candidate needs to do, complete,
answer or discuss.
Reflection - Requires the Candidate

to think or analyse and interpret a
given situation or scenario.
The Candidate are welcome to do

further reading regarding the topic.
The source of the reading will be
indicated to the Candidate. This
will provide the Candidate with
more insight into the topic.

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Learning Map
Legislation
Design Environment:
Responsibilities:
Owner
Trigonometry
Designer
Terminology
Structural Material
Framing & Geometry
The Theory of Structures
ITC
Manufacture
Bracing
Measuring Sundries
Contractor
Inspections
Loads & Forces
Manufacture and
Design of Nail Plated
Trusses
Erection of
Prefabricated Trusses

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Section 1 Design Framework
Overview
The following guides Roof Timber Engineering in South Africa:
Acts:
The National Building Regulations and Building Standards Act (in particular
Regulation A19 of the National Building Regulations)
The Housing Consumers Protection Measures Act
Standards:
SANS 10400
SANS 10160
buildings
SANS 10163
SANS 10243
- Application of the National Building Regulations

- The loadings and procedures to be adopted in the design of
SANS 1783 - Sawn Softwood Timber

SANS 1460 - Laminated timber
SANS 1005 - The preservative treatment of timber
SANS 1082 - Timber buildings
SANS 1096 - Manufacture of finger-jointed structural timber
- The structural use of timber

- The manufacture and erection of timber trusses
Specific Outcomes
By the end of this unit, the Candidate should be able to demonstrate an
understanding of:
Legislation
Institute for Timber Construction (ITC)

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Legislation
The National
Building
Regulations and
Building
Standards Act
To provide for the promotion of uniformity in the law relating to the erection of
buildings in the areas of jurisdiction of local authorities; for the prescribing of
building standards; and for matters connected therewith.
A19.
Appointment of
Persons
Responsible for
Design
Where in terms of these regulations a rational design for
precautionary measures necessary to ensure the stability of an

excavation and of any adjoining property, building, service or street;
the structural system of the building;
any artificial ventilation system;
any drainage installation;
any stormwater disposal system;
any fire protection system.
is to be submitted to the local authority, the owner of any building shall,

except where not so required by the local authority, appoint and retain any
person who is a professional engineer or other approved competent person
to undertake responsibility for each such design, and also for inspection,
during construction, of such precautionary measures, structural system,
artificial ventilation system, drainage installation, stormwater disposal system,
fire protection system, or water supply system, as the case may be.
Where it is not possible for such person to fulfil his duties as contemplated in
subregulation (1), the owner of such building shall appoint such other person
to fulfil such duties.
Such owner shall inform the local authority of the appointment of any person
contemplated in subregulation (1) or (2) and shall furnish to such local
authority the name and address of such person, a full list of his academic and
professional qualifications, evidence of relevant experience and proof of his
acceptance of such appointment.
Where so required by the local authority the information contemplated in
subregulation (3) shall be on an approved form.
Subregulation (4) shall be deemed to be satisfied where the required
information is contained on a form of the type illustrated in Appendix 1 of
SANS 10400.

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Part L
General requirement
The roof of any building shall be so constructed that it will-
The Housing
Consumers
Protection
Measures Act
Resist any forces to which it is likely to be subjected;
Be durable and waterproof;
Not allow the accumulation of any rain water upon its surface ; and
As part of a roof and ceiling assembly provide adequate height in any

room immediately below such assembly.
The Housing Consumers Protection Measures Act has been established to

make provision for the protection of housing consumers; and to provide for
the establishment and functions of the National Home Builders Registration
Council; and to provide for matters connected therewith.
The NHBRC may require roof loading certificates for Rationally designed
roofs, as should local authorities.

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Standards
SABS - (South Africa Bureau of Standards) and

SANS - (South Africa National Standards)
Codes of Practice:
Old Code
New Code
Description
Application
SABS
0160
SANS
10160
The general procedures

and loadings to be
adopted in the design of
buildings
General design considerations

General guidelines on limit-state design loads
Loads
In-situ load testing of buildings and building
elements
SABS
0163
SANS
10163
The structural use of

timber (Allowable stress
design)
Design of members
Joints
Panel products
Tables
SABS
0243
SANS
10243
The manufacture and

erection
of
Timber
Trusses
Materials
Design
Manufacture of trusses
Nail plated trusses
Quality assessment of trusses
Marking
Sampling and compliance with specification
Inspection and testing of finished trusses
Erection
Quality assessment of a roof
SABS
0400
SANS
10400
Application
National
Regulations
of
the
Building
SABS 05
SANS 1005
The
preservative
treatment of timber
SABS 082
SANS 1082
Timber buildings
SABS 096
SANS 1096
Manufacture of fingerjointed structural timber
Standards:
SABS
1783
SANS 1783
Sawn Softwood Timber
Part 1-General requirements

Part 2-Stress-graded structural
timber for frame wall construction
timber and
Part 3-Industrial Timber

Part 4-Brandering and battens
SABS
1460
SANS 1460
Laminated timber

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Overview
To ensure that the industry conforms to legislation and standards the following
governing bodies have been established:
Governing
Bodies
Name
ABBR
Institute
for
Construction
Responsibilities
ITC
Equal compliance to standards in

the Timber Truss Industry
ECSA
Controlling body for Engineers in

Southern Africa
National Home Builders

Registration Council
NHBRC
Regulate General Home Building
South
African
Wood
Preservers Association
SAWPA
Is a non-profit association formed

in 1980 by the South African
wood
preserving
industry,
primarily to promote timber
treatment and treated timber
products.
South African Timber

Auditing Services
SATAS
SANS
accreditation
for
fabricators, and timber grading
and overall quality control.
South African Institute of

Steel Construction
SAISC
The mission of SAISC is to

develop and promote the health
and
wealth
of
the
steel
construction industry in Southern
Africa.
South African Bureau of

Standards
SABS
Auditing
body
for
SANS
accreditation for fabricators, and
timber grading and overall quality
control
South African
Standards
SANS
Create and maintain industry

standards for South Africa
Engineering
South Africa
Timber
Logo
Council
of
National

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Institute for Timber Construction (ITC)

Overview
The ITC embraces the prefabricated nail plated roof truss industry.
In pursuit of its primary aim of regulating the application of structural timber, the
ITC is involved in the following activities:
Developing encouraging and maintaining high standards in the design,

fabrication and erection of timber roof structures
Acquiring the necessary skills in the field of timber engineering either

from international sources or by research in order to develop reliable
codes of practice. Such codes will ensure uniform and high standards of
design and construction throughout the industry.
The research and updating of bracing and connection rules through the
Timber Engineering Advisory Committee and publication of erectors and
designers handbooks in order to disseminate the information into the
market place.
Arranging of awareness seminars on erection and bracing procedures

for Engineers, Architects, Clerks of Works, Building Inspectors, Builders
and Carpenters.
Encouraging the removal of barriers for the acceptance of timber structures by

Local Authorities, Government Agencies, Lending Institutions and Professional
Groups.
Working to establish the availability of appropriate grades, sizes and

quality timber that will ensure safe and economical timber structures.
Providing the expertise to answer technical enquiries effectively and to

investigate problem structures impartially, or to act on complaints from
customers or fabricators in an unbiased and fair manner, in this way
inspiring confidence in timber structures on the part of designers and
specifiers.
Assisting with the auditing of licensed fabricators for the awarding of the
Certificate of Competence to those companies which design,
manufacture and supply prefabricated nail plated roof trusses and to
ensure the continued process of re-auditing on due dates of such
companies operations and key personnel. Audits are to be done in
conjunction with either an independent auditor or an authorised
representative from the companys system suppliers.
The training of Roof Erectors in accordance with requirements of SANS

10243 codes of practice for the erection and bracing of timber roof
structures and awarding of a Certificate of Competence to suitably
qualified member erectors.
The ITC has, with the support of the 3 main Systems Suppliers and the
members, established a structural funding source by which the boards strategic
plans and the objectives can be achieved and in order to succeed it is
necessary to have the full support of all members in order to better further the
Institute's plans.

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Performance
Standards
In order to achieve these objectives and best serve its members, the Board of
Directors of the ITC have determined the following:
To maintain close co-operation and association with the National Home

Builders Registration Council (NHBRC).
Direct representation on the following committees:
Education and Training Advisory Committee.

Structural Division of the SA Institute of Civil Engineers.
SABS Timber Division and Civil Engineering Division.
Ensuring that the industries viewpoints are accommodated and
protected in the compilation of all documents on grading
specifications, design codes and matters effecting National
Building Regulations.
The ITC Timber Engineering Advisory Committee maintains its
status as the official drafting committee for the code of practice
for the Design of Timber Structures.
The continued existence of the Standards, Inspections and
Audits Committee, in order to regulate and control safe and
consistent standards within the industry.
The ITC will pursue and assist in the enforcement of the A19"
process of the National Building Regulations through all Local
Authorities by offering the ITC approved Designers and
appointed Inspectors to fulfil the role of Approved Designers,
Inspectors of the structural system in order to comply with
statutory requirements.
To continue subsidising the South African Bureau of Standards
(SABS) random inspections of truss manufacturing plants in
order to uplift and maintain desired quality standards.
To ensure close liaison with the Sector Education and Training
Authorities in the development of unit standards for the
manufacture of nail plated timber roof trusses and also for the
erection of timber roof trusses and to facilitate training in these
disciplines, in compliance with the Skills Development Act.
To amend National Building Regulations SANS 10400 to include
in regulation A18 the control of persons erecting roof trusses to
be under the adequate control of a trained and competent
erector or approved competent person.
To establish a Certificate of Competence for truss
estimators/designers.
To promote a code of ethics for roof truss fabricators.
To monitor the contractual obligations of systems and licensees
and ensure adherence to agreed procedures.
To compile and update bracing and erection manuals in order to
disseminate correct procedures to members and to the industry
at large.

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Procedure
Inspection
Details
Recommended procedures for the preparation and submission of designs to

local authorities. Drawings for submission to the local authorities:
Trusses.
The profile of the primary roof trusses should be shown on the

architectural section and clearly labelled as Timber trusses to be
design in accordance with SANS 10160 and SANS 10163. The
structural details to be submitted for approval prior to erection. OR
The timber sizes and connection detail may be provided with

reference to the origin of the design. For example the empirical design
given in the NBR or the National Timber Research Institute Bolted
truss design sheets.
Structural details on the roof structure must be submitted to the local

authority for approval prior to the erection of the trusses and shall include:
A roof layout diagram showing the position of all the trusses, beams
and joists.
The loading, truss centres and batten / purlin centres used in the
design.
Span, pitch, overhangs and any other information required to define

the profile.
Member sizes and grades.
Joint details.
Details of all the bracing and runners required to provide stability to

the trusses
Details of all cleats, hurricane clips and hangers required to connect

trusses and beams to each other.
It should be noted that in the accordance with NBR RegA4 (1) (b) (i), these
details must be provided to the local authority at least 3 days before the roof
is to be erected.

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Small Buildings
Less than 500m per unit or 13m in span of a conventional cottage nature,
these details may be submitted in the form of paper prints or computer
printouts. In either case the information must be clearly presented and
understandable. Where such designs are produced on the computer system
developed and provided by professional engineers, an engineers signature
should not be required.
Any computer generated details or calculations should however include the
name, registration number and telephone number of the Professional
Engineer responsible for the design system.
Large Buildings
For all other categories of roofs including:
Moderate or high risk commercial and industrial buildings.
Places of entertainment or public assembly.
Places of worship.
Shopping Centres.
Hotels.
Hospitals.
Industrial Buildings (Prison, Mental Homes etc.).
Complex Attics.
Structural details on polyester film, signed by a registered

professional engineer, should be provided.

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Categories
Type
Risk
Description
Inspection
High
Very Complex roofs, including
Inspected by
Registered
Person
(SAEC)
Medium
Low
None
Scissors Trusses > 5m
Site splicing
Attics and Dormers
Very large spans > 10m
Piggy Back Trusses
Cantilever > 2m
Complex Industrial
Complex Commercial
Laminated Timber roof

structures
Public Buildings & Schools
Complex Domestic and simple

Industrial and Commercial Roofs,
including up to 10m
Hips and valleys up to 10m
Non standards loads
Scissors Trusses up to 5m
Simple Roofs up to and including 8.5m

span with standard loadings, including:
Valleys
Girders and special support

Cleats
Stub-ends
Cantilever up to 2m
Simple hips up to 8.5m
Minimum pitch 15
Gable to gable roofs (no hips or

valleys) up to 6.5m
No hips or valleys > 2m
Category B
ITC Inspector
Category B or
C ITC
Inspector
Category B, C
or D ITC
Inspector

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Inspection
Criteria
Inspector looks at the following minimum aspects of a roof:
All trusses are designed in accordance with the design specifications
All trusses are straight and plumb.
All specified bracing is installed / fabricators site details.
All hangers and brackets are installed and either fully nailed or bolted.
Multiply girders are nailed and bolted.
Truncated trusses & truncated girders have top restraints installed.
Valley bracing.
Tie downs Sheeted Roofs.
The National Building Regulations and Building Standards Act (Regulation

A19 of the National Building Regulations).
The Housing Consumers Protection Measures Act.
SANS 10400 - Application of the National Building Regulations.
SANS 10160 - The loadings and procedures to be adopted in the design of
buildings.
SANS 10163 - The structural use of timber.
SANS 10243 - The manufacture and erection of timber trusses.
SANS 1783 - Sawn Softwood Timber.
SANS 1460 - Laminated timber.
SANS 1005 - The preservative treatment of timber.
SANS 1082 - Timber buildings.
SANS 1096 - Manufacture of finger-jointed structural timber.

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Task 1a
Complete the following:
1)
Name the Acts that guide

Roof engineering in South
Africa?
2)
Name the standards that

outline structural design
practice?
3)
Which organisation is
responsible for the
competence of roof
inspectors, (a), and which
governing body (b), sets the
standards to which these
inspections must conform?
4)
Name and describe the 4

inspection categories?
5)
Name the areas that an

inspector reviews:

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Section 2 Design Environment
Overview
This standard defines the design responsibilities of the individuals and organizations involved in
the preparation, submittal, review and approval of each Truss Design Drawing and Truss Layout
Plan associated with the use of nail plate timber trusses. These guidelines are presented as
industry standard practice. The guidelines are not intended to preclude alternate provisions as
agreed upon by the parties involved.
Specific Outcomes
understanding of:
Definitions
Scope and Responsibilities

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38
Definitions
Overview
The following outlines the most common used definitions:

Architect
shall mean the architect responsible for the architectural

design of the structure and who produces the architectural
drawings included in the construction design documents.
Construction
Design
Documents
are the architectural drawings, structural drawings,

mechanical drawings, electrical drawings, and any other
drawings, specifications, and addendums that set forth the
overall design of the structure.
Contractor
shall mean the individual or organization responsible for the

field storage, handling, and installation of trusses including,
but not limited to, temporary bracing, permanent bracing,
anchorage, connections and field assembly. The term
Contractor shall include those subcontractors to perform
all or a portion of the storage, handling, and installation of
the trusses.
Engineer
shall mean the registered professional engineer responsible

for the structural design of the structure and who produces
the structural drawings included in the Construction Design
Documents.
Owner
shall mean the individual or organization for whom the

structure is designed.
Truss
is an individual nail plated timber structural component

manufactured by the Truss Manufacturer.
Truss
Designer
is the design professional, individual or organization (system

engineers), having responsibility for the design of nail plated
timber trusses. This responsibility shall be in accordance
with the statutes and regulations governing the professional
registration and certification of engineers, but hereinafter will
be referred to as Truss Designer.
Truss Design
Drawing
shall mean the graphic depiction of an individual Truss

prepared by the Truss Designer.
Truss
Manufacturer
shall mean an individual or organization regularly engaged

in the manufacturing of Trusses.
Truss Layout
Plan
is the drawing identifying the location assumed for each

Truss based on the Truss Designers interpretation of the
Construction Design Documents.

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Scope & Responsibilities

Owner
Responsibilities
Truss Designer
Responsibilities
The owner is directly, or through its representatives (Contractor and/or

Building Designer), responsible for the following:
Review and approve each Truss Design Drawing.
Review and approve the Truss Layout Plan.
Resolve and approve all design issues arising out of the preparation
of each Truss Design Drawing and Truss Layout Plan.
Co-ordinate the return of each approved Truss Design Drawing and

Truss Layout Plan to the Truss Manufacturer prior to truss
manufacturing.
Ensure compliance with SANS 10400 Registration A19.
The truss designer has to prepare the Truss Design Drawings in

conformance with the requirements set forth in the latest approved edition
SANS 10243.
For each Truss Design Drawing, set forth as a minimum the following:
Pitch or Height, span and spacing
Truss Configuration
Required bearing widths
Design loads as applicable:
Top chord live load;

Top chord dead load;
Bottom chord dead load;
Concentrated loads and their points of application.
Awareness of metal connector for unusual conditions of use.
Awareness of excessive reaction forces and directions.
Connector plate type, size and the dimensioned location of each

metal connector plate except where symmetrically located relative to
the joint interface.
Timber size and grade for each member.
Connection requirements for:
Truss to girder;
Multiple truss connections;
Site splices approval by system engineers.
Required truss and bracing detailed drawing to the site for installation
and erection purposes.

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Truss
Manufacturer
Responsibilities
Contractor
Responsibilities
The manufacturers has the following responsibilities:
Communicate the design criteria from the Construction Design

Documents to the Truss Designer.
Prepare the Truss Layout Plan, providing as a minimum the location

assumed for each Truss based on the Truss Manufacturers
interpretation of the Construction Design Document.
Submit to the Contractor the Truss Layout Plan, as may be required,

and each Truss Design Drawing for review and approval.
Manufacture the Trusses in accordance with the final approved Truss

Design Drawings using the quality criteria for Nail Plated Timber
Trusses established by SANS 10243.
Design, Manufacture and Erection of Timber Roof Trusses.

Fabrication Certificate.
Draw owners attention to need for roof inspection in terms of SANS
10400 Regulation A19.
The contractor has the following responsibilities:
Provide to the Truss Manufacturer the Construction Design

Documents and all revisions and supplements thereto.
Review and approve the Truss Layout Plan and each Truss Design
Drawing for conformance with the requirements and intent of the
Construction Design Documents, and the effect of the Truss Layout
Plan and each Truss Design Drawing on other trades involved in the
construction of the structure and the effect of the other trades on the
Trusses.
Co-ordinate the review, approval and return of each Truss Design

Drawing and the Truss Layout Plan by the Owner and Building
Designer.
Provide the approved Truss Design Drawings, approved Truss Layout

Plans, and any supplemental information provided by the Truss
Manufacturer to the individual or organization responsible for the
installation of the Trusses.
Comply with the field storage, handling, installation, permanent

bracing, anchorage, connections and field assembly requirements of
the Construction Design Documents.
Draw owners attention to need for roof inspection in terms of SANS

10400 Registration A19.

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The National Building Regulations and Building Standards Act (Regulation

A19 of the National Building Regulations)

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Task 2a
1)
Describe the following

terms:
a)
Truss Designer
b)
Truss Design Drawing
c)
Truss Manufacturer
d)
Truss Layout Plan
2)
Outline the responsibilities

of the Designers

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Section 3 Structural Material
Overview
Buildings utilize an extensive number of building materials but their structural systems usually have
one material as the predominate material to carry the structural loads.
Specific Outcomes
understanding of:
Timber as structural material
Steel as structural material

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Timber
Overview
An understanding of the characteristics and properties of timber as a raw

material is imperative for the designer or user who wants to ensure that it is
used to best effect.
Wood, mans all-purpose material since he left his cave habitat, has retained
this position even to this day and age of synthetics. It still has its all-over
usefulness for man and that particular attractiveness attributed to things rare
and beautiful, if used properly. Therefore, know it well and use it properly.
The development of timber engineering as a modern science really only
began when the development of stress grading, synthetic adhesives, efficient
mechanical connectors, and plywood gave rise to a whole new range of
timber based building components. These included I-beam and box beams,
stressed skin panels, shells, laminated beams and prefabricated roof trusses.
More recently timber has been found to be a useful product for both the
industrialized countries requiring mass production (e.g. roof trusses) or for
underdeveloped countries requiring labour intensive building methods (e.g.
pole structures and nailed assemblies).
Advantages of
Timber
Disadvantages
of Timber
Renewable natural resource.
Low energy requirements for conversion to finished products.
Compared with the energy required for the primary processing of

timber, cement manufacture demands eight times as much. Steel
and aluminium require two to ten times as much energy.
High strength to weight ratio.
Low thermal expansion and contraction.
Resistance to corrosion.
Fire resistance of large sections.
Appearance.
Susceptibility to fungal and insect attack (bio deterioration).
Creep under long duration loading.
Reduction of stiffness and some strength parameters at high moisture

contents.
Variability.
Low fire resistance of small sections.
Non-isotropic. (Different strength properties in different directions).
Hygroscopic. (Absorbs water).

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Hardwoods and
Softwoods
One problem that should be pointed out deals with the classification of
timber. The English terms used to classify wood are hardwood and
softwood.
Hardwood and softwood are botanical references to the tree as a plant and
do not indicate any of the properties of the timber itself. Hardwoods can
loosely be termed the broadleaved species, such as the Oaks, Plane Trees,
Eucalyptus, Stinkwood, etc. Balsa wood, which is very soft, is also classified
as a hardwood. The softwoods are termed the coniferous species, i.e.
needle-like leaves, like the Pines, the Cedars and the Cypresses.
All of this might sound completely illogical. One must remember that wood
itself is not a logical product. It is a natural product that is grown and not
produced in a factory according to a recipe such as steel, ceramics, etc.
(There are not two identical trees it is not even possible to cut two identical
boards from the same log).
We must therefore learn what wood is and what its properties are because
only then will we be able to make the best use of it.
Commercial
timber species
grown in South
Africa, SA Pine
A number of Pine species are grown in plantations in South Africa. The

predominant ones are Pinus patula, P radiata, P elliottii, P taeda and P
pinaster. The timber is sold as SA Pine without distinguishing between these
species.
Although the wood properties of the various species may differ somewhat,
specifications to which timber is graded tend to even out these differences
within the grades. Consumers can therefore be assured that within a given
SABS grade the timber will be quite homogeneous (uniform or of the same
nature), even if sawn from different Pine species.
Properties of
local softwoods
There is a most noticeable variation in density within the stem of a tree which
increases from the pith outwards. SA Pine varies in density between about
360 kg/m and 650 kg/m. This is why some Pine boards are nearly twice as
heavy as others. The denser boards are also stronger than the others. This is
one of the aspects taken into consideration in the grading of timber according
to the SANS Specifications (SANS 1783 1997).
Owing to the extremely rapid initial growth of some species of pine trees
under the very favourable conditions prevailing in certain parts of South
Africa, it is not unusual for them to produce growth rings up to 25mm wide in
their youth.
Consequently, the timber sawn from near the pith (Heartwood), even of a
more mature tree, is less dense and strong than that produced from near the
periphery (sapwood), which contain a larger number of growth rings. In older
trees, this fast-formed juvenile wood is gradually converted to heartwood by
the deposition of infiltrates which increases its density but only slightly alters
a few of its strength properties. These infiltrates usually colour the heartwood.
In the course of time the wood cells of the heartwood die and lose their
moisture so that heartwood is generally drier and darker coloured than the
living and lighter coloured sapwood towards the stem periphery.

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Removing the
moisture from
the freshly sawn
wood
The wood in a living tree or in a freshly felled log may contain up to four times
its own dry mass of water. In most wet wood the mass of water exceeds the
mass of the solid timber by about 75%. The amount of moisture in wood is
always expressed as a percentage of its kiln dry mass.
The average green moisture content of young stems of pine wood can be as
much as 200%, while in the older pine trees the moisture content can vary
between 190% in the sapwood and 30% in the heartwood of the same tree.
The moisture content of freshly cut pine wood is therefore much too high for
commercial use.
Equilibrium
Content
The main object of drying of timber is to remove the surplus moisture in such
a way that the timber is degraded as little as possible. This means that timber
has to be dried to the point where its moisture content is in equilibrium with
the relative humidity of the atmosphere around us. This value, which is
known as the equilibrium moisture content (EMC), is approximately 12% at
the coast and 8% inland.
Strength
Properties and
Grading of SA
Pine
Softwood logs are sawn into various classes of products having dimensions
suited to the intended end use, such as structural timber, battens, brandering
and industrial timber.
Determination for suitability is covered by grading specifications.
Structural timber suitable for use in engineered structures is covered by
SANS 1783 1&2, which defines stress grades of visually and mechanically
stress graded timber.
The compulsory grading of structural timber means that sub-grade structural
sized timber is unmarked to distinguish it from graded timber bearing the
appropriate SABS mark.
Graded finger-jointed structural timber has the letters FJ and the date of
production stamped in red on an edge near the end of the piece.
A separate SANS specification No. 1783 Part 4 been drawn up for batten
and brandering.
Strength
characteristics
and Grading
What gives wood its strength?

Wood consists basically of little tubular cellulose fibres cemented together in
a matrix of lignin. These fibres are remarkably strong along their length (i.e.
parallel to the grain) and transfer load from one to the other by shear in the
lignin. However, they are not nearly as strong to resist transverse forces (i.e.
perpendicular to the grain).
Wood is almost always used so as to take advantage of the strength parallel
to the grain. Whether a piece of timber is used as a beam, a column or a tie,
the primary forces are along the grain.

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Factors
Affecting
Strength
Density
The strength of clear (defect free) wood is closely related to its
density, which in turn, is closely related to the thickness of the cell
walls: the thicker the cell walls the stronger the wood. However, the
effect of density is almost completely overridden by the effects of
knots and sloping grain which generally occur in commercial structural
timber.
Knots
Knots in sawn timber are simply cross-sections through branches.
Where successive growth layers of a tree have had to pass around a
branch, there are zones of sharply sloping grain so that, either side of
a knot, the primary forces in a board are not parallel to the grain.
Knots are therefore points of weakness, the larger the knot, the
greater the loss in strength.
Sloping grain
When a crooked tree, or one with spiral grain is sawn, the grain in the
boards sawn from it may not be parallel to the edges of the board.
Normally this slope is never as steep as that around a knot, but it can
occasionally be greater than 1:7, the maximum slope permitted in the
SABS grades.
Moisture content
As the timber dries further, there is an increase in strength
particularly compressive strength until the timber (which is
hygroscopic) reaches the equilibrium moisture content determined by
the ambient conditions of temperature and humidity.
Drastic fluctuations in moisture content while timber is under load,
result in undesirable structural deformation e.g. sag in beams.

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Grading for
Strength
Because of the factors mentioned above, the strength of timber varies

considerably from board to board, so that in order to take advantage of the
strong boards and eliminate the weak ones, structural timber must be graded.
The process of grading for strength is called stress grading and involves
some form of non destructive test to predict the strength of each board.
The stress grading of timber means nothing more than sorting it into classes
on the basis of its strength. However timber is also graded according to
factors which are not directly related to its strength such as warp, wane,
dimensional accuracy and appearance.
Grading of timber therefore usually implies a combination of stress grading,
and grading according to those factors not concerned with its strength.
Grading rules have been established to provide timber of known strength
characteristics which will comply with acceptable standards of straightness,
workability and appearance.
Timber is increasingly being used in situations where knowledge of its
strength is important. Roof trusses, laminated beams and other structural
components all require timber of a known strength so that they can be safely
and economically designed. What is important is that the strength is known
and can be relied upon, and not that the strength is high or low!
V4 V6
Frequency
Small knots
high density
1992
1958
5
10
15
20
FIGURE 9 : DESIGN BENDING STRESS (MPa)

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Visual grading
The predictors are the size and complexity of the knots, the general slope of
grain and to some extent density. The grading rules, therefore, lay down
limits to the maximum size of knots and general slope of grain and the
minimum density permitted in a given grade.
Mechanical
grading
Is based on the correlation that exists between the strength of a board and its
stiffness.
Each board is passed through a machine which flexes it without breaking it
and determines its stiffness. The grade is determined by the minimum
stiffness measured along the board.
There is another method of grading for strength called proof grading, in
which each board is passed through a machine which stresses it to the point
that sub-grade boards are broken. With this method it is difficult and wasteful
to distinguish more than one grade, and it is only really reliable for one mode
of stress i.e. that which is applied by the machine.
Proof grading
Proof grading subjects a piece of timber to a given load. Pieces which carry
the proof load without fracture are then regarded as proof graded. This
system is often used to grade battens and brandering and the concept is now
being used on larger structural sizes by certain mills with SABS approval.

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Appearance and
Grading
Appearance refers to not only the aesthetic acceptability, but also the
various forms of warp (bow, springs, cup and twist), checks, splits, and wane.
Cup
Spring
Twist
Bow
Warp in its various forms, is caused by differential shrinkage during drying.

Much of this can be eliminated by judicious sawing and drying practices, but
some is unavoidable.
Serious checks (splits which do not go all the way through) and splits are
obviously undesirable.
Wane occurs when a board sawn near the outside of a log has a corner
missing. Serious wane is obviously undesirable, but, as the timber at the
outside of a log is stronger and more stable than the timber containing the
pith, a little wane is an indication of a strong and stable board.
The grading rules contain limits for all of the above factors so that a graded
board can be used with confidence.
Grading in
General
The South African Bureau of Standards (SABS) is the grading authority in

South Africa. The SABS draws up the grading specifications and, through its
marks scheme, checks that timber marked with the SABS stamp is in fact
according to the specifications as regards both strength and appearance.
Grade Markings
Timber is marked with the grade along the face of the timber indicating the
graded strength of the board.
Structural timber is marked with the appropriate grade strength e.g. S5 or S7.
STRESS GRADING METHOD
SABS mark
BENDING STRESS
SABS 5
Double spot: Visual grading

Left spot:
Proof grading
Right spot:
Mechanical grading

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Characteristic
strength value
Accredited
Product
Certification
Bodies
th
The characteristic strength value is taken at 5 percentile of the strength of

the material, that is the value which exceeded by 95 % of the timber tested. A
safety factor of 2,2 is then applied to the give the working stress used for
design purposes.
South African Timber Auditing Services (SATAS) obtained accreditation from
the South African National Accreditation Systems (SANAS) as a Product
Certification Body for manufacturers of wood and wood products including
SANS 1783.
Similarly the SABS Certification also holds accreditation by SANAS to Certify
Manufacturers to the same Standard.
In South Africa SATAS and the SABS are the only SANS 1783 accredited
Product Certification Bodies.
Certification
Logos
1) SATAS Logo as displayed on approved product
SATAS
2) SABS Logo as displayed on approved product
Marking
SATAS
S
XYZ
5 (Logo and grade)

(Manufacturer Trade mark)
There are presently two approved grading authority logos i.e. SABS and
SATAS.
The Zimbabwe logo (ZSA) is also acceptable.

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Converting
short lengths
into longer
lengths
(Finger jointed
structural timber)
For a number of reasons the availability of sawn SA Pine in structural sizes

and grades dwindles drastically for lengths approaching 6m to 6,6m, with
lengths in excess of this being rare indeed.
The development of synthetic resin adhesives with improved strength and
durability created the potential for structural glued end joints.
As far as strength properties are concerned, the most successful of these
joints was the plain scarf joint. It is, however, a difficult joint to mass-produce
and, due to its length, it results in considerable waste of timber. Following an
evolutionary process, the finger joint was developed, which is nothing but a
scarf joint in which the two scarfs are folded back on themselves several
times.
Finger joints are today widely accepted and used throughout the world as
strong, reliable and durable end joints for structural timber.
They thus satisfy the needs of both the saw millers and end-users. In the first
instance saw millers are able to finger-joint short or odd lengths, but
otherwise perfectly good timber, into longer lengths. It is also used for
upgrading timber by cutting out unacceptable defects and re-jointing the
pieces. In the second instance end-users are able to purchase structural
timber in the lengths required.

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Material
The strength and/or durability of finger-jointed timber depends firstly on the

intrinsic strength of the joint, and secondly, on the raw materials, i.e. the
timber and adhesives used in its manufacture.
Timber
When used for producing structural timber, the finger jointing stock must
conform to all the requirements of SANS 1096 : Code of practice for the
manufacture of finger-jointed structural timber, and the particular grade of
timber in question.
The general requirements for structural timber to which finger-jointing stock
must conform, are spelled out in the codes.
The most important of these concern limitations placed on certain types of
defects that may adversely affect the strength of the finger joints themselves.
For instance, no knots should occur within the profile area and no knots or
knot holes exceeding 6mm in diameter are allowed within 50mm of the
extremes of a finger joint; cross-grain, which can have a severe strengthreducing effect on finger joints, is not allowed within or in the immediate
vicinity of the joint; excessively resinous wood, which inhibits the gluability of
the timber, is limited; checks exceeding a maximum allowable width and
splits are also not allowed.
Adhesives
Of all the factors determining the strength and durability of finger joints, the
adhesive bond is the most critical.
The best type of finger joint, manufactured with the utmost care, will not
withstand the test of stress and time if the adhesive bond is defective.
Adhesives are broadly grouped as either structural or non-structural. They
are further distinguished by the following four exposure classes:
Class 1 (exterior): These adhesives are suitable for use under the
most adverse conditions of exposure to the elements.
Class 2 (semi-exterior): These may be exposed at infrequent intervals

to unprotected, open conditions.
Class 3 (humid interior): Adhesives in this class must be protected

from direct exposure to water, but will withstand high humidity.
Class 4 (dry interior): These are suitable only for use under dry
sheltered (indoor) conditions.
Modern adhesives, if used according to the manufacturers instructions, will

perform precisely as claimed, e.g. a structural, class 1 adhesive will be at
least as strong as the timber and, even when used externally and totally
exposed to the elements.
The timber must be appropriately marked to indicate the exposure class of
the adhesive used. To ensure that these requirements are met, the SABS
continuously monitors and controls the quality of the finger-jointed timber
produced by all mark-bearing manufacturers in the country.

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Strength and
Durability
Current technology has not yet succeeded in eliminating two inherent

weaknesses in finger joints. Firstly, and this is common to all end joints, it will
only be a rare coincidence if the annual rings of the two jointed pieces were
to match. It is, therefore, inevitable that the stronger latewood of one piece
will be partly jointed to the weaker early wood of the other piece.
Discontinuities thus exist which have an adverse effect on the stress transfer
characteristics of the joint.
Secondly, for practical reasons of manufacture, the finger tips and
corresponding slot bases have to be machined to at least a certain minimum
width. This means that butt joints, which are inherently weak, are formed at
the finger tips.
Furthermore, to ensure that adequate gluing pressure is developed along the
flanks of the fingers during assembly, the fingers are normally machined
marginally thicker than the corresponding slots. The result is that the fingers
are seldom pressed home fully, leaving gaps between the finger tips and slot
bases of most joints.
Research has shown that, despite these weaknesses, the strength properties
of finger joints are still equal to, or better than, those of the natural defects
allowed in structural timber of grades up to stress grades S7. This means that
finger-jointed timber may be used with confidence in designed structures,
provided that the individually jointed pieces conform to the requirements for
the grade stresses (up to stress grade 7) used in the design.
Conclusion
Finger jointed structural timber has a very good service record in South
Africa. The collapse of timber structures that can be attributed to failures in
finger joints is so rare as to be irrelevant. Despite this, there is still a
widespread mistrust of finger joints. Specifiers and local authorities often do
not accept that there is no difference in strength and reliability between
finger-jointed structural timber and its un-jointed counterpart. Some
reluctantly accept finger joints, but then only if no more than, say, one or two
joints occur per piece of timber.
This prejudice, although unjustified, is perhaps understandable. Even to the
layman it is obvious that a finger joint relies solely on the adhesive bond to
hold it together and, should this bond be broken, the joint will fail completely.
On appearance, a dovetailed type of joint with positively interlocking features,
may perhaps have found easier acceptance. However, no one has yet
succeeded in developing any of these more acceptable joints with strength
and reliability approaching those of finger joints.
Finally, in a nutshell: Finger jointing provides the solution to the problem of an
imbalance in the distribution of lengths in which structural timber would
otherwise have been available.

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Deterioration of
Wood
(Acknowledgeme
nt to SAWPA)
Depending upon the conditions of service, timber may be attacked by one or

more outside agencies causing degrade. Proper design, and preservation
practice can eliminate or minimize such attack.
Fungi (Decay)
Fungi Spores penetrate the wood structure and if suitable conditions exist,
break down the wood tissues into simple chemical compounds on which they
feed.
Under favourable conditions, the development of attack can be rapid.
Conditions necessary for the development of fungi are:
Moisture content suitable for their development.
An adequate oxygen supply.
A temperature range to suit their life cycle.
Adequate nutrients.
Sufficient Time.
There are two main groups of fungi which can cause decay in timber.
Wood
Destroying
Fungi
Wood Destroying Fungi.
Wood Disfiguring Fungi.
These fungi feed on the compounds of the cell wall and consequently can
weaken the structure of the wood to such an extent that the wood breaks and
crumbles away.
Wood destroying fungi can be subdivided into three groups:
Brown rots:
The timber, after attack, may become dark brown in appearance and
as it dries, the surface can become badly broken by deep transverse
and longitudinal cracks and generally, apart from the colour and
smell, gives the appearance of wood which has been charred in a fire.
The most common brown rots are often found attacking softwood
timbers and the lighter hardwoods.
White rots:
The affected timber eventually becomes much lighter in colour and
weight and loses its strength properties.
Badly decayed timber does not crumble in the same way as that
which has been attacked by the brown rots. The timber breaks down
more in a longitudinal direction with a fibrous appearance and there
may be pockets of decayed wood between apparently sound areas.

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Soft rots:
This group is typically found in wet environments such as cooling
towers and wood in contact with the ground. In wet wood, its
presence is evident if surface layers are soft and may be readily
scraped away. When dry, surfaces will exhibit a profusion of fine
cracks and fissures both with and across the grain. Hardwoods are
thought to be naturally more susceptible to this form of degrade than
softwoods though no wood is completely resistant.
Wood
Disfiguring
Fungi
Some wood colonizing fungi, whilst having little or no effect on the strength of
timber, can reduce the commercial value by adversely affecting its
appearance. Fungi of this type fall into two categories:
Staining Fungi:
The sapwood of most species of timber is susceptible to fungal
staining which can occur in both logs and sawn timber, especially in
climatic conditions of warmth and humidity. Although staining fungi
may be the only ones present initially, true decay fungal attack may
follow unless control is initiated.
One of the most commonly occurring stains is referred to as sapstain
or blue stain and usually manifests itself as a blue-black, blue-grey,
brownish or purplish discolouration of the timber.
Moulds:
This form of disfigurement is caused by fungi which produce a
powdery or woolly growth and masses of spores at the timber surface.
The most common colours of these surface moulds are black, shades
of green, brown and occasionally orange.
Wood Borers
Practically all timbers, under certain conditions, may be attacked by wood

borers of one sort or another.
Infestation by some wood borers may be of little or no significance, whereas
attack by other borers may be serious and necessitate remedial action.
Wood borers are beetles which at some stage of their development bore into
wood for food or shelter.
Because heartwood is never attacked, structural weakening can be caused
only to those building timbers which have a large sapwood content e.g.
Eucalyptus and Saligna Poles.
Weathering
Timber is liable to breakdown by weathering. More serious breakdown is

caused by the periodic movement of moisture into and out of the timber. As
the cell wall takes up and releases moisture, it swells and shrinks, and
continuous repetition may cause the bonds between the wood fibres to
weaken so that minute checks or cracks are formed. Unless the process of
swelling and shrinking is inhibited by some form of protection, these cracks
may enlarge until the timber becomes both visually unattractive and perhaps
structurally unsound. The greatest danger of weathering is that the persistent
presence of moisture may promote decay.

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Wood
Preservation
The science of wood preservation is the treatment of wood to give extended

service life. This involves the placement, within the wood of preservative
chemicals which are antagonistic to wood destroying agencies.
The Hazards
Defined
The hazard to which wood material will be subjected has an enormous

bearing on the extent to which wood preservation will be effective. A piece of
wood kept continually dry inside a building is subject to a much lower hazard
than a piece of timber embedded in the ground.
For the purposes of determining the level of preservative treatment required
to ensure an acceptable service life of timber, the conditions under which
timber is normally exposed to attack by timber-destroying organisms are
classified as follows:
Hazard Class H6 (Timber in sea water):

Timber constantly or periodically in contact with estuarine or sea
water and therefore subject to marine borer attack;
Hazard Class H5 (Timber in fresh water):

Timber constantly or periodically in contact with fresh water or heavy
wet soils;
Hazard Class H4 (Timber in ground contact):

Timber, interior or exterior, in direct or indirect contact with the
ground;
Hazard Class H3 (exterior timber above ground):

Timber not in direct contact with the ground but that will be exposed to
leaching and weathering; and
Hazard Class H2 (Interior timber above ground):

Timber used under a roof, not in contact with the ground, and that will
not be exposed to weathering and leaching.
From these hazard classifications it can be seen that structural S.A. Pine in
roof trusses will fall under the category H2.
The type of preservative used is usually CCA (Copper, Chrome & Arsenic).
The copper is a fungicide and the arsenic is an insecticide plus a back-up
fungicide and the chrome acts as a fixing agent. These chemicals are
dissolved in water and the CCA solution is impregnated into the timber in
sealed pressure tanks.
The water-borne preservative obviously re-introduces substantial quantities
of water into the timber and the treated structural timber must be allowed to
dry out until the specified moisture content of approximately 18% is reached
before the timber is used for its structural application.

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Laminated
Timber
The manufacture of engineered laminated timber beams and portal frames

also requires special grading of material, careful calculation of design
stresses and close control of manufacturing technique.
Laminated timber manufactured in accordance with SANS 1460 (Laminated
Timber), will have the required strength, rigidity and durability for these
purposes.
Non-engineered glued laminated timber beams (Stocklam) are
manufactured.
Some of their advantages are that they can be produced in grades and
dimensions not otherwise readily available, that they are free of the large
seasoning checks so common in large dimension solid timbers and that they
are free of warp.
When manufactured to specification SANS 1460 they can be used for the
same applications as timber complying with SANS 1783, depending on the
quality of the raw material.

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Timber Tables
Table 1 Nominal and
Actual Sizes for
SA Pine
NOMINAL (mm)
SIZED (mm)
Thickness
Depth
Thickness
Depth
38
38
36
35
50
50
48
48
76
73
114
111
152
149
228
225
Lengths: SA Pine is supplied in increments of 600 mm, with a maximum length of 6 600mm.
Table 2 - Grades
and Stresses for
SA Pine
Grade Stress (see note 1)

Timber
Bending
Grade
(see
2)
note
Tension
Tension
Parallel to
grain
Perpendic
ular
to
grain
Compress
ion
Compress
ion
Parallel to
grain
Perpendic
ular
to
grain
(see note
3)
Shear
Parallel to
grain
Modulus
of
Elasticity
MPa
MPa
MPa
MPa
MPa
MPa
MPa
5,2
3,0
0,16
7,4
2,1
0,7
7800,0
7,1
4,5
0,23
9,4
3,0
0,9
9600,0
10
10,5
6,0
0,33
10,8
4,1
1,3
12000,0
Notes:
1)
These stresses apply to visually or mechanically graded tim ber complying with SANS 1783.
2)
These are compression stresses for short columns (le/b, 10).
3)
Designers should check the availability of any grade they wish to specify.

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South African Wood Preservers Association SAWPA http://www.sawpa.co.za/

South African Timber Auditing Services SATAS - http://www.satas.co.za/
South African Bureau for Standards SABS - http://www.sabs.co.za

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Task 3a
a)
Name the three methods of

grading timber.
b)
When is it acceptable to
use non SABS graded
timber in a roof structure?
c)
Out of 100 pieces of

mechanically graded grade
5 timber, how many pieces
are allowed to be less than
grade 5?

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Steel
Overview
All steel components used in roof construction, whether as timber

connectors, or as structural elements in their own right, shall be corrosion
resistant.
This means the steel used shall be:
Suitably galvanised, or
A zinc /aluminium alloy, or
Stainless steel

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South African Institute of Steel Construction SAISC - http://www.saisc.co.za/

South African Bureau for Standards SABS - http://www.sabs.co.za
SANS 10162 - Structural steel

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Task 3b
1)
Name the ways that

corrosion can be prevented:

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Section 4 Roofing Terminology
Overview
The vocabulary of technical terms used in the roofing industry is explained through graphical
outlines linked with the associated terms.
Specific Outcomes
understanding of:
Roof and Layout Terminology
Trusses
Dimensioning

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Roof & Layout Terminology

Roof & Layout
Outline
Figure
1:
3-D Views of a Roof,
with and without
Roof Covering
(Trusses
show
outlines only webs
have been omitted)
Figure
2:
Roof Plan showing
Girders at the Hip
end, at the TJunction and at the
Hip-Valley Junction.

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Terminology
Term
Description
Beam
A solid or composite timber lintel that usually supports trusses or rafters.
Beam Pocket
A void deliberately set into a wall to allow a beam or floor truss to bear on the
wall.
Eaves
The part of a building that meets or overhangs the load bearing walls.
Gable Wall
The vertical wall at the end of a pitched roof, extending to the underside of
the roof covering (see Figure 1).
Girder Truss
A truss that performs the special function of supporting other trusses (see
Figures 1 and 2).
Heel Line
A line connecting the heels of trusses, usually vertically above the outside
edge of the wall plate.
Hip
The end of a roof section with a sloping end plane (see Figures 1 and 2).
Hip Line
The diagonal line formed by the intersection of two planes, sloping

downwards from the intersection (see Figure 1).
Load
Bearing
Supporting W alls
or
The walls of a building that support the roof trusses (see Figures 1 & 2,
where all walls, except the Gable and Parapet walls, are Load Bearing).
Longitudinal
Refers to the direction of the roof (usually at right angles t o the trusses).
Parapet Wall
The vertical wall at the end of a building section, extending above the roof
covering (see Figure 1).
Ridgeline
The line formed at the top of the roof by the intersection of the two sloping
planes.
Roof Covering
The roofing material sheeting, tiles or slates placed on top of the timber
roof structures.
Roof Pitch Or Slope
The angle of a roof plane with respect to the horizontal.
Roof Plane
The two-dimensional, usually sloping surface of a roof, extending from the

eaves to the ridgeline between hip, valley, gable or parapet lines.
Truss Spacing or Truss

Centres (C/C)
Space between the centre-lines of adjacent trusses.
Valley
The part of a pitched roof forming the junction between two perpendicular
roof sections (see Figure 1).
Valley Line
The diagonal line formed by the intersection of two planes, sloping upwards
from the intersection (see Figure 1).
Wall Plates
Timber members, usually 38 x 76 or 38 x 114 S.A. Pine, laid flat on top of the
load bearing walls. The roof trusses are placed in their vertical positions on
top of the wall plates, which assist in spreading the roof loading evenly over
the brickwork.
Wall Ties
Galvanized steel straps or wire ties that are securely embedded in loadbearing walls at suitable positions, to anchor roof trusses or rafters to the
wall.

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Trusses
Types Outline

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Types
Term
Description
Centre Bearing Truss
Truss with a structural support at its centre as well as at the heel points.
Girder Truss
A truss that performs the special function of supporting other trusses. (See
Figures 1 and 2).
Jack Trusses
Small mono-pitch trusses in a hip construction (see Figure 1).
Mono-Pitch Truss
A truss that has only one sloping top chord, with a vertical edge on the other
side.
Monoplanar Truss
A truss with all chords and webs assembled in a single plane (as is the case
with nail-plated trusses).
Piggyback Truss
A truss that is split horizontally, usually because of transportation

considerations, with a standard or valley truss resting on top of a truncated
truss (see Figure 3).
Scissor Truss
A truss with sloping or pitched bottom chords (see Figure 7).
Split Truss
A truss that is intersected by a chimney or similar vertical obstruction.
Symmetrical Truss
A truss with the same dimensions and configuration of members on each

side of the centre line (see Figures 3, 4 and 7).
Traditional Truss
A truss that is built with lapped members, connected with bolts and nails.
Truncated Truss
A truss that is flattened at the top to suite the height requirements dictated by
its position in the roof. A truss may also be so manufactured because of
transportation considerations, e.g. the lower portion of a piggyback truss
(see Figure 3).
Truss
A triangulated combination of members and joints that forms a rigid structural

component of a roof, designed to support both permanent and imposed
loads.
Truss Types
Names given to trusses with different shapes and different web

configurations. See page 1.10 for a list of Truss Types.
Valley Truss
A truss used to form a valley in association with standard or special trusses

(see Figures 1 and 3).
Vierendeel Truss
A truss that lacks triangulation in its frame, in which complete joint stiffness
must be provided.

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Truss Outline
Figure
3:
Piggy-Back Truss Valley Truss on
Truncated Truss
Figure
4:
A Standard Truss.
Purlins,
Runners
and Brandering are
shown in section
Figure
5:
Stubbed
and
Cantilevered Truss.
Battens
and
Runners are shown
in section

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Components of
a truss
Term
Description
Apex (Peak)
The highest point on a truss where the sloping top chords meet.
Bearing
Structural support of trusses (usually walls), normally with a timber wall plate.
Bearing Cut
A horizontal cut to the bottom of a sloping bottom chord, usually the width of
the bearing, i.e. the wall plate width (see Figure 7).
Butt Cut
A slight vertical cut (usually less than 75mm) at the outside edge of a trusss
bottom chord to ensure the correct height over the wall plate (see Fig ure 5).
Bottom Chord (BC) or Tie

Beam
Horizontal or sloping member that establishes the lower edge of a truss and
usually carries combined bending and tension stresses.
Cantilever
The part of a structural member that extends beyond its support (see Figure
5).
Cantilever Strut
A web that joins the bottom chord above the bearing point to the top chord of
a cantilevered truss (see Figure 5).
Chord
One of the main members that form the outline of the truss and that are
subject to relatively large axial forces and bending moments.
Clear Span
The horizontal distance between interior edges of supports.
Heel
The point on a truss at which the top chord and bottom chord intersect.
Joint
Point of intersection of one or more web(s) with a chord.
Nail Plate
A galvanized steel plate punched to form a nail pattern integral with the plate
and used to connect timber members.
Node (Node-Point)
A point of intersection of two or more members that make up the panels of a

truss.
Nominal Span
The horizontal distance between the outside edges of the supports (wall
plates) usually the tie beam length.
Overhang
The extension of the top chord of a truss beyond the bearing support.
Panel
A truss segment defined by two adjacent joints or nodes.
Plumb Cut
A vertical cut to the end of the top chord to provide for vertical (plumb)
installation of the fascia or gutter (see Figure 4).
Splice Point
The point at which two chord members are joined together to form a single
member.
Square Cut
A square cut to the end of the top chord, i.e. perpendicular to the edges of
the chord (see Figure 5).
Stub End
The end of a truss that is trimmed back so that the top and bottom chords do
not meet at a heel but are separated by a vertical member (see Figure 5).
Top Chord (TC) or Rafter
The sloping or horizontal member that establishes the upper edge of a truss.
Triangulation
Webs and chords forming triangles to ensure the stability of a structural

frame such as a truss.
Web
A member that joins the top and bottom chords of a truss, to form a
triangular pattern. Webs may carry tensile or compressive forces, depending
on their position in the truss.

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Sundry Timbers
Connected to
Trusses
Term
Description
Barge Boards
Trim boards applied to gable ends of buildings.
Battens
Small-section timber members (See SANS 1783-4) spanning between

trusses, connected to the top of the trusses top chords, and usually
supporting a roof covering of tiles or slates (see Figure 5).
Batten Spacing or Batten

Centres
Space between the cen tre lines of adjacent battens.
Bracing
Timber members placed perpendicular or diagonally between trusses to

prevent movement due to lateral forces (such as wind) or buckling forces
due to compression. Rules for bracing are given in SANS 10243 The
Design, Manufacture and Erection of Timber Roof Trusses, and in the Roof
Erectors Handbook, volumes one and two, published by the Institute for
Timber Construction.
Brandering
Small-section timber members (see SANS 1783-4) connected to the

underside of the bottom chord and used to support a fixed ceiling (see Figure
4).
Fascia
Trim board connected to the ends of overhangs at the eaves of buildings.
Lateral Brace
A member placed and connected at right angles to top or bottom chords or

web member of a truss.
Purlins
Horizontal timber members spanning between trusses, connected to the top

of the top chords, and usually supporting a roof covering of sheeting (see
Figures 4).
Purlin Spacing or Purlin

Centres
Space between the centre lines of adjacent purlins (see Figures 6).
Runner Or Binder
Continuous bracing member that runs the length of the roof to provide lateral
stability for web members or chords of trusses in conjunction with
triangulated cross-bracing (see Figures 4 and 5).
Wall Plates
Timber members, usually 38 x 76 or 38 x 114 S.A. Pine, laid flat on top of the
load bearing walls. The roof trusses are placed in their vertical positions on
top of the wall plates, which assist in spreading the roof loading evenly over
the brickwork (see Figures 4 and 5).

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Dimensioning
Dimensioning
Outline
Figure
6:
Dimensioned Truss
with Butt Cut and
right Stub Back.
Figure
7:
Dimensioned
Scissor Truss with
Horizontal Bearing
Cuts
to
Bottom
Chords

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Terminology
Term
Description
Batten Centres
The distance, measured along the slope of the top chord, between battens.
Bearing Width
The horizontal width of the structural support of trusses usually the timber wall
plate.
Bottom Chord Pitch
The angle of the bottom chord (BC) or tie beam with respect to the horizontal
(see Figure 7).
Clear Span
The horizontal distance between interior edges of supports.
Effective Lengths
The distance, measured along the slope of the top chord, between lateral
bracing members usually purlins connected to the top chord.
Heel Height
The vertical height from the bottom of the bottom chord to the top of the top
chord at the heel line (usually at the outside edge of the bearing).
Nominal Span
The horizontal distance between the outside edges of the supports (wall plates)
usually the tie beam length.
Overall Height
The vertical height from the bottom of the bottom chord to the top of the apex.
Overhang Length
The horizontal length of the extension of the top chord beyond the bearing
support.
Panel Length
The distance between the centres of adjacent joints or nodes, measured

horizontally along the chords (see Figures 6 and 7).
Pitch Or Slope
The angle of a chord with respect to the horizontal.
Purlin Centres
The distance, measured along the slope of the top chord, between purlins.
Stub Height
The vertical height from the bottom of the bottom chord to the top of the top
chord at the outside edge of the support (wall plate).
Top Chord Pitch
The angle of the top chord (TC) or rafter with respect to the horizontal.

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All acts & standards contain an extensive list of terminology.

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Task 4a
1)
Identify the following roof terms:
2)
Identify the following truss terms:
3)
Identify the following dimensions:
a)
1)
What is truss triangulation and why is it

necessary/effective?

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2)
Sketch an example of a triangulated truss.
3)
Sketch an example of a non-triangulated truss.

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Section 5 Framing and understanding of roof geometry
Overview
In this chapter we will try to understand the outside shape of a roof from drawings provided by the
builder or architect. In order to visualize a three-dimensional roof shape the drawings should
include a Plan View as well as Elevations of the building from a number of sides.
Specific Outcomes
understanding of:
Drawings and Site Plans
Building Ends
Junction Parallel Blocks
Junction Perpendicular Blocks
Corners
Mono-pitch Corners
Other Common Non-standard Roof Sections

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Drawings and Site Plans

Overview
National building regulations specify that drawings and site plans shall be
drawn in suitable scales.
Layout drawings and elevations are usually presented in scales of 1:100,
1:50 or 1:20. In some instances 1:200 may be used for elevations.
Note: A scale given on a layout drawing as 1:100indicates that every 100

units on site are represented on the drawing by 1 unit.
Thus an actual length of 5 meters (i.e. 5 000 mm) is drawn 50 mm long on
the 1:100 drawing, and dimensioned as 5 000.
Plan View
It is important to identify the Load Bearing Walls on which the roof trusses
will be supported (in the following plan drawings all load bearing walls are
shown shaded). The Roof Lines ridgelines, hip lines, valley lines, gable
and eaves overhang lines at the ends of building sections and at junctions,
provide information regarding the required shape of the roof.
In the two examples shown below the wall plans are identical (apart from the
parapet wall in Roof B), yet the two roof shapes are quite different, as
indicated by the roof lines on the plan drawings.
Roof A
A ridgeline marks the apex of each of the three roof sections on this roof
plan.
Diagonal lines in the outside corners of the building indicate hip ends. The
two partial hip lines in the central section connect the higher ridgeline to
the two lower ridgelines on either side of it.
The diagonal lines in the two inside corners of the building are valley lines
formed where two sections intersect.

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Roof B
A ridgeline marks the apex of each of the three roof sections. Gable ends
are identified by the ridgeline extending over the end wall to the gable
overhang line. At a parapet end (at lower left), the ridgeline and roof end at
the inside edge of the parapet wall, which extends above the roof.
The parapet and gable walls are not load bearing.
The vertical ridgeline meets the left horizontal ridgeline at a point,
indicating that these two ridge-lines are at the same height.
This means that the narrower section must have a steeper pitch than the
wider section in order to reach the same ridge height. The difference
between the pitches of the two sections is also clear from the fact that the
hip and valley lines across the corner are not at 45 o to the walls and
ridgeline.

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End & Junction

Types
The following Plan Views of Roof A and Roof B show the building End
Types and Junction Types of these two different roof shapes.
The hatching on these drawings runs horizontally along each roof plane.
Roof A
The bottom left section starts with a hip at the bottom and ends in a valley,
which sits on top of the side plane of the top section, forming a Valley
junction.
The top left section has a hip at both ends, while the top right section has a
valley at the left and a hip at the right end. At the junction of the two parallel
sections the valley end of the narrower section sits on top of the hip end of
the wider section.
Note: In both junctions the second valley line coincides with the lower portion
of a hip line, but these lines are not shown because the roof planes on that
side of the junctions are continuous across the junctions.

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Roof B
At the bottom end of the building the roof ends at the inside face of the
parapet wall.
At the right end of the building the roof extends over the gable wall.
At the under-gable junction the narrower section of the roof is lower and
extends to the partial gable wall, while the roof of the wider section is higher
and extends to a gable overhang above the lower roof on one side only. On
the other side of this under-gable junction the roof plane is continuous.
Note: Since the pitch differs on either side of the corner, this corner junction
will require a customized hip and valley set.
Alternatively, a Hip-Valley junction may be used see Hip-Valley Framing
Elevations
Elevation drawings are side views of a building, named for the direction from
which the building is viewed :
The South Elevation shows the south side of the building, viewed
from the south looking north;
The East Elevation shows the east side of the building, viewed from
the east looking west;
The North Elevation shows the north side of the building, viewed
from the north looking south;
The West Elevation shows the west side of the building, viewed from
the west looking east.
In the drawings of Roof A below, and Roof B on the following page, the
elevations are shown rotated around the plan drawing, so that each elevation
is positioned on that side of the plan which it depicts. This is not normally
done on architectural drawings, but is done here so that the positions of hip
or valley apexes, wall lines or overhang lines in the elevations may easily be
checked by simply laying a ruler or other straight edge across from the plans
to the elevation drawings

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Roof A
Roof B
The four elevations of Roof A and Roof B are shown again on the following
pages, this time with the Elevations in the upright position and, except for
the South Elevation, the Plans have been rotated. In each drawing the
elevation depicts the side of the plan which is shown directly above it. Again,
this allows the positions of lines or points in the elevations to be checked by
laying a straight edge across from the plans to the elevation drawings.

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South Elevation
The South Elevation shows the south side of the building, viewed from the
south looking north.
The horizontal roof lines in this

elevation correspond with the
horizontal ridgelines on the plan.
The horizontal roof lines in this

elevation correspond with the
horizontal ridgelines on the plan.
The apex of the hip at the left of

the elevation corresponds with
the vertical ridgeline on the plan
The apex of the parapet wall on

the
left
of
the
elevation
corresponds with the vertical
ridgeline on the plan.
The sloping roof lines from the

highest section of the roof
elevation connect this higher roof
in the centre to the lower roofs on
either side, corresponding with
the partial hip lines in the plan.
The height of the central section

extends from the apex of the left
section in the elevation, where the
roof is obscured by the parapet
wall, to the under-gable junction.
Note the change in height of the
roof at this junction, with a
continuous roof plane extending
across the front of the two
sections on the right of this
elevation.

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East Elevation
The East Elevation shows the east side of the building, viewed from the
east looking west.
The roof plans have been rotated through 90o (clockwise), so that the view
illustrated by the elevation reflects the lower side of the plan drawing above it.
The hip end of the central

section of the roof plan is
visible in the elevation
drawing behind the front
hip end. The two vertical
ridgelines on this plan
drawing correspond with
the apexes of these two
hips in the elevation.
The horizontal roof line at
the left of the elevation
drawing extends from the
apex of the hip at the left
to the apex of the valley
at the side of the higher
hip end, corresponding
with the horizontal
ridgeline at the top of the
plan drawing.
The partial gable wall at the under-gable

junction is visible behind the front gable
wall in the elevation. The two vertical
ridgelines on this plan drawing
correspond with the apexes of these two
gable walls in the elevation.
The horizontal roof line in this elevation
drawing extends from the parapet wall
on the left to the apex of the higher roof
section on the right, corresponding with
the horizontal ridgeline in the plan
drawing.

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North Elevation
The North Elevation shows the north side of the building, viewed from the
north looking south.
The roof plans have been rotated through another 90o (a total of 180o relative
to the original orientation). Again the view illustrated by the elevation reflects
the lower side of the rotated plan drawing above it.
The horizontal roof lines

at the top of each roof
section in this elevation
correspond with the
horizontal ridgelines on
the plan.
The section at the top
right of the roof plan is
not visible in the
elevation drawing, as it
is obscured by the
higher central section of
the roof.
The horizontal roof lines in this elevation

correspond with the horizontal ridgelines
on the plan.
The right hand horizontal ridgeline on the
plan extends from the overhang line at
the under-gable junction to the vertical
ridgeline on the right, corresponding with
the horizontal roof line of the higher roof
in the elevation drawing.
Note the change in height of the roof at
the Under-gable junction, with a break in
the roof planes across the two sections
of the building shown in this view.
At the right of the elevation the parapet
wall is visible above the sloping roof.

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West Elevation
The West Elevation shows the west side of the building, viewed from the
west looking east.
The roof plans have been rotated a total of 270o relative to the original
orientation.
The lower vertical

ridgeline on this plan
corresponds with the hip
apex of the left section of
the roof in the elevation
drawing.
The horizontal ridgeline
on the plan extends from
the apex of the valley at
the side of the hip end to
the apex of the hip end
at the right,
corresponding with the
horizontal roof line in the
elevation drawing.
The lower vertical ridgeline on this plan

drawing corresponds with the apex of the
sloping end of the roof in the elevation
drawing.
The horizontal ridgeline on the plan
extends from the vertical ridgeline to the
parapet wall on the right, corresponding
with the horizontal roof line in the
elevation drawing.

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Sections
In addition to Plan and Elevation views, architects drawings may also

include Sections.
A Section is a slice through a building, showing the internal features of the
building.
The position of this slice is indicated on the roof plan by dotted lines, as
shown here. The arrows through the dotted lines indicate the direction in
which the section is viewed.
A Fink type truss is shown here. The truss type selected in a specific roof
depends on the span, pitch and roof cover, as well as on an understanding of
structural roof design.
Web configurations included on an architects section drawings may usually

be ignored.
Section drawings are useful in illustrating the profiles of non-standard

trusses, such as on cantilevered or stubbed sections of a building, as shown
below.

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A Section through a cantilevered area
A Section through a stubbed area
Cantilevered and Stubbed areas of a building can be identified on a plan by

the position of the overhang line at a cantilever the overhang line is flush
with that of the standard building section, while at a stub the overhang line is
stepped in with the stub wall, as shown on the plan drawings above.
Cantilevered and Stubbed areas of a building can be identified on elevation
drawings by the height of the overhang line the overhang line maintains
the standard height along a cantilever wall, while it is higher along a stub
wall, as shown on the West Elevations in the drawings above.

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Example 1
Example 2

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Example 3
Example 4

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Example 5
Example 6

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Building Ends
Overview
All buildings have defining wall ends, these ends usually provide an indication
of the roof design required to finalise the architectural requirements of the
building design.
Gable End and

Parapet End
A standard duo-pitched roof section is identified by the ridgeline running

along the centre of the building block, parallel to the load bearing walls.
Wall Plates are placed on top of load bearing walls to help spread the weight
of the trusses evenly over the brickwork. Trusses are fastened to the wall
plates with wire or hoop iron.
The roof covering is connected to Purlins (for sheeting) or Battens (for tiles),
which are small-section timber members connected to the top of the top
chords of the trusses. Purlins or battens run parallel to the load bearing walls,
normally spaced equally between the ridgeline and the ends of the eaves
overhangs.
At a Gable end the purlins or battens extend over the gable wall, to the end
of the gable overhang. At a Parapet end the roof and purlins/battens end at
the inside face of the parapet wall.

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Framing at
Gable and
Parapet Ends
Trusses (labelled T1 in this example) are normally positioned perpendicular

to the load bearing walls, with their apexes forming the ridgeline and their
overhangs extending to the eaves lines outside of the load bearing walls.
Trusses are usually spaced equally along the length of the roof section, with
the first and last trusses placed close to the gable or parapet wall, leaving a
gap of 20 50 mm.
The maximum spacing of the trusses is limited by the weight of the roof
covering and the maximum distance that the purlins or battens can span.

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Standard Hip
End
At a standard hip end the ridgeline ends at the apex of the hip, from where
two hip lines run down to the corners of the block.
The eaves lines at the ends of the overhangs run parallel to the outside edge
of the load bearing walls, including the end wall.
Purlins or battens run parallel to the ridgeline up to the hip lines, and
perpendicular to the ridgeline at the hip end between the two hip lines.
The end wall, like the side walls, is load bearing, and requires a wall plate.
Different Hip Types may be constructed to frame a standard hip end:
A Forty-Five Degree hip is simple and easy to erect, but generally not
economical for spans over 11 meters, as the entire load of the hip end is
supported at the centre of the main girder.
A Truncated Hip system, in which the main girder is positioned between the
hip apex and the end wall, is more suitable for larger spans. The height of the
main girder decreases as its distance from the hip apex is increased, making
the truncated system unsuitable at low pitches.

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45o Hip Framing
A full-sized girder, G1, is positioned at the apex of the hip. Two diagonal
jack girders, JG1, positioned along the hip lines, support jack trusses and
rafters in the corners of the hip. These two jack girders and a central jack
truss, J1, are supported at the centre of the main girder, G1.
Truncated Hip
Framing
The main girder, TG, is positioned at a specified distance the Setback

from the end wall. This girder is truncated, with a horizontal top chord set
down below the bottom edge of the jack trusses rafters. Depending on the
girder setback and the hip span, additional truncated trusses (TT in the
example) may be positioned between the truncated girder and the hip apex.
Jack trusses, J4, and two diagonal jack girders, JG2, along the hip lines are
supported on the central section of the truncated girder, with their rafters or
top chords extending over the top of the truncated girder and truncated
trusses to the hip lines. Smaller jack trusses and rafters in the corners of the
hip are supported on the diagonal jack girders, JG2.
The last web, or End Vertical, of the jack trusses is often set back from the
end of the span, leaving small Nibs in the top and bottom chords, by which
they are connected to the girder.

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Louvre Hip End
At a Louvre Hip end the ridgeline ends at the vertical louvre. Two hip lines
run at forty-five degrees from the lower ends of the vertical louvre to the
corners of the hip end.
Purlins or battens run parallel to the ridgeline up to the louvre and the hip
lines, and perpendicular to the ridgeline at the hip end between the two hip
lines.
The end wall, like the side walls, is load bearing, and requires a wall plate.
Jerkin Hip (Barn

Hip End)
At a Jerkin Hip End the ridgeline ends at the apex of the partial hip, from
where two hip lines run down to the end wall of the block.
Purlins or battens run parallel to the ridgeline up to the hip lines, and
perpendicular to the ridgeline between the two hip lines at each hip end.
The end wall requires a wall plate on the hip section, where the hip rafters
are supported.

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Louvre Hip
Framing
At the Louvre Hip end a full size girder, LG, is positioned at a specified
setback for the louvre. This girder supports jack trusses, J1, and two
diagonal jack girders, JG, positioned on the hip lines. Smaller jack trusses
and rafters in the corners of the hip are supported on the diagonal jack
girders.
Jerkin Hip (Barn

Hip) Framing
The Jerkin Hip is constructed by placing truncated trusses at the end wall
(T2 and T3, in this example). Two diagonal rafters, R3, on the hip lines
and perpendicular rafters, R1 and R2, are placed across the horizontal top
chords of these truncated trusses.

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Junctions Parallel Blocks

Overview
Where a building block joins a wider block, with a parallel but not continuous
ridgeline, the junction may be a partial gable or Under-Gable, or a Valley on
top of a Hip end.
Junction: Undergable
A ridgeline runs along the centre of each block. The stepped wall at the
Under-gable junction is a partial gable wall, with the roof and battens/purlins
of the narrower section ending at this wall, underneath the gable overhang of
the wider block.
Junction: Valley
on Hip
The narrower section ends in a Valley, which extends onto the Hip end of the
wider section. A hip line connects the two ridgelines, which run along the
centre of each block, parallel to the load bearing walls.

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Under-gable
Framing
The last truss in the wider section (T1 in the example) is positioned close to
the partial gable wall, with the purlins/ battens extending over this wall to
carry the gable overhang. The last truss in the narrower section (T2) is
usually placed close to the other side of the gable wall.
Valley on Hip
Framing
The wider section ends in a hip. The narrower section ends in a valley,
positioned on top of the hip-end of the wider section. If there is no internal
supporting wall at the junction, a valley girder (G3 in the example) is
required to carry the hip-end of the wider section.

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Junctions Perpendicular Blocks

Overview
Where a building section joins another section at right angles, a Valley End
extends from the end of the joining or Overlay section onto the side of the
Underlay section.
T-Junction
The overlay section ends in a Valley, which extends onto the side of the
perpendicular or Underlay section. The ridgeline of the Overlay section
extends to the apex of the valley, from where valley lines run at forty-five
degrees down to the corners of the junction.
T-Junction with
Flying Valley
If the span of the overlay roof is wider than the span of the underlay roof
section, a Flying Valley is formed. The valley lines end at the underlay
sections ridgeline, from where they turn back as hip lines to meet the higher
ridgeline of the overlay roof section.
Battens or purlins run parallel to the ridgeline of each roof section, ending at
the valley lines. Runners are usually placed on the underlay roof between the
valley trusses to bridge the gap in the battens/purlins, which provide lateral
bracing to a roof section.

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T-Junction
Framing
The valley trusses at the ends of the overlay roof sections are positioned on
top of the trusses of the underlay roof. Valley trusses at the top of the flying
valley are truncated see V5 in the example.
If there is no internal load bearing wall across a valley junction, a valley girder
is positioned across the end of the valley section to carry the trusses from the
underlay roof section see G1 and G2 in this example.

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Corners
Overview
Where two building sections with equal spans are joined at a corner (see the
left corner in this example), a hip line runs down from the intersection of the
ridgelines to the outside corner of the building, and a valley line runs from the
intersection of the ridgelines down to the inside corner.
L-Corner
Equal Spans
L-Corners
Unequal Spans
If the two building sections have different spans (see the right corner in this
example), a diagonal hip line joins the two ridgelines. A hip line runs down
from the end of the wider sections ridgeline to the outside corner of the
building, and a valley line runs from the end of the wider sections ridgeline
down to the inside corner.
Battens or purlins run parallel to the ridgeline of each roof section, ending at
the valley and hip lines. Runners are usually placed on the underlay roof
between the valley trusses to bridge the gap in the battens/purlins, which
provide lateral bracing to a roof section.

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L-Corner
Framing
One section ends in a valley, while the other ends in a hip. In a corner with
unequal spans, the valley is usually at the end of the smaller span section,
while the wider section ends in a hip.
If there is no internal load bearing wall, a valley girder is placed at the valley
end to carry the trusses and hip end of the other section see G2 and G4,
in this example.
Although girders G2 and G4 have the same profile, they must be designed
individually, as they carry different loads. In this example, G4 has been
designed with an additional vertical web to coincide with the load of the
incoming girder, G3.
Hip-Valley
Corner (Equal
Spans)
Where two building sections with equal spans are joined at an odd angle, a
hip line is formed joining the outside corner to the intersection of the
ridgelines, and a valley line runs from the intersection of the ridgelines down
to the inside junction of the two blocks.
Battens or purlins run parallel to the ridgelines of each roof section, ending at
the hip/valley lines.

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Where two building sections with different clear spans are joined at an angle,
a continuous hip-valley line, as shown in this example, can be achieved by:
Adjusting the span of the wider section by stubbing the trusses;
Adjusting the span of the narrower section by cantilevering the

trusses;
or
Hip-Valley
Framing
Adjusting the pitch of one of the sections (i.e. decreasing the pitch of
the wider section or increasing the pitch of the narrower section) to
maintain a continuous ridge height across the junction.
A girder is usually placed across the junction to form the hip-valley line and
carry incoming trusses from both sides, which are stubbed back against this
girder.
Where two building sections that have unequal clear spans and different
pitches are joined in a hip-valley junction (see Note c, above), the framing will
be similar to that shown here, except that the incoming trusses at the junction
will not be symmetric about the hip-valley line, as in the two junctions in this
example, where all three sections have the same width.

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Mono-Pitch Corners
Overview
On a building with a Mono-Pitch Roof, there will be no central ridgeline

between the load bearing walls. If the direction of the roof slope is not
indicated on the Plan view, it must be deduced from the Elevations.
Mono-pitch with
Valley Corner
In a mono-pitch L-corner where the roof slopes down into the inside of the
corner, a Mono-Pitch Valley End on the narrower building section extends
onto the side of the wider section.
Battens or purlins run parallel to the load bearing walls on each roof section,
ending at the valley line.
At the high end the roof may have an overhang, as in this example, or it may
end at the inside face of a parapet-type wall (see the following example).
If both sections of the building have the same width, the top of the valley line
will coincide with the outside corner of the building, and the mono-pitch valley
may be placed at the end of either section.

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Framing a
Mono-pitch
Valley Corner
The narrower section ends in a valley, with valley trusses placed onto the
trusses of the wider section.
The end vertical at the high end of mono-pitch trusses may be built into the
wall, or it may be set back, with only a bottom chord extension or nib built into
the wall, as in this example.
If there is no internal load bearing wall at the junction, a valley girder is
placed at the valley end to carry the trusses of the wider section see girder
G in this example.
Mono-pitch with
Hip Corner
In a mono-pitch L-corner where the roof slopes down to the outside of the
corner, a diagonal girder is usually placed under the hip line to carry stubbed
back trusses from both sections.
Battens or purlins run parallel to the load bearing walls on each roof section,
ending at the hip line.
Where the two sections have different spans but the same pitch, as in this
example, the apex of the wider section is higher than that of the narrower
section. The walls at the high end therefore usually extend above the roofs of
both sections, so that both roof sections end at the inside face of these
parapet-type walls.

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Framing a
Mono-pitch Hip
Corner
A diagonal girder, G, is placed under the hip line. This girder carries Jack
trusses from both sides of the corner.
The end vertical at the high end of mono-pitch trusses may be built into the
wall, or it may be set back, with only a bottom chord extension or nib built into
the wall. The top chord may also have a nib built into the wall, as in this
example.

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Other Common Non-Standard Roof Sections

Stubbed
Sections
Where a supporting wall together with the eaves line is stepped into the
building, while the ridgeline is continuous, as shown in this Plan view, the roof
trusses are Stubbed back on this supporting wall. This is confirmed by the
elevations, which show raised eaves along the stub wall.
Battens or purlins are continuous, running parallel to the load bearing walls
on each roof section and ending at the ends of the gable overhangs.
In this example the wall connecting the two sections is a gable wall. A
parapet wall would also be appropriate in this type of junction, in which case
the roof would end at the inside face of the wall. Either way, this wall is not
load bearing, and does not require a wall plate.
Framing
Stubbed
Sections
A standard T1 truss is normally placed close to

the gable (or parapet) wall at the junction to
allow for fixing of battens/purlins, as well as
fixing of ceiling brandering to the wall. On either
side of this last T1 truss, T1 and T2 trusses
may be spaced at maximum truss centres, as
specified for the roof cover.
The end vertical, or Stub Post, of the T2
trusses in the stubbed section may be built into
the wall, or it may be set back, with only a
bottom chord extension or nib built into the wall,
as in this example.
Depending on the dimension of the stub-back,
an additional diagonal web may be required to
connect the stub post to the nearest joint, but
the remaining web configuration of the stubbed T2 trusses should match
that of the standard T1 trusses, to allow for web runners, if required, to be
continuous through the length of the building.

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Cantilevered
Sections
Where a supporting wall is stepped into the building, but the eaves line and
the ridgeline are continuous, as shown in this Plan View, the roof trusses are
Cantilevered on this supporting wall. This is confirmed by the elevations,
which show the eaves at the same height along the cantilever wall.
Battens or purlins are continuous, running parallel to the load bearing walls
on each roof section.
The wall connecting the two sections is not load bearing, and does not
require a wall plate.

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Framing
Cantilevered
Sections
Standard T1 and cantilevered T2 trusses may be spaced at maximum truss

centres, as specified for the roof cover, through the length of the building.
However, a truss should not be placed directly onto the parallel wall at the
junction between the two sections, as this truss would have an additional
internal support point, and would need to be designed accordingly. A
standard T1 truss is often placed close to this wall (as in this example), to
allow for fixing of ceiling and ceiling brandering to the wall.
Trusses, T2, in the cantilevered section have the same outside profile as the
standard T1 trusses, but will require an additional web or Cantilever Strut,
from the nearest top chord joint to the bearing point, if the cantilever wall
does not coincide with a bottom chord node point or joint in the trusses. This
cantilever strut serves to transfer the weight carried by the trusses into the
supporting wall.
Apart from the cantilever strut, the web configuration of the cantilevered T2
trusses should match that of the standard T1 trusses, to allow for web
runners, if required, to be continuous through the length of the building.

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The Professional Practice of Architectural Working Drawings By Osamu A.

Wakita, Richard M. Linde

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Task 5a
1)
Identify the types of Building Ends /

Junctions and Roof Lines as per the
following plan drawing
End A:
End A
End B:
End C
Junction 1
Line (iii)
Junction 1:
End C
Line (i)
Line (i):
Line (ii)
Line (ii):
Line (iii):
End B
2)
From the sketch below name the ends on

the roof?
a)
a)
b)
b)

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Section 6 Trigonometry
Overview
Originally TRIGONOMETRY was that branch of mathematics concerned with solving triangles
using trigonometric ratios which were seen as properties of triangles rather than of angles.
The word Trigonometry comes from the Greek words :
Treis = three,
Gonia = angle, and
Metron= measure.
The Early Greeks developed the subject by studying the relationship between the arc of the circle the measure of the central angle - and the chord of the arc.
Initially it was used in Astronomy but later it was much used in Architecture, Navigation, Surveying
and Engineering, but in the last two centuries it has been used more for Mathematical Analysis and
for repeating Waves and Periodic Phenomena.
Specific Outcomes
understanding of:
The Angle and sides of triangles
Trigonometry in Roofing Calculations

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The Angle and sides of triangles

Overview
In this chapter we will look at how we can use the information gleaned by the
ancient mathematicians in the design and calculation of roof structures.
The following basic facts about triangles in general, and right-angled triangles
in particular, are useful to remember.
The Angles
In any triangle:
The sum of the three angles is equal to 180 i.e. A + B + C = 180
Therefore, in a right-angled triangle:
Since one angle is equal to 90, the other two angles together must add up to
90. i.e. A + B = 90
Therefore, if we know the size of either A or B, we can calculate the size
of the other angle.
e.g. if A = 30,
then B = 90 - 30 = 60 .
angles.
The Sides
A and B are called complementary
In a right-angled triangle:
If the lengths of two sides are known we can calculate the length of the third
side by using Pythagoras Theorem. This theorem, named after an ancient
Greek mathematician, involves only the relative lengths of the three sides
and is independent of the size of the other two angles:
In a right-angled triangle, the square on the Hypotenuse (the longest side
opposite the right angle) is equal to the sum of the squares on the other two
sides.
L = A + B
where
L = the Longest side or Hypotenuse
and
A and B are the other 2 sides

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Example
In a right-angled triangle the lengths of the two sides alongside the right
angle are given as 3 meters and 4 meters. Calculate the length of the third
side (the side opposite the right angle).
Substituting the values of A and B in the equation:
L = A + B,
we get: L2 = 32 + 42 = 9 + 16 = 25
i.e. L = 25
Taking the square root on both sides of this equation gives: L = 5
The
Relationship
between the
Angles and the
Sides
In any triangle:
The lengths of the sides are proportional to the size of the angles opposite
them i.e. the longest side is opposite the largest angle, and the shortest
side is opposite the smallest angle.
In a right-angled triangle:
Since the largest angle is the right angle (= 90), the side opposite the right
angle is the longest side. This side is called the Hypotenuse.
If we impose a right-angled triangle onto a square grid, we can see that the
ratio of the lengths of the sides remains constant for any fixed angle, A, no
matter how large or small the triangle.
Example
In this example, the side opposite A is half the length of the base of the
triangle. This is true for all three of the triangles shown here.
The longest side the Hypotenuse, or sloping side in this example, also
maintains the same ratio to the other two sides, regardless of the size of the
triangle. Hence, in the smallest of the 3 triangles, all three sides are half the
size of the corresponding sides of the largest triangle.

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The ratio is only maintained as long as the angle remains fixed. For a
different angle the relative size of the sides is different.
However, for any fixed angle, the ratio of the sides to each other remains
constant, no matter how small or large the triangle. As can be seen in the
drawing: if the vertical side is halved, the horizontal side of each triangle is
also halved, as is the sloping side.
Thus it can be stated that the angle determines the ratio of the sides, and
conversely, the ratio of the sides determines the angle.
i.e. for a fixed angle, A, the ratio of the lengths of the sides is constant.
This information forms the basis of the trigonometric functions. Each of these
trigonometric equations, listed on page 3, links the size of an angle in a rightangled triangle to the ratio of the lengths of two of its sides.
The trigonometric equations, together with the equation of Pythagoras
theorem from the previous page, enable us to calculate any of the four
variables of a right-angled triangle (the length of the three sides and one of
the two complementary angles) if just two any two of the variables are
known.

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Overview
In a triangle which has one right angle, label one of the other two angles A,
and the three sides as follows:
H = the Longest side (opposite the right angle);
B = the side Between A and the right angle;
O = the side Opposite A.
H (Hypotenuse)
Longest Side
O
Opposite to Angle
90
A
Adjacent to Angle
Labels
These four labels represent the 4 variables in our right-angled triangle:
Angle
Side A
Side O
Side H
Whichever way the triangle may be rotated or flipped, and whichever angle is
labelled , make sure that the side opposite is labelled O, and the side
between and the right angle is A. The third angle may be ignored as it is
not an independent variable it is the complement of , and therefore varies
according to the size of .

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The
Trigonometric
Equations
The Tangent, Sine and Cosine (or Tan, Sin and Cos), as listed here, define
the relationships between the angle, , and the three sides, A, O and H.
sin =
O
H
H (Hypotenuse)
Longest Side
O
Opposite to Angle
A
cos =
H
tan =
O
A
90
A
Adjacent to Angle
If any two of the four variables of a right-angled triangle are known, the value
of either of the other two variables can be calculated by substituting the
known values in the appropriate trigonometric equation above i.e. the
equation containing the two known variables plus the variable that the
Candidate wish to calculate. A scientific calculator is needed to determine the
value of the Tan, Sin or Cos of a known angle, or to determine the size of an
angle whose Tan, Sin or Cos is known.

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Example 1
To find the size of if side O = 2300mm and side A = 5800mm, substitute

these known values in the first equation to calculate the Tangent of , and
hence the size of :
tan =
O
A
tan =
2300
= 0.3966
5800
Use a calculator to determine the ArcTan or

Tan-1 of 0.3966, which gives 21.63o
i.e. = 21.63o
Example 2
To find side A if H = 5400mm and = 25, substitute these values in the

second equation, use a calculator to determine the Cos of 25, and hence
calculate the value of A:
cos =
A
H
cos 25 = 0.9063 (from calculator)

A = H x 0.9063 x 5400 = 4894
i.e. A = 4894 mm

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The Oblique
Triangle
Sin Rule
a/SinA = b/SinB = c/SinC
Cosine Rule
Variables
a2=b2+ c2 2bc Cos A
b2=a2+ c2 2ac Cos B
c2=a2+ b2 2ab Cos C
The three trigonometric equations and the equation of Pythagoras theorem

each contain three variables. To enable quick selection of a suitable equation
to solve for any of the variables, these equations have been manipulated,
using basic Algebra (see Notes 1 & 2, below), to produce the following set of
equations:
a
Tan =
O
A
O = A x Tan
A =
O
Tan
Sin =
O
H
O = H x Sin
H =
O
Sin
Cos =
A
L
A = H x Cos
H =
O
Cos
H=
(A
O2
in
A =
Cos
Cosec (sin )
O2
O =
(H
A2
Tan
O
-1
(H
A
-1
Sec (cos )
-1
cot (tan )

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In the examples that follow, the above set of equations will serve as a quick
reference, allowing us to select the appropriate equation to solve each
problem i.e. the equation in which the unknown variable is isolated on the
left side of the equation and the two known variables are on the right.
For example:
Note 1
To calculate the size of when sides O and A are known, select

equation 1a;
To calculate the length of A when and side H are known, select

equation 3b;
To calculate the length of O when sides A and H are known, select

equation 4c.
The equations in lines 1 3 above are derived as follows:

Multiply both sides of each equation in column a by the divisor appearing on
the right side, i.e. A, H and H, respectively, and reverse the resulting equation
to produce the three equations appearing in column b.
Divide both sides of each equation in column b by the trig function of the
angle, i.e. Tan, Sin and Cos, respectively, and reverse the resulting equation
to produce the three equations appearing in column c.
e.g. multiplying both sides of the first equation, 1a, by A gives equation 1b:
Tan x A =
xA
Tan x A
O = A x Tan
(1b)
Tan x A
A =
(1c)
A
Dividing both sides by Tan gives
equation 1c:
Note 2
The equations in line 4 above are derived from Pythagoras theorem, with the
sides renamed according to the labels used above, i.e. H = A + O, as
follows:
Subtract O from both sides of the equation to get: H - O = A.
Subtract A from both sides to get: H - A = O.
Reverse these two equations to get:

H = A + O
A = H - O
O = H - A
Now use the calculator to take the square root of both sides of each of these
three equations to produce equations 4a 4c.

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The Trigonometry in Roofing Calculations

Overview
As triangulation forms the basis for roofing design and engineering,

trigonometry is utilized in calculations.
Example 1
Calculate the overall height of this mono-pitch truss, where:
Span
2350 mm
Pitch
26 degrees
Top Chord depth
111 mm
In this example there is no right-angled triangle on the drawing that

incorporates two known variables as well as the variable that we need to
calculate (the overall height). We therefore need to split the overall height into
two parts, to be calculated separately:
H1 : the height to the underside of the top chord,
H2 : the vertical height of the top chord,
where H1 + H2 = H, the overall height.

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Calculating the
value of H1
Where A =
Side B = A
Side O = O
1)
Impose a right-angled triangle incorporating H1 onto the truss, as

shown.
2)
Select an equation to calculate H1.
The unknown variable is:
H1 = side O
The 2 known variables are:

Span = 2350 = side A;
Pitch = 26
Therefore select equation 1b, with side O on the left and with side A and a
function of on the right, and substitute the labels from this example:
Equation 1b :
3)
O =
A x Tan
H1 =
Span x Tan
Substitute the known values for Span and the pitch, on the right to
get:
H1 = 2350 x Tan26
Use the calculator to get the Tan of 26, and hence the value of H1:
H1 = 2350 x 0.4877 = 1146.17
i.e. H1 =1146.17

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Calculating the
value of H2
4)
Impose a right-angled triangle incorporating H2 onto the top end of

the top chord, as shown.
5)
Select an equation for calculating H2.

H2 = side H
Top chord depth = 111 = side A;
Pitch = 26 = (see Note, below, for details)
Therefore select equation 3c, with L on the left and with A and a
function of on the right, and substitute the labels from this example:
Equation
3c :
6)
H=
A
Cos
H2 =
TC Depth
Cos
Substitute the known values for TC Depth and the pitch, P, on the
right, to get:
H2 =
111
Cos 26
H2 =
111
Cos 26
H2 =
111
(from calculator)
0.8988
H2 = 123
7)
Add H1 and H2 to get the overall height, H :

H = H 1 + H2 = 1146.17 + 123.5 = 1269.67
i.e. The overall height of the mono-pitch truss is 1270 mm.

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Note
To show that the angle in the small triangle used in the above example is
equal to the top chord pitch, P:
Consider the two right angles, R1 and R2, shown here.
R1 consists of P (the top chord pitch), plus B, as shown.
Therefore P = 90 - B.
R2 consists of A plus B.
Therefore A = 90 - B.
Therefore A = P = the pitch of the top chord.

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Example 2
Calculate :
The span of Girder G1
The pitch of Girder G1
The right section of the building is at an angle of 30 to the left

section, as shown.
The standard T1 trusses in both sections have a Pitch of 20, and a

Span of 7000.
1)
Impose a right-angled triangle onto the drawing as shown.
Calculating the
Span of Girder
G1
This triangle contains the required span of G1 on side H, and two

known variables the span of A1 on side A and an angle of 15
between A1 and G1 (see Note below).

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2)
Select an equation for calculating the span of G1.

Span of G1 = side H
Span of T1 = 7000 = side A
= 15
Therefore select equation 3c, with L on the left and with B and a
function of on the right:
Equation 3c :
H =
SpanG1 =
Cos
3)
SpanT1
Cos
Substitute the known values for SpanT1 and Cos on the right to get:
SpanG1 =
7000
Cos15
Use the calculator to get the Cos of 15, and hence the length of
SpanG1:
SpanG1 =
7000
= 7246.93
0.9659
i.e.
Note
Span of G1 =
7 247mm.
To show that the angle between the standard trusses T1 and girder G1 is
15o, consider the two right angles, R1 and R2, shown here.
R1 consists of the angle of the wall to the

horizontal, 30o, plus B, as shown.
R2 consists of B plus C (the angle

between the T1 trusses on the left and the
T1 trusses on the right).
Therefore B = 90 - 30 = 60.
Therefore C = 90 - 60 = 30.
Since girder G1 bisects C, the angle

between G1 and the standard trusses (on
either side) is C, = 15.

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Calculating the
Pitch of Girder
G1
Girder G1 must have the same apex height as truss T1. This height can be
calculated from the pitch and span of truss T1, which are both known. The
pitch of girder G1 can then be calculated using this height and the span of
G1.
1)
Impose a right-angled triangle onto the smaller truss profile, as shown
2)
Select an equation to calculate H.

Height, H = side O
Span T1 = 3500 = side A
PT = 20 o = A
Select equation 1b, with O on the left and with B and a function of A
on the right.
Equation 1b :
3)
O =
A x Tan
Height H =
SpanT1 x TanPT
Substitute the known values for SpanT1 and the pitch of T1, PT, on
the right to get:
H = 3500 x Tan20
Use the calculator to get the Tan of 20, and hence the value of H :
H = 3500 x 0.3640 = 1273.9
i.e.
H =
1 274

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4)
Impose a right-angled triangle onto the larger triangle ( truss G1).

Pitch G1 = PG
Span G1 = side A
Height, H = side O
5)
Select equation 1a, with a function of on the left and with B and O
on the right.
Equation 1a :
Tan =
TanPG =
6)
Height H
SpanG1
Substitute the known values for Height H and Span G1 to get:

TanPG =
1274
= 3516
3623.5
Use the calculator to get the ArcTan or Tan-1 of 3516, i.e. the angle
PG :
Pitch of G1 =
19.37

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Example 3
In the Hip End shown here,

Calculate :
Note
The span of the Jack Girders, JG
The pitch of the Jack Girders, JG
The Roof Pitch is 26, and the span of the main hip girder, G, is
6400mm.
This example is similar to Example 2 and can be done using the same
formulas as used in that example. However, because the diagonal girders are
at 45o to the Jack Trusses on either side of them, Pythagoras Theorem may
be used to simplify the span calculation.
Span of Jack
Girder, JG
Impose a right-angled triangle onto the hip as shown. The two sides adjacent
to the right angle of this triangle are equal in length, and equal to SpanJ1.
From Pythagoras theorem: L = A + A = 2A
Substituting, we get: (SpanJG) = 2(SpanJ1)
Taking the square root on both sides gives:
SpanJG = 2 x SpanJ1
i.e. SpanJG = 2 x 3 200 = 4 525 mm

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Pitch of Jack
Girder, JG
From Example 2, (with

SpanJ1 replacing SpanT1
of Ex.2), we have:
Height H =
And the formula for the pitch

of the girder (with SpanJG
replacing SpanG1 of Ex.2) :
TanPJG =
- (i)
SpanJ1 x TanP
Height H
- (ii)
SpanJG
Substituting the value of Height H from equation (i) in equation (ii) above:
We get the following formula for
TanPJG:
SpanJ1 x TanP
TanPJG =
SpanJG
Substituting the new value for SpanJG from a) above i.e. SpanJG = 2 x
SpanJ1, we get:
(cancel
out
SpanJ1
at top & bottom)
SpanJ1 x TanP
TanPJG =
TanPJG =
TanP
2 x SpanJ1
-1
Take the ArcTan or Tan to get the pitch of the Jack Girder, P JG :
-1
PJG = Tan (
TanP
Use the calculator to get the Tan of 26o, divide by the square root of 2. Then
take the ArcTan to get the pitch, PJG :
-1
i.e.
PJG = Tan (
Tan26
) = 19.03

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Summary: Hip-Valley Junction, where Girder, G, is at Angle, A, to the

Standard Trusses
Span of the HipValley Girder,

G
Where SpanG =
the span of the angled girder, G,
Divide the span of truss, T, by the Cos of

A to get the span of the girder, G.
SpanT
SpanG =
CosA
Pitch of the HipValley Girder,

G
SpanT =
the span of the standard truss, T1,
the angle between truss T1 and girder G.
Multiply the span of truss T by the

Tan of the roof pitch, P, and divide
by the span of girder, G, to get the
Tan of the girder pitch, PG.
SpanT x TanP
TanPG =
SpanG
Take the ArcTan of this to get the girder pitch, PG.

PG = Tan
SpanT x TanP
(
)
SpanG
Where SpanG =
Span of the
diagonal Hip
Girder, JG
the span of the angled girder, G,
SpanT =
the span of the standard truss, T1,
the roof pitch (pitch of standard truss, T1),
PG
the pitch of the girder, G.
Divide the span of the Jack truss, J1,

by the Cos of 45 to get the span of the
girder, JG
SpanJ
SpanJG =
Cos45
or:
Multiply the span of the Jack truss, J1,
by the square root of 2 to get the span
of the girder, JG
SpanJG =
2 x SpanJ1
Where SpanJG
the span of the diagonal girder, JG,
SpanJ1
the span of the centre jack truss, J1.

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Pitch of the
diagonal Hip
Girder, JG
Multiply the Tan of the roof pitch, P, by the Cos of 45o to

get the Tan of the girder pitch, PJG
TanPJG =
Take the ArcTan of this to get the girder pitch, PJG
PJG = Tan
TanP x Cos45
TanP x Cos45
or:
Divide the Tan of the roof pitch, P, by the square root of 2 to get the
Tan of the girder pitch, PJG
TanPJG =
TanP
2
Take the ArcTan of this to get the girder pitch, PJG
PJG = Tan
TanP
2
Where SpanJG
the span of the diagonal girder, JG,
SpanJ1
the span of the centre jack truss, J1,
the roof pitch,
PJG
the pitch of the girder, JG.

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Introduction to Trigonometry - http://www.ping.be/~ping1339/gonio.htm

Discovering Trigonometry - http://catcode.com/trig/index.html

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Task 6a
Determine the apex height (x) and the TC length (y)

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Task 6b
From the sketch below calculate:
The Apex height (X) of the truss;
The sloping length of the top chord (Y)

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Task 6c
The span of GX1
The pitch of GX1 where:

The Span of A1 = 6700
and the Pitch of A1 = 27.5
Then calculate pitch () of GX1

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Section 7 The Theory of Structures and Moments
Overview
A structure is a collection of elements comprising the supporting superstructure (Walls, Columns,
Beams etc) onto which is constructed the roof, consisting of trusses, rafters or beams which are so
designed and arranged that they will effectively and safely be able to carry all the applied loads
with the necessary factors of safety.
Specific Outcomes
understanding of:
Introduction to Forces
Force Calculations
Design Assumptions

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Introduction to forces
Overview
All structures are comprised of individual structural elements. These

elements need to be joined together to form a complete, stable structure. A
timber roof structures is no exception.
The elements of the timber roof truss are the various pieces of timber
forming the top chords, bottom chords and webs of the truss. The strength of
the joints is just as important as the strength of the timber between the joints.
The whole roof truss needs to support the applied loads and to transfer these
loads and forces through to the superstructure and eventually down into the
foundations. This is best achieved by triangulating the internal web layout
and, with the exception of attic trusses (and certain vierendeel trusses), all
the trusses that are encountered in timber roof structures are fully
triangulated.
Figure 1: Forces acting at Joints
The actual forces and bending moments that are present in a truss when it is
subjected to load (all loads must be in accordance with SANS 10160) are
converted into actual stresses which exist within the fibres of the truss
members. These stresses can be tension, compression or bending (See
Figure 2). The actual stresses are then compared to the permissible stresses
given for that particular grade of material in SANS 10163). Limitations in the
amount of stress that a particular grade of material can take are well defined
in SANS 10163.

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Types of Forces
Three types of forces may be applied to a structure or structural element:
Tension
Compression
Bending
Due to the physical properties of timber, the application of these forces has
certain effects on the elements of the structure. Factors affecting
performance are:
Size and geometry
Chemical factors
Fire or moisture
The SANS 10163 Code of Practice demands that we design using graded
timber, each grade having its own performance specification. This
specification is based on ALLOWABLE STRESSES.
Tension
Members
Members in tension are those structural elements that have purely axial
tensile forces in the direction of the grain. These forces elongate or stretch
the members.
SANS 10163 requires that the tensile stresses due to loads on a member do
not exceed the permissible tensile stresses.
Compression
Members
Members in compression are those structural members that have purely axial
compressive forces in the direction of the grain. These forces shorten or
compress the member. The failure force is a function of the length and the
cross sectional dimensions and is usually expressed as a function of the
slenderness ratio.

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However, there are various other facets of truss engineering that need to be
understood by the truss designer. Probably the most important of these is the
concept of buckling, which is caused in any structural material when the
member is subjected to an excessive amount of compression in relation to its
length to breadth ratio (l/b).
We cannot allow compression members to buckle out of plane either in
trusses or in any other type of structures. The principle used to avoid buckling
is termed bracing, and bracing can take many forms. To all intents and
purposes bracing is the stiffening of a compression member to eliminate its
tendency to buckle. In timber roof structures we use purlins, battens and
runners to reduce the effective length of the compression member and we
use cross-bracing to create the triangulation which will provide the stiffness to
eliminate the out of plane buckling.
Figure 3: Buckling (out of plane) of a compression web
Another principle that needs to be understood is the principle of deflection

caused by bending through the application of load. Unlike buckling, deflection
occurs in the plane of the truss. Deflections must be kept to within certain
limits to eliminate any damage to finishes inside the building or to avoid
unsightly sagging effects. However, the most important assumption the
engineer probably does make when carrying out his structural design is that
the structural elements, and eventually the completed roof structure when all
the individual elements have been tied together, has been built in accordance
with good practice. This is a fundamental assumption that applies to all
construction works.
Figure 4: Truss showing Deflection in the plane of the truss

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Force Calculations
Stress Definition
Definition of stress =
Force
N/m 2 (Pascal)
Cros sec tional Area
Axial Tension stress
Ft
Pt
bd
Axial Compressive stress
Fc
Pc
bd
bd 2
6
Z (Section Modules)
= Bending Moment
Bending stress
Abbreviations
M
Z
Ft
Tension stress
Fb
Bending stress
Fc
Compressive stress
fb
Allowable bending stress
fc
Allowable compressive stress
ft
Allowable Tensile stress
Note: Allowable stresses ~ SANS 10163

Rules for Design
1.
Tension member no bending involved
Ft
ft
2.
1.0
Compression member bending involved
Fb Fc
+
1.0
fb fc

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Design assumptions
Overview
As in all structural design the designer has to make certain assumptions.

In the design of mono-planar timber roof trusses (i.e. those connected
together by nail plate connectors) these assumptions are as follows:
Truss members are initially straight, uniform in cross section, and

uniform in design properties.
Trusses are mono-planar structural components, installed vertically,

braced to prevent lateral movement and parallel to each other at the
design spacing.
Trusses are generally pinned at joints for determination of axial forces

only.
Compression members are laterally restrained as necessary, at

specific locations or intervals.
Imposed dead or live loads act vertically; wind loads are applied
perpendicular to the plane of the top chord.
SANS 10163 Code of Practice

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Task 7a
1)
Give the definition of stress?
2)
Give the formula for Combined

Stress Index (CSI)?
3)
What is the max permissible

CSI?
4)
If a member is overstressed
suggest 2 ways of modifying the
design in order to reduce the
CSI?
5)
What is the maximum length of a

compression web under normal
loading before it will require a
runner (36mm timber)?
6)
Why is the runner required? What

effect does it have?
7)
What is the maximum length of a

tension web under normal
loading before it will require a
8)
Why is the runner required? What

effect does it have?

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Section 8 Loads & Forces
Overview
The loads that are applied to the roof must be resisted by the various structural elements and the
structure must be capable of transferring these loads to the supporting walls and foundations of the
building.
It is therefore important that the design engineer is aware of all the loads being applied to the
supporting structure in order to ensure the structure is capable of supporting the loads.
Specific Outcomes
understanding of:
Terminology
Live Loads
Dead Loads
Top and Bottom Chord Loading Tables
Application of Load
Reaction Tables

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Terminology
Load & Force
Terminology
Term
Description
Axial Force
A push (compression) or pull (tension) acting along the length of a member.

Usually measured in Newtons (N) or kilonewtons (kN).
Axial Stress
The axial force acting at a point along the length of a member, divided by the
cross-sectional area of the member. Usually measur ed in megapascals
2
(MPa) or Newtons per square millimetre (N/mm ).
Bending Moment
A measure of the bending effect on a member due to forces acting

perpendicular to the length of the member. The bending moment at a given
point along a member equals the algebraic sum of all perpendicular forces,
either to the left or right of the point, multiplied by their corresponding
distances from the point. Usually measured in Newton millimetres (Nmm).
Bending Stress
The force per square millimetre of area acting axially at a point along the
length of a member, resulting from a bending moment applied at that point.
2
Usually measured in Newtons per square millimetre (N/mm ).
Bracing
Timber members placed perpendicular or diagonally between trusses to

prevent movement due to lateral forces (such as wind) or buckling forces
due to compression. Suggestions for good bracing practice are given in
SANS 10243The Design, Manufacture and Erection of Timber Roof
Trusses and in the ITC Roof Erectors Handbook, Volumes 1 and 2.
Camber
An upward vertical displacement built into a truss to compensate for

deflection.
Compression Member
A structural member that has purely axial compressive forces in the direction
of the grain forces that shorten or compress the member.
Concentrated Load
Additional loading, e.g. roof-mounted air conditioners or geysers, applied at a

given point.
Dead Load
Any permanent load applied to a truss such as sheathing, roof covering,

ceiling, purlins, and the self-weight of the truss.
Deflection
Downward vertical movement of a truss due to dead or live loads applied to

it.
Engineering Drawings
Engineered drawings that are checked, approved and signed by a

Professional engineer (Pr. Eng).
Lateral Brace
A member placed and connected at right angles to top or bottom chords or

web member of a truss.
Live Load
These are usually referred to as Temporary Loads and include movable

objects that have a reasonable probability of being applied to the structure at
some time, for a period not exceeding three months.
Load Bearing W alls
A wall constructed for the specific purpose of effectively supporting loads,

such as the roof.
Reaction
The force at a support point of a truss that is equal but opposite to the sum of
the dead and live loads applied at that point.
Registered Person
A person who is registered with the Engineering Council of South Africa.
Responsible Person
A competent person who takes responsibility for designing, erecting,

manufacturing or inspecting a roof structure.
Runner Or Binder
Continuous bracing member that runs the length of the roof to provide lateral
stability for web members or chords of trusses in conjunction with
triangulated cross-bracing.
Self-Weight Load
The load that consists of the weight of all the members of the str ucture itself,
plus the weight of all finishes, including permanent partitions that are to be
supported by any member of the structure.

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Short-Term Loading
Imposed loads of short duration, such as wind or hail loads.
Tension Member
A structural member that has purely axial tensile forces in the direction of the
grain forces that stretch or elongate the member.
Triangulation
Webs and chords forming triangles to ensure the stability of a structural

frame such as a truss.
Truss Spacing
Space between the centre lines of adjacent trusses. This distance x the total
length of the truss, including overhangs, is the area of roof covering carried
by each truss.

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Units of
Measurement
Nature of Measurement
Unit
Symbol
Conversion
Length
Meters/Metres
1m = 1 000 mm
Millimetres
mm
1mm = 0.001 m
1m = 1 m x 1 m
Area
Square Meters
Volume
Cubic Meters
1m = 1 m x 1 m x 1 m
Mass or Weight
Grams
1g = 0.001 kg
Kilograms
Kg
1kg = 1 000 g
Force and
Newtons
1N = 0.001 kN
Point Load
Kilonewtons
kN
1kN = 1 000 N
Distributed Load
Newtons per Meter
N/m
Bending Moment
Newton Meters
N.m
Pascal
or
Newtons
per square meter
Pa or N/m
Torsion
Stress
Pressure =
Area
Notes:
1 Pa = 1 N/m
MPa
1 MPa = 1 000 000 Pa
Megapascal
1 Newton
= 102 grams
100 grams
i.e. 1 N
100 g
1 kilonewton
= 102 kilograms
100 kilograms
i.e. 1 kN
100 kg
1 kilogram
= 9.81 Newtons
10 Newtons
i.e. 1 kg
9.81 N
1 Pascal
= 102 gram/m2
100 gram/m2
i.e. 1 Pa
100 g/m2
Loads are normally expressed in kilonewtons (kN), kilonewtons per meter (kN/m) or kilonewtons per
square meter (kN/m2), depending on the structural element under consideration. The load applied to a
roof is normally expressed as kN/m2.
Minimum design loads used in the design of structures are determined by Codes of Practice to ensure that
a standard practice is in force.
In South Africa we use the Code SANS 10160 (previously referred to as SABS 0160): The General
Procedures and Loadings Adopted in the Design of Buildings.
This code of practice makes reference to variable live load conditions such as wind, which varies
considerably in different geographical areas and at different altitudes. These will be dealt with in more
detail at a later stage.

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157
Types of
loadings: (SANS
10160)
Dead Load
Dead Load
Live Load
Self Weight of Structure
Roof Tiles
Roof Sheeting
Slates
Ceilings (Brandered or Suspended)
Geysers or Water Tanks
Air Conditioning ducts or units
Kitchen Canopies
Sliding Doors etc.
Hospital Equipment etc.
Solar Panels and Pipes
Live Load
People moving in the roof space or on the roof (Construction or Maintenance

workers)
Wind
Hail, Rain
Snow
Self Weight of
Structure
This consists of the weight of the members of the structure itself as well as
the weight of all the permanent finishes which it is expected to carry.

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Live Loads
Top Chord
(Rafter)
Bottom Chord
(Tie Beam)
Snow
0.50kN/m2 (taken on plan)
Man Load
0.9 kN. Note: Tests have shown that in other than

exceptional circumstances the tiles and battens provide
sufficient transverse load distribution for this loading not to
be a critical criterion in design.
Wind
It has been found that, in the common domestic range of

truss spans and pitches, wind loads are not critical to the
design of the trusses, provided that the bottom chords of
roofs are provided with lateral stability in the form of
brandering or runners.
Man Load
0.9kN at any location where gangplanks are

specified.
Attic Floor Loads
Normal Domestic
1.5 kN/m2
Office
2.5 kN/m2
Storage
To be determined but usually

not less than 5.0 kN/m2
In the case of floor loads for the design of attic trusses and floor beams, the
live load applied to the bottom chord ceiling tie or beam must be divided into
short and long term load in accordance with SANS 10160, Clause 4.4.1.1
This clause states that for office or domestic usage, 50% of the live load must
be considered as long term and for storage areas 80%.
This results in the following distribution of loads to be applied to bottom chord
ceiling ties or floor beams.
Normal Domestic Usage
Offices
Storage
Live Load
0.75kN/m2
Dead Load
0.75kN/m2*
Live loads
1.25kN/m2
Dead Loads
1.25kN/m2*
To be determined but not less than:

Live Load
1.0kN/m2
Dead Load
4.0kN/m2*
*Additional dead loads due to c eiling and floor boards. Ceiling and floorboard loads should be taken from
the loading tables.
It must be noted that all attic truss designs must be checked by a

professional engineer, and a copy of the output should be forwarded to the
engineer for this purpose.

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159
Wind Loads
In general, wind does not have a serious effect on common, typical domestic
or Cottage type trusses (roof pitches 10-35, spans up to 12m)
However, roof wind load effects must be checked in the following cases:
Lightweight (sheeted) roofs
Roof pitches below 10
Open sheds / factories
Buildings in open terrain (on the sea shore, on top of hills, in large
open plains)
When designing for wind, two approaches are permitted by SANS 10160. A
fairly complex system which may yield optimal designs, or a simpler version
which is quicker but not provide the most economical designs.
The first method can be found in SANS 10160 and a pro-forma calculation
sheet is available from the Engineering Department.
The second (simpler) method is described below:
Use
1,6 xqz
kN / m 2 upwards on the entire projected horizontal area of the
1000
roof.
(qz)
UPWARD PRESSURE (kN/m2)
Height of buildings (m)
Open Terrain
Built Up
1.3
0.6
10
1.5
0.8

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Dead Loads
Overview
In the design of trusses most codes specify dead loads as the calculated sum
of the actual weight of materials in the roof or floor structure itself. Unlike live
load, dead load is constant in magnitude and duration. As a result it has
significant long term effects on the strength and deflection characteristics of
trusses, and care must be exercised in the selection of appropriate dead load
design values. The weight of water tanks, mechanical equipment, sprinkler
systems, and framing from above or adjacent levels may affect the design
and must be considered.
The evaluation of dead load is equally as important as that of live load. In
many cases it exceeds the magnitude of the live load. But more important,
dead load is always present and is the major contributor to long term
deflection.
SANS 10160 The General Procedures and Loading to be adopted for the
Design of Buildings describes the minimum loadings which should be
taken into account as well as the permitted deflections.
Tables of common roofs coverings, their dead loads, recommended pitch
range, batten/purlin centres, truss centres and batten or purlin size are
presented. These are followed by tables showing the loads imposed by
ceilings.
These values all include the weight of battens, purlin and brandering. The
design system will add the selfweight of the truss automatically (generally
about 1kN/m2) so there is no need to adjust any of these values when
entering them into the design program
Solar Panels
Any roof truss carrying solar panels and the associated pipework and tanks
must be specially designed by an Engineer.
Geyser (Water
tanks)
Provision for the loading from geysers can be made where required.
Wherever possible, geysers should be supported on internal walls.
WEBS MUST NEVER BE CUT TO ACCOMMOODATE GEYSERS, DUCTS
OR OTHER ITEMS.
A standard geyser is taken to be in the range of up to 250 litre capacity and
its standard position and supporting platform in the most common truss type
are shown in detail GT, or alternatively, details GTA. The same truss designs
also suit a heavier, 300 litre geyser supported on four trusses.
The load assumed for a geyser other than standard in weight and position
should be clearly specified and noted on the details.
With fewer constraints the truss fabricator has a wider choice of web
configurations, that could economise the truss. The cheapest truss for the job
may have webs, which would constrict geyser placement.

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Extract
SANS10160
Inaccessible roof
Where no access is provided to a roof (other than necessary for

cleaning and repair), allow for one of the following nominal loads,
whichever is the most severe:
A concentrated load of 0,9 kN, acting vertically downward and applied

over an area of 0,1 m x 0,1 m in any position; or
A uniformly distributed load, acting vertically downward, of

(0,3 +
15 A
)
60
where A = the tributary area for the member or span under

consideration, measure on plan, m2 provided that the load has a
maximum intensity of 0,5 kN/m2 where A is 3 m2 or less and a
minimum value of 0,3 kN/m2 where A is 15 m2 or more; or
Where it is known that snow of depth exceeding 250 mm could be

expected to accumulate on a roof, a distributed load corresponding to
the expected depth of snow.
Commentary:
The above loading makes no provision for impact effects or for brittle
covering material. It is necessary that safety measures (such as gang
boarding) be introduced when work is carried out.

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Top and Bottom Chord Loading Tables

Tiles
*Load
Cover Type
kN/m
Recommended
o
Pitch ( )
Batten
Truss
Ctrs
Ctrs
Batten
Size
Min
(mm)
(mm)
(mm)
760 -
38 x 38
1000 -
38 x 50
Max
Cement Tiles
Lafarge
Double Roman
0.51
17.5
320
(on edge)
Marley
Renown
0.49
Rivieria
0.51
Castillian
0.53
Elite
0.63
Monarch
0.53
Mendip
0.50
Double Roman
0.48
Ludlow
0.51
Asbestos Cement Tiles

Everite
Corratyle
0.20
Spantyle
0.23
Cantyle
0.20
Beaver
Shingles
0.26
Rectangul
ar Roofing
Slates
17
35
500
17.5
160
950
0.23
17.5
250
Mazista
Alumaz
0.47
17
190
760
Mazista
Conventio
nal
0.84
30
115
700
800
38 x 38
38 x 50
(on edge)
Natural Slates
38 x 38
Metal Tiles
Harvey
Tiles
0.11
15
371
1060
38 x 38
* Including weight of battens

Confirm the mass of tiles with the system supplier.

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Sheeting
*Load
Cover Type
kN/m
Recommended
o
Pitch ( )
Batten
Truss
Ctrs
Ctrs
Batten
Size
Min
(mm)
(mm)
(mm)
Max
Metal
Brownbuild
Multiclad
Robertsons Nu-Rib
.6 mm
0.096
1150
1500
.8 mm
0.11
1150
1450
1 mm
0.14
1150
1400
.6 mm
0.8
1150
1500
.8 mm
0.10
1 mm
0.12
.6 mm
0.10
.8 mm
0.11
.6 mm
0.10
.8 mm
0.12
7 mm
0.10
1150
1500
6 mm
0.16
1150
1350
7 mm
0.18
450
1100
1150
1350
50 x 76
(on edge)
Dekex
Galvanised
Sheet
Metal
Aluminium Sheeting
Huletts Industrial 5
&7
50 x 76
(on edge)
8 mm
Brownbuilt
9 mm
Corrugated Asbestos Sheeting
Profile B
Victorian Profile
0.10
Span 2
0.14
Span 3
0.18
Big Six
0.15
Canadian
0.14
Canalit
0.22
Nordic
0.59
15
1150
1100
Arabia
0.77
15
1150
1000
Spanish Chord
0.79
Watcrete C
0.46
1150
1100
50 x 76
(on edge)
50 x 50
50 x 76
(on edge)
10
Top Tiles On 0.8mm Ibr
Briti
50 x 76
(on edge)
*These are the sheeting manufacturers maximum published truss centres. For any adjustment to system
default centres refer to the system engineer.

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Ceilings
Manufacturer
Description
Thickness (mm)
Load (kN/m)
Gypsum Industries
Gypsum Plaster Board
6.3
0.10
Rhinoboard
9.5
0.14
12.7
0.16
6.4 mm Plaster board &

skim coat
6.4
0.17
Asbestos flat sheets
4.0
0.123
6.0
0.160
9.0
0.215
5.0
0.155
10.0
0.26
Cladit Asbestos cement

board
4.0
0.107
6.0
0.135
Glasol Asbestos cement

board
3.2
0.12
Prolith wood wool
25.0
0.17
50.0
0.265
25.0
0.112
Herculite
ceiling
plaster board
Everite
&
Pressed flat sheets
Protex wood wool

Sisalation
0.08
63 mm wide SAP T & G

Boarding (ceilings)
12
0.11
Novadek T & G
22.0
0.20
*These ceiling loads are for guidance only. Obtain loading tables from the system supplier.
Confirm ceiling type and fixing method (e.g. brandered or suspended ceiling) before designing trusses.

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Application of Load
Overview
It is important that the truss designer is advised of all loadings to which the
trusses will be subjected, so that proper consideration can be taken to
include all loading in design. This includes water tanks, air conditioning,
pipes, canopies etc.
The loads that are applied to the roof structure must be resisted by the
structural members and then transferred onto the support walls and so into
the foundations of the building.
The typical top and bottom chord dead loads are given on the accompanying
charts. In addition to the roof covering and ceiling material, the self weight of
the roof truss material must also be considered in the design dead loads.
Imposed or live loads. These are non-permanent or temporary loads that
have a reasonable probability of being applied to a structure during its
lifetime. The live load factor must also be included in the truss design.
This live load factor allows for normal, single or double storey domestic roofs
in built up areas.
The live load factor to be applied to the:
Truss top chord
0.50 kN/m
The attached example shows step-by-step calculations of:
Calculation
Theory
Top and bottom chord dead loads;
Top chord live loads;
Truss self weight;
The bearing point reaction from an additional concentrated load

(chandelier).
(Total length of in 1m)
(Volume)
(Density)
Size / Spacing / 1m
Area/m x Weigh /m =
Area Weigh/ m
(Area Weigh
per second)
Force /m
(Mass)
x Meter
/1000 =
D=M/V
D.V=M/V x V/1
D.V=M
M=DxV
1m
1m
M
V
M=xV
{Density = Mass / Volume}

{Mass = Density x Volume}

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Example 1
Dead Load
Determine the dead load of the following tile?

Given:
Tile 79 kg/m
Batten 38 x 38 @ 320 c/c
Counter batten 38 x 76 @ 200 c/c
timber = 425 kg/m
Tiles :
= 79 x 10
= 790 kNm 2
= 79 kN / m 2
Battern Lengths
1000
=
= 3.125m
320
M
= M = x V
V
= 425 x (0.038 x 0.038 x 3.125 )
=1.92kg = 1.92 x 10 =19.2 N / m 2
= 0.0192 kNm 2
Counter Batterns :
Lengths
M
1000
=
= 5m
200
= 425 x(425 x 0.038 x 0.076 x 5)
= 6.137 kg 6.137 x10 = 61.4 N / m 2
= 0.0614 kN / m 2
TOTAL :
= 0.79 + 0.0192 + 0.014

= 0.8706 Kn / m 2

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Example 2 Box
Gutter
Determine the box gutter weight?

Given:
Box gutter 300mm height x 400mm wide
Steel thickness 1mm
steel = 7800 kg/m
Truss spacing = 1190mm
M
V
M=xV
{Density = Mass / Volume}

{Mass = Density x Volume}
Steel: Mass = 7800 x (1 x 1.19 x (
1
))
1000
= 9.282 kg
Water: Mass = 1000 x (0.3 x 0.4 x 1.19)
= 142.8 kg
Total weight: =
(142 .8 + 9.282 ) x10

1000
= 1.521 kN

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Example 3
Reaction on
Walls
Calculate the two reactions on the wall?

Given:
Truss centres =
760 mm
TC DL
0.54 kN/m
Ceiling weight =
9 kg/m 2
Self weight
5 kg/m length.
NB. Symmetrically truss (Reaction same on both walls), only work with
half of truss.
TC DL
BC DL
Reaction on wall
no reduction
factor
TC LL
Self weight
( loadedwidth )
x(
3,65
)
Cos 30
0,76
1,729 kN
0,09 x (0,76 x 3)
0,205 kN
(0,3 +
15 A
)x1
60
(0,3 +
15 4.56
)x1
60
0,474 kN/m 2 (live-load / m 2 )
0,474 x Area
0,474 x (3 x 0.76)
1,080 kN
0,05 x 3,65
0,18 kN
(A ( area ) = 6 x 0,76) = 4,56 m 2
Reaction on wall (Symmetrical truss Reaction same on both walls)

Total
1,729 + 0,205 + 1,080 + 0,18
3,194 kN

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Example 4
Reaction on the
Girder and on
the I beam
Reaction on
girder
Calculate the reaction on the Girder and on the I beam ?

Given:
Truss spacing =
760 mm
TC DL
0.51 kN/m
BC DL
0.09 kN/m 2
TC LL =
(0,3 + (
15 5,928
))
60
Area
=
TC DL
BC DL
TC LL
Self-weight
(7,8 x 0.76)
5,928m
0,451 kN/m
=
3,9
x 0,76 x 0,51
Cos 30
1,745 kN
0,09 x (0,76 x 3,9)
0,267 kN
0,451 x (3,9 x 0,76) x 0.666
0.882 kN
0,05 x 3,9
0,195 kN
Total Reaction on girder

=
1,745 + 0,267 + 0,882 + 0,195
3,089 kN

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Reaction on I
beam
TC DL
BC DL
TC LL
Self-weight
4,6
x 0,76 x 0,51
Cos 30
2,059 kN
0,09 x 0,76 x 3,9
0,267 kN
0,451 x 0,76 x 3,9
1,337 kN
0,05 x 4,6
0,23 kN
Total Reaction on I beam

=
2,059 + 0,267 + 1,337 + 0,23
3,893 kN

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Example 5
Point Loads
In the T-Shaped building shown below, the Valley Girder, G1, at the junction
of the two building blocks, supports 7 trusses, T1A, and 1 truss T1B,
coming in at right angles to it.
The roof covering is Cement Tiles, with a weight of 0.54 kN/m2.
The ceiling load is 0.09 kN/m2).
The roof pitch is 30o.
Trusses are spaced at 760 mm. centres.
In both building blocks the trusses span 6 meters, with overhangs of

670 mm.
A chandelier, weighing 100 kg, is supported on truss T1B at the

position indicated on the roof plan.
Calculate the
reactions of the
trusses on
girder, G1.

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Calculating the
Reaction from
trusses T1A on
Girder G1
1) Ceiling Load
= BC Load x Span x truss centres
= 0.09 kN/m2 x 3m x 0.76m
= 0.21 kN.
2) Tile Load
= TC Load x TC Length x truss centres
= 0.54 kN/m2 x (3Cos30)m x 0.76m
= 1.42 kN.
(3) Live Load
= Tributary Area Load x
Span x truss centres
= 0.474 kN/m2 x 3m x 0.76m
=1.08 kN.
The Tr ibutary Area Load is given

in SANS 10160 as :
15 TrussArea
0 .3 +
60
W here truss area = span x centers= 6 x 0.76 = 4.56

The Tributary Area Load is therefore:
15 4 . 56
0 .3 +
kN/m
60
= 0.474 kN/m
kN/m
(4) Self Weight

= 0.07 kN/m x Span
= 0.07 kN/m x 3m
= 0.21 kN.
Total Reaction of truss T1A
= Loads (1) + (2) + (3) + (4)
= 0.21 + 1.42 + 1.08 + 0.21
= 2.92 kN
A point load of 2.92 kN must be applied to the bottom chord of the girder,
G1, at each point of intersection of a T1A truss with the girder.

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Calculating the
Reaction from
truss T1B on
Girder G1
Truss T1B carries an additional load from the chandelier, whose weight of
100kg must be added to the reaction of 2.92 kN calculated for trusses T1A.
The load of the chandelier is transferred to the two support points of the truss
in inverse proportion to the distance of the load from the support points. Thus
1/3 of the load is transferred to the wall at the left heel of the truss, and 2/3 of
the load is transferred to the girder at the right heel.
To calculate the reaction of truss T1B on the girder, G1, we must therefore
add 2/3 of the load of the chandelier to the reaction calculated for trusses
T1A.
The weight of the chandelier is100 kg. This is equivalent to a load of 1 kN.
(5) Chandelier Load = 2/3 x 1kN = 0.67 kN.

Total Reaction
of truss T1B
= Loads
{(1) + (2) + (3) + (4)} + (5)
{Previous Page}
= 2.92 + 0.67 kN.

= 3.59 kN
A point load of 3.59 kN must be applied to the bottom chord of the girder,
G1, at the point of intersection of truss T1B with the girder.

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Calculating the
Positions of the
Point Loads on
Girder G1
The intersection point of the truss T1B with girder G1 can be calculated
from the Roof Plan, as shown here.
The T1B truss intersects girder G1 at a point 1210 mm from its left heel.
Add a truss spacing of 760 to this to get the intersection of the second truss,
and another 760 for each successive truss intersection, as illustrated below.
Girder G1, showing the point loads applied to the bottom chord
When designing girder G1, a point load of 3.59 kN must be placed at

1210mm from the left heel.
Point loads of 2.92 kN must be placed at the remaining positions shown
above.
The point load from the last T1A truss (positioned 5770mm from the left
heel) may be omitted, as it falls within the right heel of the girder, and its
reaction will be transferred into the supporting wall.
Since the loads on this girder are not symmetric, the timber sizes or grades
and the plate sizes designed for the left half and the right half of the girder
may differ. If this is the case, and the girder is erected in the reverse position,
the actual loads on the girder will not coincide with the point loads entered in
the design.
To ensure that the girder does not fail, whichever way it is positioned in the
roof, any lesser timbers or plates that may occur on one side of the design
should be increased to match those on the other side. The resulting girder
design will then be fully symmetric, and capable of supporting all the
incoming trusses, regardless of which way the girder faces.
Each truss is connected to the girder with a 38 mm 90o Truss Hanger, fully
nailed and bolted.

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Manual Check
for Shear
If shear depth falls out of scarf

length then shear should not
be a problem.
A = (Bearing x Tan ) + ((TC Depth / 2)

D = BC Depth / Tan
C = E x Tan
B=A+C
Then B = A + E Tan but E = B
Therefore B = A + B Tan
Therefore B B Tan = A
And B (1-Tan ) = A
And B = A / (1 Tan )
F = B + ((TC Depth / Cos ) / 2)
G = BC Depth + (TC Depth / Cos )
IF F > G then shear is not a problem
IF G > F then check for shear as follows
Shear formula = 1,5 x V (Reaction in Newtons)
Bd
Where b = Timber Breadth
Where d = F from above
The answer must be less than the value in SANS 10163 Tables which is for
Grade 5 is 0,7.

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Reaction Tables
Overview
A guideline for the maximum reactions that can be carried by different sizes
of hangers and cleats is given in the table below. These should be checked
against the specifications provided by the systems engineers.
Maximum
Reactions that
can be
supported by
Hangers and
Cleats
Truss Hanger/Cleat
No. of Nails
No. of M12 Bolts
Maximum
Reaction (kN)
38mm Mini-Hanger
16
1.0
38mm 90o Truss Hanger
28
3.8
28
4.2
28
3.8
48
4.9
Hurricane Clip
10
1.2
SAVE DESIGN VALUE (kN)

Downward
Mini
38
94
16
1.3
1.0
38 Short
38
125
28
5.0
3.8
38 Long
38
195
48
6.5
4.9
50 Short
50
115
28
5.0
50 Long
50
185
48
76 Long
76
175
48
45
40
120
Hurricane Clip
60
90 x 80mm x
1.6mm AD 6 Galv
Joist Hanger
90 x 80mm x
1.6mm BD 6 Galv
Joist Hanger
M12
Bolts
M12
Bolts
Cloud
Nails
eCo
Nails
No. of M12 bolts
Total no. of nails
Height
Width
Type
Cloud
Nails
Uplift restraint
(Normal loading)
eCo
Nails
eCo Truss
Hanger
0.9
0.7
3.9
3.0
2.3
2.3
7.8
4.8
3.5
3.5
3.8
3.9
3.0
2.3
2.3
6.5
4.9
7.8
4.8
3.5
3.5
6.5
4.9
7.8
4.8
3.5
3.5
28
5.5
4.2
3.15
3.3
2.5
3.15
115
16
1.2
80
130
12
80
220
18
1.5

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Strap Hangers
Description
Nailing
Nails
Girder/Beam
Maximum loads
for H Cleats
Max loads and

max spans for
45vHip Cleats
for different roof
coverings
per
eCo
Permfix
Nail mm
kN
90 x 38mm x 1.0mm Galv Strap

Truss Hanger
22
35
7.5
45 x 38 1.0mm Galv Strap Truss

Hanger
23
35
Code
Load kN
HF
6.8
HF
V5
20
HF
V8
33
HF
V12
45
The hanger is specified through a code number build up as follows:

H45
indicates the basic cleat type
V5,V8 or V12
specifies the vertical member
P1 or P2
specifies the number of plies
45 Hip Cleat Code
Max Load (kN)
Metal
Concrete Tiles 0.5kN/m

2
Sheeting
2
0.09kN/m
+
2
+ Ceiling 0.1 kN/m

Ceiling 0.1kN/m
H45V5P1
15
9m
11.4m
H45V5P2
15
9m
11.4m
H45V8P1
25
11.2m
14.2m
H45V8P2
25
11.2m
14.2m
H45V12P2
37
13.5m
17.2m

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Task 8a
1)
Describe Dead & Live Loads,

and give examples of both
2)
Calculate the Top Chord Dead

Load in kN/m. eg. Cement Tiles
Double Roman 0.49kN/m
@760cc
Given the following information:
Tile Weight: 63 kg/m2
Batten size: 38 x 38 mm

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Section 9 Bracing
Overview
In order to ensure the stability of a roof structure it is necessary to properly brace the roof trusses
and to ensure that the trusses and roof covering are securely tied down.
We have defined Bracing as components used to prevent movement due to lateral forces (such as
wind) or buckling forces due to compression of certain truss members.
Functions:
Provide static stability.

Used to provide stability for load path for horizontal forces because forces as result of
trusses being out of plumb will be greater than calculated.
(Out of plumb rule trusses must not be more than 50mm out of plumb)
Shorten the effective length of compression members.
Specific Outcomes
understanding of:
Bracing Components
Bracing Design
Bracing Guidelines

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Bracing Components
Overview
The primary bracing components required to provide stability are:
Vertical bracing
Vertical bracing is required to prevent pack of cards collapse.
Rafter (Top chord) bracing

Bracing in the plane of the top chord prevents buckling of the rafters.
For larger span trusses this will also include stiffener frames or
bracing frames. E.g. Battens, Purlins
Web bracing
Cross braced runners on long webs and other compression members

Runners and bracing on long webs prevents the buckling of
compression webs.
Tie beam (Bottom chord) bracing where design requires

Bracing in the plane of the bottom chord prevents buckling of tie
beams subjected to force reversal, usually caused by wind. Eg.
Runners & Brandering
Proper connections of bracing members to trusses are essential. It is the

designers responsibility to identify all the detail that is required for bracing.

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Bracing Design
Overview
Bracing Types
Temporary:
Use to secure the trusses while erection is taking place.
Permanent:
Will permanently secure the roof
Must be triangulated to provide restraint.

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Overview
Bracing is installed in braced bays that contain all the various elements of
bracing.
These braced bays should be spaced such that the dimension, D, calculated
by the following formula is not exceeded:
D < 16,5 ( 0,3 x S )

Where
D = the distance between the centres of braced bays, and
S = the span of the trusses in meters.
It is important that drawings containing full details of truss layout and bracing
requirements accompany all roof truss deliveries to sites to provide roof
erectors with the necessary design requirements in order to stabilize the roof.
Degree range 45 (deviation of between 35-55)

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Bracing Guidelines
Overview
This guideline provides a general overview, but is not intended to be

comprehensive in all aspects. The designer must ensure that all necessary
specifications, erection drawings, bracing details and other information is
reviewed and compiled with, prior and during design and erection.
Cement Tiles
0 6,6m / 38 x 76 (5) act as diagonal bracing + TC stiffener (RBT1GEN)

6,6 9,0m / 38 x 114 (5) with heel shelf (38 x 228 4 hurricane clips and
2xM12 bolts and 4x36mm washers + 200mm timber stop block use 6x75mm
nails.) act as diagonal bracing + TC stiffener. (RBTGEN)
9 15m / Stability bracing 38 x 114 (5) with heel shelf (38 x 228 4 hurricane
clips and 2xM12 bolts and 4x36mm washers + 200mm timber stop block use
6x75mm nails.) act as diagonal bracing + Separate TC stiffener Prefabricated
Bracing Frame - (to reduce the effective buckling length of the TC and stiffen
TC) = Number of trusses stiffened / All girders must be included in
calculations / Multiply Ply + 1 / Truncated hip system the truncated main hip
girder and all truncated trusses must be included in the calculation / Valley
trusses are not included in the calculation. = Min frame depth. (RBTGEN, TC
SF)
> 15m Stability bracing 38 x 114 (5) with heel shelf (38 x 228 4 hurricane
clips and 2xM12 bolts and 4x36mm washers + 200mm timber stop block use
6x75mm nails.) act as diagonal bracing + Separate TC stiffener Prefabricated
Bracing Frame - (to reduce the effective buckling length of the TC) in TC and
BC. (RBTGEN, TC+BC 5F)
Speed brace
alternative
Up to 13m over all roof in TC

<9,0m (SBTT)
9 15m (SBTT)
> 15m (SBTT, TC+BC SF)
Metal Sheeting
ZigZag pattern to 15m

>15m Prefabricated bracing frame in TC + BC - (to reduce the effective
buckling length of the TC and stiffen the TC)
Metal Tiles
Stability bracing to 15m

>15m Prefabricated bracing frame in TC + BC - (to reduce the effective
buckling length of the TC and stiffen the TC)
Fibre Cement
< 11,5m to 15m same as tile roof as (9m 15m)

> 15m ZigZag + TC stiffener at TC + BC

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TOP CHORD TIMBER BRACING RULES

METAL
SHEETING
METAL TILES
HEAVY TILES
<15M
15M
<15M
15M
<6.6M
6.6-9M
9-15M
15M
RBS
SF T&B
TC-SB
(Stablilty
SF T&B
(Stiffener
TC-SB
38x76
TC-SB
38x114
TC-SB
38x114
TC-SB
38x114
Bracing)
Frame)
(+Shelf)
FIBRE CEMENT SHEETING

11.5<11.5M
15M
15M
RBS
TC-SB
38x114
TC-SB
38x114
SF TC
SF T&B
SF TC
SF T&B
TOP CHORD SPEEDBRACE RULES

METAL
SHEETING
METAL TILES
HEAVY TILES
<15M
15M
<15M
15M
<9M
9-13M
13M
STD X
SF T&B
STD X
SF T&B
STD X
FULL
ROOF
FULL
ROOF
STD X
FULL
ROOF
FULL
ROOF
SF T&B
SF T&B
In all above cases bottom chord bracing (or bottom chord bracing frames) is installed
The same braced bay as the top chord bracing

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FIBRE CEMENT SHEETING

11.5<11.5M
15M
15M
187
Notes
Full hips, Truncated hips and louver hips where the apex has been
braced act as (half brace), the distance to the centre of the next brace
is taken from the mid point between the main hip girder and the wall.
Alternate braces should face in the opposite direction.
Stiffener frame 36 x 73 (5)
The bracing frame is nailed to the truss TC at 300mm centres. (BFH

1)
The frames must be connected at the apex, heel and stub / cantilever
heels to prevent any shear between the frames and the wall plate.
Stiffener can be used for all shapes of trusses.
All trusses BC that do not have ceiling brandering fix to them must
restrained with BC runners and diagonal bracing. The max interval
between centres of diagonal bracing is 12m.
All webs longer than 1,8m must be restrained with web runners and
diagonal web bracing, or have a T bracing. NB no web may be
longer than 3,6m with 73 x 36 material. The max interval between
centres of diagonal web bracing is 12m.
Girders not allowed to use 75mm nails, must use 100mm nails.
Hip systems BC connection hanger / cleat - TC 2 x 90mm nails
Hanger max bend = 10
Ant split for BC / BC depth 160mm / 2 x M5 x 18 plates / 40mm

overlap with plate from join and 150mm away from plate. (ANTI)
Crank roof timber pack max 30 (CON1)
Joint reinforced remedial eco strap as problem with plate that was
removed and placed again. (eCo Strap)
Holding down (HD)
Limitation on wall plate positioning in scarf cut distance (HEELPOST)
New detail for long overhang from drawing (HIPCON 1)
Eave fascia beam with 300mm long eco strap support for long
overhang on hip corners (HIPCON)
Double hurricane clip on overhang / gable overhang / apex. (PC)
Dutch hip bracing if louver length greater than of span. (RBDH)
Use bolts where incoming truss greater than 4m / transfer loads

through ply.
Torsion restrain strap if income more than 6m or where girder is a 3 or

4 ply / eco strap 500mm. (TORS)
Crank roof with Tile Roof on valley side 38 x 76 (5) runners pass 2
trusses / On Sheeted Roof hip + Valley side. (TCR)

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Vertical brace for Tile Roof 8m on webs / 45or less. (VB)
Intermediate valley runners for tiles / Knee brace to support valley

girder / 38x38 if no bracing frame and 38x76 if bracing frame /
Sheeted Roof runners 38x76mm NB 38 x 114 (5) web stiffeners on
all valley trusses webs exceed 1,8m. (VSA)
T&G Boarding forms sheeting, usually requires no further TC/BC

bracing.
To SANS 10243 customer name must be on trusses.
ITC Roof Erectors Handbook - Volume 2 Roof Erectors Handbook is a

comprehensive manual, which illustrates every standard aspect of erecting
and bracing pre-fabricated timber roof trusses for almost every category of
timber roof configuration and load.

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Task 9a
1)
Why do Timber Roofs need to be

braced?
2)
Give two cases where bottom

chord bracing and runners are
required.
3)
Why must bottom chord bracing

and runners be used in the above
cases?
4)
When are prefabricated bracing

frames required:
a)
In cement tile roofs?
b)
In metal sheeted roofs?
5)
What is a Web Stiffener (or T

Brace)?
6)
When is a Web Stiffener

required/effective?

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Section 10 Measuring Sundry Materials
Overview
In this chapter we will estimate the quantities of purlins or battens required on a roof, as well as the
lengths of wall plates, valley battens and other sundry timbers.
Specific Outcomes
understanding of:
Purlins and Battens
Wallplates
Calculations

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Purlins and Battens

Overview
Purlins or battens span across the rafters of the trusses, perpendicular to

them, along the length of each roof plane.
Purlin
Section showing Purlins and Roof Sheeting
Purlins are used for sheeted roofs. Unless otherwise specified, purlins are
spaced equally, at a maximum of 1150mm centres, along the length of the
rafters, with the first and last purlin about 50mm. from the top and bottom
ends of the rafters. The distance between the purlins is known in design as
the Effective Lengths of the rafters, as the purlins provide lateral restraints to
the rafters. When designing trusses for roof sheeting, these effective lengths
may be reduced to improve the lateral stability of the rafters. Where this has
been done, it is imperative that the actual purlin spacing on the roof should
not exceed the effective lengths used in the design. The maximum purlin
centres, corresponding to the effective lengths, must therefore be clearly
indicated on the working drawings and adhered to by the erectors.
Batten
Section showing Battens and Roof Tiles
Battens are used for tiled roofs and their spacing depends on the size of the
tiles, but is normally less than the effective lengths used in the design.
Battens can therefore be spaced equally along the length of the rafters at a
distance less than or equal to the spacing specified for the size of the tiles,
with the first and last batten about 50mm from the top and bottom ends of the
rafters. The last batten at the end of the overhang is usually of wider section
timber in order to raise the lowest row of tiles to the same slope line as the
other tiles.

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Wallplates
Overview
Wallplates are required on load bearing walls. They are usually placed along
the inside edge of the wall, leaving an offset from the outside wall edge, as
shown here in the detail on the left.
However, for steep roof pitches, such as an attic roof, the wallplate may be
placed on the outside edge of the wall to ensure that the rafter clears the top
of the wall, as shown in the right-hand detail.
For stubbed trusses the wallplate is normally placed flush with the inside face
of the wall, to support the bottom chord of the truss. The end vertical may be
built into the wall, as shown in the left detail, or it may be set back with only a
bottom chord extension or nib built into the wall, as shown on the right.
Wallplates extend along the full length of all load bearing walls.

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Calculations
Example
In the roof plan shown below, all trusses have been designed with Effective
Lengths of 1150mm. The roof pitch is 26o, eaves overhangs are 600mm from
the outside face of the 220mm thick walls, and the gable overhang is 300mm.
Calculate:
Total length of
Purlins
The total length of Purlins;
The total length of Wallplates;
The length of Ridgelines, Hip Lines and Valley Lines.
To determine the number of purlins required on each roof plane, calculate the
actual length, from ridgeline to eaves line, of the rafters or top chords in each
roof section.
The roof consists of three roof sections, with overall spans of 10 600, 8 800
and 7 200, respectively.
1.
Calculating the Length of the Rafters

Refer to trig equation: H = A Cos
Where A = the horizontal distance from ridgeline to eaves line
= (overall Span) + Overhang.
and = the roof pitch = 26 o.
i.e. H = Length of rafter = ( overall Span + 600) Cos26

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2.
Calculating the Number of Purlins along each Rafter Length

Subtract 100mm from L (50mm each end of the rafter) and divide by
the maximum purlin spacing, 1150. Round the result up, to get the
number of spaces between purlins, and add 1 to get the number of
purlins.
Section A A
1. Rafter Length = 5900 Cos26 = 6564.
2. No. of Spaces = (6564100) 1150 = 5.62
The rafter is divided into 6 spaces and
requires 7 purlins (at 1077 c/c).
Section B B
2. No. of Spaces = (5563 100) 1150 = 4.75
The rafter is divided into 5 spaces and
requires 6 purlins (at 1093 c/c).
Section C C
2. No. of Spaces = (4684 100) 1150 = 3.99
The rafter is divided into 4 spaces and requires 5
purlins (at 1146 c/c).
The purlins can now be drawn onto the
plan as shown here:
7 rows of purlins on the side

planes and hip ends of the
widest roof section.

planes and hip end of the
narrower section on the right.

planes of the vertical roof
section, extending from the valley lines to the end of the 300mm gable
overhang.

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3.
Estimating the Lengths of the Purlins

It is not necessary to calculate the actual length of each purlin. The
lengths can be estimated by applying the following short-cut:
On the purlin layout drawing, take the top triangle (shown shaded) of
a hip end and rotate it through 90o. Flip the triangle around a vertical
axis and reposition it in the hip corner, as shown in these sketches.
Rotate and flip the lower triangle of the hip end
in the same way, to get the result shown here.
Note that the actual lengths of purlins have not
been altered by these manipulations they
merely illustrate that the total length of purlins
at the hip corner remains unchanged when the
purlins are simply extended across the hip
lines to the end of the overhang at the hip end.
Similarly, at the junction of the two main roof sections, the short
pieces of purlins on the partial hip end between the hip and valley
lines may also be rotated and repositioned, to bridge the gap between
the two roof sections. For estimating purposes, if the purlins on the
valley end are shifted to coincide with the purlin positions on the wider
section, the 7 purlin rows on this wider section can be taken to run the
full length of the section.

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At the valley end of the vertical section at the bottom

of the building, the two triangles on either side of the
ridgeline may be similarly rotated and flipped to show
that, when the purlins on the underlay roof are simply
extended across the valley end of the overlay roof,
the total length of purlins remains approximately the
same as for the actual purlin layout.
Therefore, to estimate the total length of purlins on a
roof, the hip and valley ends may be ignored, and the
number of purlins on each roof plane simply
multiplied by the full length of that roof section.
To illustrate this, the purlin layout may be re-drawn as shown here.
With the purlin layout re-drawn as described above, the total purlin length can
now be estimated as follows:
2 x 7 purlins of 19 200 mm
268 800 mm
84 000 mm
34 000 mm
386 800 mm
Total
Total Length of Purlins = 386 800 mm or 386.8 meters

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Total length of
Wallplates
To estimate the total length of wallplates required for a roof, add together the
lengths, measured along the centre-lines, of all load bearing walls. Greater
accuracy is not normally required, and a waste percentage (of 5 10%) may
be added to allow for cut-offs at the ends of walls and other inaccuracies.
In this example all walls are load bearing except the gable wall, G, at the end
of the vertical section. Since the overall horizontal and vertical lengths of the
building are given, we may calculate the total wall length as follows.
The total length of load bearing walls, measured along outside wall
dimensions, is :
2 x (total horizontal length + total vertical length) length of gable wall

i.e. 2 x (25 000 + 14 300) 7 220
As can be seen from the drawing, walls that have an outside corner at one
end and an inside corner at the other (walls B, C, E, F, H and I), have centrelines of the same length as the outside wall dimension.
Therefore, to calculate the total length along the centre-lines of all load
bearing walls, deduct one wall thickness (220) only from those load bearing
walls that start and end in an outside corner, i.e. walls A, D and J, to get :
2 x (25 000 + 14 300) 7 220 (3 x 220) = 70 720 mm.

o
Total Length of Wallplates = 70 720 mm or 70.72 meters

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Length of
Ridgelines, Hip
Lines and Valley
Lines
Ridgelines
The length of the ridgeline, R1, in the top left section of the building is given
by the length of this section (L1), minus half the width (W1), at each hip end.
i.e. R1 = L1 W1 = 19 800 11 800 = 8 800
R1 = 8 800 mm
The length of the ridgeline, R2, in the top right section of the building is equal
to the length of that section (L2), since the valley length added at the left is
equal to the hip length deducted at the right.
i.e. R2 = L2 = 6 400
R2 = 6 400 mm
The length of the vertical ridgeline, R3, in the lower section of the building is
equal to the length of that section (L3), plus the length of the valley section,
which is half the width (W3) .
i.e. R3 = L3 + W3 = 3 400 + (8 420) = 7 610
R3 = 7 610 mm
Total length of Ridgelines = R1 + R2 + R3 = 8 800 + 6 400 + 7 610 = 22 810
mm.
Total Length of Ridgelines = 22 810 mm or 22.81 meters

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Hip Lines and

Valley Lines
To calculate the lengths of the diagonal hip and valley lines, we may use
Pythagoras theorem, which states that the square on the longest side, L, of a
right angled triangle is equal to the sum of the squares on the other two
sides:
L2
= A2 + A2
Since the two shorter sides are equal, this

becomes :
L2
= 2.A 2
Taking the square root on both sides of this

equation, gives :
= 2.A
Substituting the values from the top left

corner of the building, gives :
= 2.( W1)
H1
= 2.(5900) = 8 343.86
i.e. H1 = 8 344 mm
Sloping Lengths
To calculate the actual length of the sloping

hip line, H1S, the horizontal length, H1, must
be divided by the Cosine of the diagonal hip
girder pitch, PJG, as shown below.
The roof pitch for this example is 26o. Using
the formula for calculating the pitch of the
diagonal hip girder (see page 9.10) gives:
PJG = Tan -1(Tan26 2) = 19.03 o
H1S = H1 Cos P JG
i.e.
H1S = 8 344 Cos19.03
i.e.
H1S
= 8 826 mm
Similarly for the hip line H2 and valley lines

V2 and V3 :
H2
= V2
= 2.( W2)
= 2.(5000) = 7 071.07
i.e.
H2
= 7 071 mm
and
V2
= 7 071 mm
Therefore
H2S
and
= 7 071 Cos19.03 = 7 480 mm,
V2S
= 7 071 Cos19.03 = 7 480 mm

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V3
= 2 ( W3)
= 2 (4210) = 5 953.84
i.e.
V3
= 5 954 mm
Therefore
V3S
= 5 954 Cos19.03 = 6 298 mm
The partial hip line, H1b, may be calculated

by simply subtracting
H2 from H1, as shown here :
H1b
= H1 H2 = 8 344 7 071 = 1 273

i.e.
H1b
= 1 273 mm
and
H1bS = 1 273 Cos19.03 = 1 347 mm
Alternatively, H1b may be calculated in the same way as the other diagonal
Hip and Valley lines above by using Pythagoras theorem and the eaves
length, W1b :
H1b
= 2.( W1b) = 2.(900) = 1 272.79
Total length of Hip Lines

= 3.H1 + H1b + 2.H2 = 26478 + 1 347 + 14 960 = 42 785mm.
Total Length of Hip Lines
= 42 785mm or 42 .785 meters
Total length of Valley Lines
= V2 + 2.V3 = 7 480 + 12 596 = 20 076 mm.
Total Length of Valley Lines = 20 076 mm or 20.08 meters

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Task 10a
1)
In the roof plan shown below, all trusses have been designed with
Effective Lengths of 1200mm. The roof pitch is 26o, eaves overhangs
are 670mm from the outside face of the 230mm thick walls, and the
gable overhang is 300mm.
Calculate:
The total length of Wallplates;

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Section 11 Manufacture of Nail Plated Trusses
Overview
The manufacturer is responsible for translating a roof and truss design into an actual roofing
solution that is safe for the client, and manufactured in a cost effective manner for the fabricator.
Specific Outcomes
understanding of:
SANS 10243 Unit Standards 1 - 9 : Manufacturing of Nail Plated

Timber Roof Trusses

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SANS 10243 Unit Standards 1 - 9 : Manufacturing of Nail Plated Timber

Roof Trusses
Overview
This standard gives guidance on the manufacture, erection and bracing of

timber roof trusses, including nail-plated trusses and bolted trusses with
lapped members.
Extract
6 Manufacture of trusses
6.1 Cutting and machining of timber
All members shall be of timber of the specified grade and should be
accurately cut, drilled and machined strictly in accordance with the design.
6.2 Bolted trusses
6.2.1 Joints
All joints shall be close-fitting and members shall not have to be forced into
position as a result of warp (bow, twist, spring, cup). Out-of-plane eccentricity
should be kept to a minimum (see annex B).
6.2.2 Assembly
Trusses shall be assembled in a plane in such a way as to avoid damage to
any of the members. The detailed drawing and specification of the assembled
truss shall be supplied. An acceptable number of completed trusses shall be
inspected and shall conform to the design specifications, subject to the
manufacturing tolerances as set out in clause 7.
Trusses shall be assembled without inducing unintentional stresses.
Members that are badly warped, split or ill-fitting shall not be used.
6.2.3 Connectors
6.2.3.1 Bolts
The bolt sizes, number of bolts per joint, and the positioning of bolts shall be
in accordance with SANS 10163-1 or SANS 10163-2. Only nails that comply
with the SANS 1700 series shall be used (see 4.2.3).
6.2.3.2 Nails
6.2.3.2.1 General
Nails should not be used in joints in primary load-bearing members such as
top chords or bottom chords or webs except if used together with other
connectors, or if the joint has been specifically designed as a nailed joint.
Nails may be used to secure secondary roofing members to primary
members. Joints in secondary members may be made with nails. The
requirements for the nailing of specific members shall be as specified in
table 3. Only nails that comply with SANS 820 shall be used (see 4.2.6).

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Table 3 Nailing requirements
Position
Method of Number of nails

nailing
per joint
4
Minimum
length
mm
Primary load-bearing
members together with
connectors
Face
As required by
SANS 10400
Face
As required
by
SANS 10400
Battens to rafters:
38 mm
50 mm on edge
76
100
Purlins to rafter together

with suitable fixing (see
figure 44)
Skew
100
100
Brandering to bottom
chord
Face
76
Bracing to truss numbers
Face
As required by
designer
(minimum 2)
76
Face
Recommended method.
6.2.3.2.2 Method of nailing

Maximum penetration shall be ensured with each nail. Nails that are not fully
driven in or that cause splitting of members do not contribute to the strength
of the joint.
The direction of driving in nails shall be such that the loads they resist are
carried in shear and do not cause their withdrawal.
Where nailing results in unavoidable splitting (for example, hard timbers), the
holes should be predrilled by using a drill of diameter 0,5 to 0,8 times the
diameter of the nail.
If skew-nailing is unavoidable, the skew nail should not be closer than 30 mm
from the edges of the members involved.

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6.2.3.2.3 Depth of penetration

The minimum required depth of penetration (cross-grain) into the final
receiving member is half the length of the nail (see table 3 for the minimum
length).
The minimum required depth of penetration of a nail into the end grain of the
receiving member is three quarters of its length.
6.2.3.3 Toothed connectors
Note the following points when securing toothed connectors:
a)
Do not hammer the members together.
b)
Drill the bolt holes of sizes to suit the connector, and at right angles to
the joint. Where timber-to- timber connections are to be made, clamp the
components together before drilling is started. The use of templates for
marking the positions of the bolts is strongly recommended.
c)
Ensure that the connectors are embedded in the timber members by
using a threaded high-tensile steel rod that passes through the member and
the connector.
d)
Fit the rod with nuts on a large thick plate washer at each end to
ensure that even pressure is applied over the whole of the face of the timber
or connector or both.
e)
Alternatively, use screw clamps or hydraulic pressure to embed the
connectors.
f)
When the teeth of the connectors are fully embedded, replace the
high-tensile rod with the appropriate bolt and standard washers under both
the bolt head and the nut.
g)
Ensure that the teeth of the connectors are fully embedded in both
contact faces of the joint. Whatever method is used, take care during the
embedding process to ensure that the timber under the washers is not
crushed.
h)
Toothed connectors are not recommended for timber of density
exceeding 500 kg/m3 because of the difficulty of ensuring proper penetration
of the teeth.
6.2.3.4 Split rings and shear plates
6.2.3.4.1 Fit and clamp the members together.
6.2.3.4.2 Drill the hole as in 6.2.3.3(b).
6.2.3.4.3 Groove the surfaces into which the split rings or shear plates are to
be fitted by means of a special grooving tool matched to the size of the
connector being used. Drilling and grooving may be done in a single
operation, but more often, in order to centre the grooving tool, the pilot of the
tool is first inserted into the hole drilled through the timber member, and the
grooves are then formed. Ensure that the correct tool is used to prepare
these grooves. Ensure that the depth of the grooves does not exceed the
appropriate depth for the specified split ring or shear plate. Refer to the
manufacturers manuals for further details.

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6.2.3.4.4 Ensure that the grooves are cleaned out to remove chips and
shavings before rings or plates are fitted. Expand split rings before they are
placed into the grooves.
6.2.3.4.5 To achieve a rigid joint, ensure that the split rings or shear plates
are set in epoxy resin. Assemble the joint, using the correct size of bolt and
square or round washers under each bolt head and nut. Tighten the nuts to
keep the members securely together.6.3 Nail-plated trusses
6.3.1 Joints
Occasional open joints resulting from inaccuracies in cutting and assembling
shall be limited. Peak joints, splice joints in main-chord compression
members and similar joints requiring timber-on-timber compression for
stability of design shall have good bearing.
6.3.2 Assembly
All trusses should be assembled in the design configuration and fabricated so
that the completed truss will be dimensionally uniform.
6.3.3 Timber defects
Timber defects (such as wane and dead knots) should not be allowed in the
connector plate contact area unless the connector plate size is increased to
compensate for the nails that have become ineffective in that member.
6.3.4 Nail plates
Nail plates that are specified in the design and are in accordance with 4.2.2
shall be used. Larger nail plates can be used.
Nail plates should have their teeth fully embedded in all members after the
assembly of the joint. Any plate showing evidence of flattening or "dominoing"
of the teeth should be rejected unless the timber is only slightly damaged, in
which case repairs may be made, for example, by using a larger plate that
will obtain at least the required number of securely embedded teeth.
6.3.5 Positioning of nail plates
All nail plates should be positioned as specified in the design.

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Manufacturing
Guidelines
Costing Method
In conjunction with the code of practice SANS 10243, it will be necessary to

be familiar with the following Specific Outcomes for the Manufacture of NailPlated Timber Roof Trusses.
Identify the Material and Tools required for roof truss manufacturing.
Demonstrate knowledge of the general functions of the equipment

used for the manufacture of timber roof trusses.
Demonstrate an understanding of the timber roof truss production

flow.
Demonstrate knowledge of the general concept of raw material and

product quality.
Understand and interpret the computer generated design cutting bills.
Understand the calibration and setting up of the cutting equipment.
Understand and be able to set up the assembly jig for nail plated
timber roof trusses.
Inspect and quality-assure timber roof trusses.
Costing methods the truss plant uses
A margin on the material.
The addition of a cost / pressing point before a margin is applied.
The equivalent Fink standard costing system. This includes a cost for setting
the jig, in addition to a cost / pressing point. A margin can be applied in the
normal way.
8 pressing
points
Standard 8m truss 25 0
8 pressing points 1/8 = 0.125

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Setup &
Assembly
Normal truss consist of SETUP & ASSEMBLY

Must include Splicing, Stitch plates and Anti Splits plates.
JOINT
SETUP FACTOR
ASSEMBLY FACTOR
Standard joint
5 x 0.125 = 0.625
0.125
Splice
0.625
0.125
Stitch
0.312 = (0.5 x 0.625)
0.063 = (0.5 x 0.125)
Anti Split
0.312
0.063
3 x 0.625 = 1.875
0.125
3 x 0.125 = 0.375
Variant / 2
nd
truss
Small quantities < 3 trusses
Example 1 - 10 x
A1
Setup
= 8 x 0.625
Assembly
= 10 x 8 x 0.125
10
15 e-finks
Total
Example 2- Stub
Truss
Setup
= 3 x 0.625
1.875
Assembly
= 10 x (7 x 0.125)
8.75
10.625 e-finks
Total

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Determine the
Pitch by Using
the Rafter Pitch
Conversion
Table
PITCH (DEGREES)
RISE : RUN
15,0
1 : 3,73
17,5
1 : 3,17
26,0
1 : 2,06
RISE
RUN
B.C. = BOTTOM CHORD

T.C. = TOP CHORD
RUN
PITCH HEIGHT
LEFT HAND RISE POINT
CHALK LINE 90 DEG. TO B.C.
RISE
MEASURE SPAN
CHALK LINE B.C.
Example
CENTRE POINT OF SPAN

HALF SPAN
MEASURE SPAN
(For illustration purposes)

If the pitch of the truss is 26, then according to the rafter pitch conversion
table, the run will be 2060mm with a rise of 1000mm.
Plot this information onto a concrete slab or other flat surface. Starting with
the left heel point, measure 2060mm along the horizontal span line and mark
it, then draw a straight line of 1000mm at 90to the span line, this will be the
rise. Draw a straight line through the heel point and the rise point. This will
form the 26pitch that is required. Repeat the exercise on the right hand side
starting at the heel point. (See diagrams)
After completing this, there will be two rafter lines at 26 to the span line.
IMPORTANT NOTE: The rafter lines starting from the heel point through the
rise point on both sides should intersect directly on the centre line of the
truss.

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T.C. = TOP CHORD
Setting Out
RUN
PITCH HEIGHT
LEFT HAND RISE POINT
CHALK LINE 90 DEG. TO B.C.
RISE
MEASURE SPAN
CHALK LINE B.C.
CENTRE POINT OF SPAN

HALF SPAN
MEASURE SPAN
A King Post
Truss
CH ALK LINE T.C.
K ING PO ST TR USS
HA LF SPAN
Shoot chalk line from B. C. and mark off span.

Determine centre of B. C.
Shoot chalk line 90 to B. C. -This is the centreline of the truss.
Calculate and mark left hand rise point from Rise Run table.
Shoot chalk lines for T. C. to rise point and continue chalk line to meet centre
line.
This will give the pitch height.
Then shoot chalk line from right hand span point to pitch height on centre
line. Check that top chords are exactly the same length
This completes outline of Queen post truss.

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A Queen Post
Truss
CENTRE POINT OF BAY ON T.C.
=
S/2
S/2
S = SPAN
QUEEN POST
Determine centre points to T. C.
Shoot chalk lines through centre points on T. C. and centre point of span on
B. C.
This completes outline of Queen post truss.

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A Fink Truss
CENTRE POINTS OF BAYS ON TOP CHORD
=
B.C.POINTS
S/3
S/3
S/3
S = SPAN
FINK
FINK
Divide B. C. into 3 equal bays.

Shoot chalk line through points on T. C. and B. C.
This completes outline of Fink truss.

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Assembly
Lay out the timber as per specifications from Standard Design tables on
dotted lines.
Mark and cut timber (make sure that all timber members have a close fit,
Maximum 2mm gap between members)
Apply plates on joints (node points) as per specifications. (See Standard
Design tables)
Turn truss over and apply plates as per specification on the other side of
truss on all joints.
Kingpost,
Queenpost, Fink
Truss and Mono
Pitch Truss
KING POST TRUSS
MONO PITCH TRUSS
QUEEN POST TRUSS
FINK TRUSS

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Plating
Install plates on both sides of every joint with the nail plates in the indicated
position. No attempt must be made to remove plates for re-use.
All timber to be S.A. Pine, of minimum grade V4 or M5 or better to
S.A.N.S.0563 and S.A.N.S.01245 - Stress Graded Softwood General
Structural Timber.
The gap between butted timber members at joints should not exceed 2 mm.
Ensure that all nails on plates are hammered in completely using either an
ordinary carpenters hammer or a 4 pound hammer.
Gable trusses are to be positioned 510mm from the inside face of the gable
wall.
Trusses may only be supported at the indicated positions. Do not support
trusses off internal walls. Trusses must have a minimum of 75mm bearing on
the supporting walls.
The truss shape must be in accordance with the information herein. Truss
members must not be cut or removed.
Position the water tank or geyser only where indicated on roof plan, for
typical geyser support detail refer to attached drawing M010. It is preferable
to support water tanks, geysers etc. on internal walls.
All trusses to be stored, handled, erected and braced strictly in accordance
with standards.
Purlins to be connected to trusses at maximum 1200mm centres with two
eCo Hurricane Clips per connection fully nailed with eight 2.8mm diameter
32mm long galvanised Permfix nails.
Roof trusses as per these specifications may only be used for gable end
roofs.
For any other type of roof, i.e. hipped roofs, L- shaped roofs etc. please
contact an Engineer for designs, or the local roof truss fabricator.
Plate dimensions given in Standard Design tables are not exact. They are
approximate to the nearest centimetre.

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SANS 10243 Unit Standards 1 - 9 : Manufacturing of Nail Plated Timber Roof

Trusses

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Task 11a
1)
What is the maximum plate

positioning tolerance?
2)
Describe the maximum

allowable gaps in the following
joint types
a)
Heel joints
b)
Apex joints, splices in

compression members and
similar joints requiring woodto-wood compression.
c)
All other joints
3)
What must be done if, for any

joint on a cutting bill, if...
a)
The plate size is missing?
b)
The required plate size is not

in stock?

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Section 12 Erection of Prefabricated Trusses
Overview
This section is intended to provide safe information on the safe storage, handling and erection of
trusses. The safe installation of trusses requires an understanding of how trusses are designed to
carry loads, as well as the requirement to ensure that the trusses are properly structured during the
erection (or demolition) of a structure.
It is essential that all necessary erection and bracing instructions, in written form, are available at
the worksite, prior to beginning truss erection. The truss erection contactor must install the trusses
in accordance with the manufacturers information and any instructions of a professional engineer.
In addition, all workers must be instructed in the proper method of erecting the wood trusses,
based on the documentation. This includes the methods of hoisting, sequence of erection, bracing
and connection details, loading limitations and any other relevant information. Truss erection must
be undertaken under the direct supervision of a skilled supervisor. Only workers directly involved in
the truss erection work shall be in the area.
Specific Outcomes
understanding of:
SANS 10243 Unit Standard 1 9 : Manufacture of Nail Plated Timber

Roof Trusses
Documents to Site

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SANS 10243 Unit Standards 1 - 9 : Manufacturing of Nail Plated Timber

Roof Trusses
Overview
This standard gives guidance on the manufacture, erection and bracing of

timber roof trusses, including nail-plated trusses and bolted trusses with
lapped members.
Extract
11 Erection
11.1 Handling
Wherever possible, all trusses shall be handled and lifted while they are in an
upright position. If the trusses are to be moved on the flat (i.e. horizontally),
adequate intermediate supports shall be provided. Distortion of the truss
(during handling) can lead to serious damage.
11.2 Storage
Trusses shall be in stored in such a way that distortion is prevented. Contact
with the ground shall be avoided and the site shall be reasonably level.
Trusses shall be protected from excessive exposure to the weather, wetting
and insect attack. If the trusses are covered, provision shall be made for
moisture escape through ventilation.
11.3 Transportation
All guidelines concerning the handling and storage of timber also apply
during transportation. Trusses should preferably be strapped together during
transport and handling.
11.4 Lifting of trusses
11.4.1 General
Trusses, correctly aligned in their upright position and properly supported by
bracing, purlins or roof sheeting, are very strong structural components. They
can, however, be easily damaged when subjected to excessive lateral
bending due to improper handling and lifting. It is important that they be
carefully handled to prevent damage.
11.4.2 Lifting by hand
When trusses are lifted by hand, care shall be taken to prevent excessive
lateral bending when sliding them over walls and when tipping them upright
on the walls (see figure 10).

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11.5 Hoisting by crane

11.5.1 General
Proper hoisting by crane is very important to the successful installation of
timber trusses. Figures 10 to 17 show the recommended rigging and lifting
practices. As is shown, one, and sometimes two, tag lines are used to
stabilize the member. No single truss or group of trusses should be lifted
without a tag line.
11.5.2 Trusses up to 6 m
For spans of 6 m or less, a single pick-up point may be used to lift the truss
(see figure 11). Trusses up to 6 m may be lifted at a single pick-up point in
bundles of two or three. Care should be taken to avoid damaging the timber
and connector plates at the pick-up points.
Trusses from 7 m to 9 m may be hoisted by means of two belt slings with
hooks (or a looped sling) as shown in figures 12 and 13. The slings should be
so hooked or fastened that the distance between the slings is approximately
one-half the length of the truss. The angle between the two slings should be
60 or less. Care should be taken to avoid damaging the connector plates
and timber at the pick-up points.
Parallel chord trusses will require rigging as shown in figure 14.
Trusses from 9 m to 18 m should be lifted with a spreader bar that is between
two-thirds and three-quarters the length of the truss. The truss should be
attached with slings secured at suitable intervals. For parallel chord trusses,
the spreader bar should be fastened (with slings or hooks) to the top chord as
shown in figure 14.
Triangular trusses should be supported as shown in figure 15. The spreader
bar should be rigid enough not to bend sideways when the truss is being
lifted.
Trusses from 18 m to 30 m should be lifted with the aid of a strongback. The
length of the strongback should be at least two-thirds of the length of the
truss. The truss should always be securely tied to the strongback at regular
intervals of 3 m or less.

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For parallel chord trusses, the strongback should be tied to the top chord as
shown in figure 16, and for triangular trusses the strongback should be
positioned above the mid-height of the truss (see figure 17) to prevent the
truss from overturning.
The strongback should be rigid enough not to bend sideways when the truss
is being lifted.
11.5.6 Multiple trusses and trussed girders
Multiple trusses comprising identical trusses joined side by side should
preferably be assembled on the ground to form a composite unit complete
with the necessary nailing and bolting done as required. Where a multiple
truss is too heavy to lift or handle, it may be assembled in situ.
11.5.7 Inspection after lifting
All trusses that have been lifted into position shall be checked for soundness
and for any damage that may have occurred during the lifting operation.
NOTE The handling and erection of large scissor-type trusses and trusses
with a span exceeding 18 m will require the erector to be extremely careful.
These trusses are very flexible and therefore more likely to suffer damage
while being moved.
11.6 Erection procedure
The procedure to follow for the erection of a roof truss system cannot be
stated categorically because methods for the satisfactory erection of a
system vary considerably. The procedure given in (a) to (i) is only an
example.
a)
Ensure that the wall plates as given in table 8 are used and are level
and that the correct holding-down methods have been used at the correct
truss positions (see 11.8 and figure 23).
Table 8 Wall plate sizes
1
Truss span S
Cross section of plate
mm
< 10
38
10
<S
< 15
38 114
15
<S
< 20
38 152
76
b)
Mark the positions of the trusses on the wall plates, in accordance
with the design.

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c)
Position the truss on the wall with the correct spacing, using a
gauging rod (see figure 19), and so install the temporary bracing members
that the truss is both straight and plumb (see figure 21). Do not stack trusses
against the gable walls.
d)
Brace the first truss to the wall plate or to the ground, or support it
against the gable wall. Decide whether the span of the trusses being erected
requires several braces of this type. Braces should be so spaced at centres
along the span of the truss that distances between centres do not exceed
3 m.
Ensure that all temporary bracing members are at least of grade 5
timber and of size at least 38 mm 76 mm, nailed at each intersection and at
the wall plates with at least two nails of length at least 100 mm and of
diameter at least 3,5 mm.
e)
Erect and position the subsequent trusses and fix them in position
with temporary purlins, runners and bracing. Install the necessary web
bracing as soon as the first few trusses have been erected (see figure 22(a)).
Warning: Vertical bracing is most essential and shall never be omitted
f)
It is essential to restrain the top chords from buckling, especially in
long-span trusses. Restrain them from buckling by cross-bracing in the plane
of the top chords.
Cross-bracing coupled with continuous temporary purlins and
longitudinal runners fastened to the top and bottom chords respectively will
prevent collapse during erection (see figure 20).
g)
Where a roof is to be covered with boards, prevent the top chord from
buckling by using temporary cross-braced runners that can only be removed
one at a time as the boards are fixed in place (see figure 25).
Ensure that longitudinal spacing of temporary cross-bracing complies
with the requirements given in 11.13 but keep in mind that temporary bracing
at closer centres is often required during erection.
h)
Line up, plumb and straighten these few erected trusses and install a
complete set of permanent rafters and vertical web bracing. This will provide
a firm base from which to work.
i)
If so specified, fix the permanent bottom-chord bracing at this stage.
j)
Extend the temporary purlins and runners as truss erection proceeds,
until the position of the next braced bay is reached (see figure 22(b)).
k)
Line up, plumb, straighten and adjust the trusses on the wall plate, as
required.
l)
Erect and fix the permanent purlins (or battens) and runners required
and all permanent bracing (see figure 22(c)).

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11.7 Levelling of trusses

If it is necessary to insert wedges or packs between the wall plate and the
bottom chord, wedges shall be installed from both sides. Where required,
packs or wedges should be made out of rectangular blocks of timber at least
of the same width as that of the wall plate.
11.8 Holding-down requirements
When the first set of trusses has been installed and both vertical bracing and
chord bracing have been secured, the trusses shall be permanently anchored
to the wall plates, beams and the like, upon which they are to bear. Figure 23
illustrates common forms of galvanized hoop-iron anchorages
(25 mm 1 mm).
For tile roofs only, as an alternative to the hoop iron, two wires of diameter
4 mm may be used. Both wires shall be bent over the top chord, returned
down the far side and twisted around a nail of thickness 4 mm that has been
nailed through the top chord. The wires shall be twisted tight around the nail
to remove any slack in them. At least two full twists shall be given.
For longer span trusses and special trusses, two hoop-iron ties are
sometimes specified. Special details, which shall be carefully followed, are
frequently provided by the truss designer to cover specific holding-down
requirements (see figure 23). The provision of suitable holding-down
arrangements is essential and should generally be provided and built in by
the main contractor, unless otherwise arranged with the truss fabricator.
The anchors should be installed in accordance with SANS 10400 (see
figure 23). If the anchors do not coincide with the trusses, a spreader beam
on top of and incorporating the wall plate shall be designed and provided, in
which case the spreader beam may be anchored by the anchors and the
trusses anchored to the spreader beam.
The designer should be consulted in cases not covered in this standard, in
SANS 10400, SANS 10163-1 or SANS 10163-2.
11.9 Tolerance
Staying within tolerance is critical for both the roof line and effective bracing.
A string line, plumb line or level should be used. The following points apply:
a)
overall bow: Overall bow in the total top-chord length should not
exceed L/200 or 50 mm, where L is the chord length.
b)
bow: The bow of purlins or battens (or both) should not exceed L p/100
or 30 mm, where L p is the purlin or batten spacing.

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c)
deviation of apex: The apex should not deviate more than span/200
from the vertical plane through the supports.
d)
plumpness: At any section, the total out-of-plumb value should not
exceed 50 mm.
Generally, if a bow or tilt is evident to the eye, the truss has been erected
outside the tolerances.
11.10 Concentrated loads during erection
Concentrated loads caused by building materials on the roof can easily
initiate collapse of an unfinished roof. These loads shall therefore be evenly
distributed to as great an extent as possible, or, preferably, brought up to the
place of erection as work proceeds, thereby limiting the extent of
concentrated loading.
11.11 Spacing
The maximum spacing of all members (trusses, braced bays and secondary
members) should be according to the design (see also 5.4).
11.12 Runners
11.12.1 General
Runners on web members and bottom chords are normally of size
38 mm 76 mm or greater, as specified. They are used in conjunction with
bracing to prevent buckling of the bottom chords and webs. Buckling of the
bottom chord can occur in cantilevers or roofs subject to wind loading.
All runners shall be nailed to each intersection with a truss (web or bottom
chord), with at least two wire nails of length 75 mm and of diameter 3,5 mm
or as specified.
All runners shall be continuous and straight and without bow and shall be
positioned as specified. (See figures 6, 7, 25 and 36.)
All web runners shall be braced at intervals along their length, as shown in
figure 37. Web bracing should be at the same intervals as chord bracing.
11.12.2 Splicing
Runners may be spliced by lapping over a truss as is shown in figure 43.

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11.12.3 Temporary runners

Temporary runners can be removed from the bottom chords on all roofs once
permanent ceilings of sheet material on brandering have been completely
installed, i.e. only in cases where brandering is correctly installed and has
been nailed directly to the bottom chord of the trusses.
NOTE Roofs with light metal tiling are treated as sheeted roofs.
11.12.4 Permanent runners
Permanent runners are essential in all the following cases and shall never be
removed:
a)
on web members if the design so specifies;
b)
on bottom chords with cantilevers;
c)
on bottom chords where lightweight roof sheeting is fixed some time
before permanent direct-fixed ceilings are installed; and
d)
on bottom chords of roofs with suspended ceilings or roofs without
ceilings.
Where the span of the truss exceeds 11,5 m and web runners with the
corresponding cross-bracing are specified, permanent bottom-chord runners
shall be installed irrespective of the type of ceiling.
11.12.5 Runners for special designs
In many cases designed trusses, heavier runners and special connections
may be required. In these cases, bracing shall be strictly in accordance with
the designers drawings.
11.13 Bracing
11.13.1 General
Bracing serves two functions, namely to provide static stability and to shorten
the effective length of compression members. This bracing could be discrete
where the diagonal bracing member is fixed at set intervals to the members
to be braced; or continuous, where the bracing member acts along the entire
length of the truss members to be braced.
11.13.2 Material
The quality of bracing material shall be of at least grade 5 or of the grade
specified.

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11.13.3 Splicing
Long top-chord and bottom-chord bracing may be spliced as shown in
figure 40.
11.13.4 Temporary bracing
11.13.4.1 General
The stability of trusses should be ensured during erection since instability can
lead to lateral stresses and strains on the trusses that they were not designed
for.
11.13.4.2 Failure during erection
Failure during erection can result from
a)
the trusses merely falling over because they have not been
adequately tied to the supporting structure or to each other (this type of
failure is referred to as a pack of cards failure or domino effect) see figure 20;
or
b)
the top chords of the trusses buckling sideways.
Both the above types of failure can easily be prevented by the use of
appropriate temporary bracing.
WARNING: The roof structure is not fully stable until the permanent bracing
of the roof is in place, including battens or purlins (or both).
11.13.5 Permanent bracing
11.13.5.1 General
Bracing ensures that
a)
trusses erected correctly will remain truly vertical,
b)
the top chords and bottom chords will remain straight,
c)
the chords are effectively laterally supported by sheathing,
brandering, battens, purlins or runners,
d)
the truss centre-to-centre spacing will not exceed the dimensions
specified,
e)
all long compression-web members with runners are properly braced,

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f)
the purlin spacing will not exceed the spacing specified (in many
cases this will be less than the spacing requirements of the manufacturer of
the sheeting), and
g)
the bottom chord remains securely fixed at support points (i.e. to a
wall plate or bracket).
11.13.5.2 Installation
Permanent bracing shall be installed before any temporary bracing is
removed and before the roof is loaded with the covering.
Where the permanent bracing is to be installed in positions occupied by
temporary bracing, the temporary bracing may be removed member by
member, as the permanent bracing is installed.
The spacing of the braced bays should be in accordance with 5.4.2.
11.13.6 Cross-bracing
The basic principle is to form triangles to create good lateral stability (see
figure 18). The addition of a diagonal member firmly braces a four-sided
configuration against lateral movement so that it no longer changes its shape
under distorting forces.
11.13.7 Diagonal bracing in the plane of the webs
Wherever web runners have been installed, diagonal bracing shall be
installed in the plane of the webs since this assists in keeping the trusses
vertical after erection and, more importantly, prevents the webs from moving
laterally and out of the vertical plane (see figures 37 and 38). Diagonal
bracing shall be included at every bracing bay.
Unless otherwise specified by the designer, wire nails of length 75 mm and of
diameter 3,5 mm and timber of size 38 mm 114 mm shall be used for web
and vertical bracing.
11.13.8 Top chord bracing
11.13.8.1 Static stability bracing
This type of top chord bracing is used to provide static stability to the roof
structure, i.e. to provide a load path for horizontal forces. These horizontal
forces could be the result of the trusses being marginally out of plumb, or
alternatively, the result of wind loads. (Out-of-plumb rule: the maximum
horizontal difference between the truss apex and bottom chord may not
exceed any of the following: 50 mm; truss span/200; truss height/50).

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Static stability bracing for timber trusses for battened roofs comprises
diagonal bracing members fixed at approximately 45 to the top chords in the
plane of the top chords, as follows:
a)
For trusses with spans of 6,6 m and smaller, the diagonal timber
bracing is a 36 73 (5) member fixed with two 75 mm wire nails at each
connection to the top chord underside, and fixed to the wall plate with three
100 mm wire nails and a timber block (see figures 31 and 32).
b)
For trusses with spans greater than 6,6 m, the diagonal timber
bracing is a 36 111 (5) member fixed with three 75 mm wire nails at each
connection to the top chord underside, and fixed to the wall plate with a
completely constructed heel shelf (see figures 33 and 34).
The bracing member shall run in a line at an angle as close to 45 as
possible. At each intersection of the bracing member with a truss, the bracing
shall be nailed to the truss with at least two wire nails of length 75 mm.
Bracing diagonals shall commence at the apex of the truss, and shall be
connected to the wall plate. Where the length of the bracing member requires
splicing, the bracing should be fixed as shown in figure 40. The length of a
member should be as long as is practicable, in order to avoid splicing.
The maximum spacing (interval) for the bracing, which is measured from the
centre of the brace, (see 5.4.2) is
Bracing interval = [16,5 m (truss span in metres 0,3)]
Alternative designs in accordance with clause 5 may be used. Where
sheathing is in accordance with SANS 10082, this permanent bracing may be
omitted.
NOTE 1 Full hips, truncated hips and Dutch (louvre) hips where the apex
has been braced (see figure 27), act as a "half" brace. The distance to the
centre of the next brace is taken from the mid-point between the main hip
girder and the end wall, i.e. mid-span of the first hip jack truss.
NOTE 2 Alternate braces should face in the opposite direction.

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11.13.8.2 Top chord stiffeners

11.13.8.2.1 Stiffeners to reduce the effective length of compression
members
This is required to prevent the buckling of compression members, i.e. to
reduce the effective length of the compression member, in this case the truss
top chord. This stiffener can either be at discrete points, for example diagonal
top chord bracing, or continuous, for example horizontal "T bracing of the top
chord, plywood sheeting over the top chord or bracing frames. Both discrete
and continuous top chord stiffener systems shall be strong and stiff enough
both in material and connections to prevent horizontal movement of all
members stiffened by each stiffener.
11.13.8.2.2 Discrete top chord stiffener systems Diagonal bracing
For timber trusses with spans of 6,6 m and smaller, the 36 73 (5) stability
top chord bracing, as detailed above, will also be adequate to act as the top
chord stiffener for the trusses braced by each stability brace (see figures 31,
32 and 35).
For timber trusses with spans greater than 6,6 m and up to 9 m, the 36 111
(5) stability top chord bracing plus heel shelf, as detailed above, will also be
adequate to act as the top chord stiffener for the trusses braced by each
stability brace (see figures 33, 34 and 35.)
NOTE 1 The truss spacing shall be used for the effective length of the top
chord for design purposes.
NOTE 2 The bracing and stiffener interval is the same, i.e.
= [16,5 m (truss span (m) 0,3)]. (See table C.1.)
11.13.8.2.3 Continuous top chord stiffener systems Diaphragm stiffeners
The following requirements shall be adhered to:
a)
Trusses with spans exceeding 9 m require separate top chord
stiffeners (to reduce the effective buckling length of the top chord) and top
chord stability bracing.
b)
The stiffener requirements are calculated for the number of trusses
that each stiffener will stiffen, and not the distance between the stiffeners.
The top chord stiffeners will not necessarily coincide with the bracing sets.
c)
All girders shall be included in the above calculation.
d)
Multiple ply girders are the truss equivalent of the number of plies plus
one, i.e. 2-ply girder = 3 trusses, etc.

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e)
In the case of truncated hip systems the truncated main hip girder and
all the truncated trusses shall be included in the above calculation.
f)
Valley trusses are not included in the above calculation.
11.13.8.2.4 Top chord "T" stiffener

a)
The number of trusses that each stiffener will act on is given in table
9. This can either be a 36 149 (5) or a 36 225 (5) member which is nailed
to the top chord along the entire top chord length with 75 mm wire nails at
100 mm centres (see figures 28(a) and 28(c)).
b)
The apex is connected with a site application plate nailed to the
underside (see figure 28(d)).
c)
The heel is fixed to the wall plate with a timber block (see figure
28(a)).
d)
The middle is supported with a 36 76 (5) joist (see figure 28(b)).
NOTE 1 Top chord "T" stiffeners are only for duo-pitched trusses.
NOTE 2 The effective length of the top chord will be the minimum specified
for the design of compression members in accordance with the timber design
codes (see SANS 10163-2 or SANS 10163-1).
11.13.8.2.5 Prefabricated top chord stiffener frames
a)
Stiffener frames shall be constructed in accordance with the
designers detail, generally of 36 73 (5) members and with connector nail
plate joints fixed in accordance with the designers specification.
b)
The bracing frames shall be nailed to the truss top chords at 300 mm
centres (see figures 29(a) and 29(b)).
c)
The frames shall be connected at the apex, heel and stub/cantilever
heels to prevent any shear between the frames or frame and wall plate (see
figures 29(c), 29(d) and 29(e)).
d)
The number of trusses that each stiffener frame can stiffen is
calculated as follows:
Number of trusses [rounded down] = 200/truss span (m).

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e)
The stiffener frame depth is calculated as follows:

Frame depth (mm) = maximum truss spacing (mm) truss thickness
(mm).
f)
The minimum frame depth is calculated as follows:

Minimum frame depth (mm) = Truss span (mm)/20.
NOTE 1 Stiffener frames can be used for all shapes of trusses.

NOTE 2 The truss spacing does not affect the stiffener frame spacing (interval) as the greater the frame
depth, the greater the "stiffness" it will provide. For this reason the prefabricated stiffener frame depth
should be the maximum truss spacing less one truss thickness.
NOTE 3 The effective length of the top chord will be the minimum specified for the design of compression
members in accordance with the timber design codes (see SANS 10163-2 or SANS 10163-1).
NOTE 4 The truss span used in the above is the span between support points.
Table 9 Top chord T-stiffener requirements for duo-pitched trusses only
1
10
900
1 000
T-stiffener size
Truss pitch
Truss span
36 149 (5)
36 225 (5)
Truss spacing
degrees
mm
600
760
900
1 000
600
760
Number of trusses stiffened by single "T" stiff ener

17,5 to 35
35,5 to 45
< 10
< 11
< 12
< 13
< 14
< 15
< 16
< 10
< 11
< 12
< 13
< 14
< 15
< 16
Example:

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13,0 m span trusses

Number of trusses stiffened by a prefabricated frame = 200/13,0 = 15,4
trusses
One prefabricated frame will act as top chord stiffener for 15 trusses (see
11.13.8.2.5(d))
Truss spacing varying from 740 mm to 640 mm, truss width 38 mm
Prefabricated stiffener frame depth = 740 mm 38 mm = 702 mm frame
depth (see 11.13.8.2.3.2(e))
Minimum frame depth = 13 000 mm/20 = 650 mm
Therefore a single stiffener frame is sufficient for every 15 trusses (see
11.13.8.2.3.2(f))
11.13.9 Bottom-chord bracing
Bottom-chord bracing shall be installed on all trusses where the ceiling is not
fixed directly to the bottom chord.
Bottom-chord bracing shall be installed in conjunction with bottom-chord
runners (see figure 30).
In the case of lightweight roofs, the ceiling will play a significant role as
bottom-chord bracing. Situations may arise where loading takes place without
the ceiling being fixed. In such instances web runners and cross-bracing back
to the bottom chord should be inserted.
WARNING: NO SPECIFIED DIAGONAL BOTTOM-CHORD BRACING
SHALL BE REMOVED.
11.13.10 Vertical bracing
Adequate vertical bracing shall be used in the braced bay to ensure the
lateral stability of the whole system (see figures 24(a) and 24(b)).
The connection of the bracing frames on the apex is insufficient without the
use of vertical bracing to provide the necessary stiffness for the whole
bracing system.

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11.13.11 Prefabricated bracing

11.13.11.1 General
Prefabricated bracing frames enable the erector to set a series of truly plumb
and straight trusses in the braced bay. On completion, these frames form a
sound foundation upon which to proceed with the erection. Using
prefabricated bracing frames can also eliminate much of the temporary
bracing since the permanent bracing can be erected at the time the first
trusses are placed into position (see figure 39). The prefabricated bracing
frames will be used where the spans are greater than those given in table 10.
11.13.11.2 Positioning
Prefabricated bracing frames will be used in the top-chord and bottom-chord
planes irrespective of the type of ceiling (see figure 39). If prefabricated
bracing is used in the top-chord frame, prefabricated bracing frames shall be
used in the bottom-chord plane as well as in any other areas such as
horizontal planes of piggyback trusses.
11.13.11.3 Spans
The span of prefabricated bracing frames shall be as given in table 10.
Table 10 Minimum truss spans for prefabricated bracing
1
Mass/m
Minimum truss span
Roof type
kN/m
Lightweight
< 0,3
> 15
Heavyweight
> 0,3
> 11,5 (double bay only)
NOTE The difference in spans is purely as a result of the loads induced in the bracing
members, which are directly proportional to the imposed loads.
11.13.12 Span-to-depth ratio

The span-to-depth ratio of the bracing frame shall not exceed 20.
This in effect means that for a tiled roof that has trusses at 760 mm centres,
double bracing frames shall be used for a span greater than
760 20 = 15 200 mm.
11.13.13 Joints
The bracing frames shall be adequately jointed at the apex to allow for the
transfer of forces.

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The standard method of connecting the frames is by means of bracing straps

at each side, but not in the centre, of the frame.
11.13.14 Runner bracing
All web runners shall be braced at intervals along their length to avoid
movement (see figures 36 and 37).
11.13.15 Special bracing
Special bracing is often required in cases where the spacing of trusses
exceeds 1 500 mm. In such cases, the erector shall work strictly in
accordance with the designers drawings. Bracing member sizes may well
exceed those shown in the figures.
Bracing, even if it is to be removed again, should be nailed securely. The
nails shall not be left proud for the purpose of easy removal, because the
connection will then not be sufficiently rigid.
11.14 Girder trusses
11.14.1 General
A girder truss is a truss that is generally designed to carry other trusses
where there is no wall support.
A girder truss may comprise a single truss frame or may be a unit made up of
two or more single truss frames. Figures 48, 49, 50 and 51 show a typical
application of girder trusses used to carry the hip girders and jack trusses.
11.14.2 Assembly of multiple monoplanar girder trusses
Girder trusses often consist of two or more identical trusses joined together
and are usually supplied singly to facilitate handling and transport from the
factory to the site. Before erection, the truss members shall be assembled on
the ground into the composite girder unit, strictly in accordance with the
design. Only under very special circumstances should this assembly be
attempted in the final erected position.
When trusses have to be connected, the appropriate of the nailing and
bolting procedures given in 11.14.2.1 to 11.14.2.4 is recommended and
commonly used in practice, but is subject to the design specifications. Any
other assembly method specified by the designer takes precedence over
these procedures (see figure 52).
11.14.2.1 Two-member girder trusses
Nail members together as described in 11.14.2.4, ensuring that all projecting
nail points are clinched over. Bolt close to the node points, using M12 bolts
with the appropriate washer as specified in table 1.

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11.14.2.2 Three-member girder trusses

Nail two members together as described in 11.14.2.4. Then nail the third
member on by placing the nails centrally between the existing nails. Use nails
of length 76 mm and of diameter 3,5 mm.
Unless otherwise specified in the design, use M12 bolts and bolt the top and
bottom of the nailed-up trusses together, using the washers specified in
table 1. Ensure that the bolts are positioned close to the node connector
plate (see figure 45).
11.14.2.3 Four-member girder trusses
Nail two trusses together as described in 11.14.2.4 and then add a further ply
to each side of this two-member truss, taking care that the nailing patterns do
not conflict. Bolt the trusses together (as described in 11.14.2.2) to form the
final composite four-member girder. Arrange the bolts as for a three-member
girder truss. Use washers as specified in table 1.
11.14.2.4 Nailing
Nail together the top and bottom chords, using two rows of wire nails of
length 75 mm and of diameter 3,5 mm at 150 mm reeled pitch as shown in
figure 46.
Nail the webs together, using nails of length 75 mm and of diameter 3,5 mm
centred at distances of 300 mm along the web centre line.
11.14.3 Connections to standard trusses
Connections between trusses shall be as specified by the designer. No other
form of connection than the specified hanger shall be used without approval
by the designer. (See figures 53 and 54.)
On no account may trusses be end-nailed or skew-nailed to girders.
11.14.4 Non-standard and special connections
Where the loads to be transferred between trusses are large, specially
designed connections will be required, for example connections fabricated
from hot-rolled or cold-rolled mild steel angles. Some details are shown in
figures 55 and 56.
11.14.5 Anti-split plate
The bottom chords of girders of depth 225 mm shall have anti-split plates
applied to all plies, on either side of the bottom chord nodes.
NOTE If the bottom chords are less than 149 mm in diameter, anti-split
plates shall be applied at the discretion of the designer.

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11.14.6 Valley girder truss top chords

Valley girder truss top chords shall be properly braced in accordance with
figure 47.
11.15 Hips and valleys
11.15.1 Erection of hips
When erecting a roof that has hips, it is recommended to start erecting the
roof at the hipped end. This will provide a very sound and solid base from
which to continue erection. As the construction of hipped ends varies, specific
information should be obtained from the designer.
The connection of the purlin or batten to the rafter of the hip girder is not
sufficient to give full restraint to the rafter, and a special connection detail is
required here.
11.15.2 Formation of valleys
11.15.2.1 General
Valleys are formed using special valley trusses as shown in figure 47.
For valley trusses manufactured from 36 mm thick timber, braced runners
shall be installed whenever the web length equals or exceeds 1 870 mm
measured from the centre of the top chord to the centre of the bottom chord.
Two runners are required if the length equals or exceeds 3 740 mm.
Valley trusses shall only be erected after all the standard trusses have been
erected and braced. The details that follow should be observed when
constructing valleys.
11.15.2.2 Runners of size 38 mm 76 mm or 38 mm 38 mm block-nailed
to the top chords below the valley truss will facilitate the erection of the valley
trusses and ensure that the trusses do not slip down the supporting top
chord.
11.15.2.3 Erect valley trusses at the centres between the runners as
specified by the designer. Since these spacing distances usually exceed the
purlin or batten spacing, install additional intermediate valley runners (see
figure 48) of the same size as the battens to the underside of the top chords,
midway between the valley trusses and extending at least one truss beyond
the valley line, in order to ensure that the top chord of the standard trusses
remains structurally stable and is restrained from buckling.
11.15.2.4 Ensure that the intermediate valley runners extend at least to the
next adjoining standard trusses outside the lines of the valley (see figure 48).
11.15.2.5 Place the valley trusses in position with the apexes level and nail
them securely to the top chords of the standard trusses.

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11.15.3 Connections
11.15.3.1 Valley trusses shall be securely fixed to the main trusses at each
and every intersection, using two nails of length 90 mm and diameter 3,5 mm
skewly driven, or two bent plate connectors (hurricane clips), or as specified.
Runners (see 11.12) shall be nailed at mid-height to the webs with at least
two wire nails of length 75 mm and of diameter 3,5 mm or as specified (see
figure 47).
Figures 49 to 51 show alternative hip connection details.
11.15.3.2 Figure 59 shows the restraining of chords on the valley side of a
kinked roof.
11.16 Secondary roof members
11.16.1 General
The term secondary roof member does not imply that the timber is of
secondary importance in the overall structure. The term is used to distinguish
between the trusses (the primary roof members) and other equally important
structural members.
The secondary roof members include all runners (see 11.12), permanent
bracing (see 11.13), purlins, battens and ceiling brandering.
11.16.2 Purlins
11.16.2.1 General
Purlins support the roof covering and the spacings shall not exceed the
specified values.
The purlin-to-truss connection is specified in table 3. To allow for possible uplift, the purlin shall be tied down to the truss, galvanized wire being used at
each connection. Alternatively, a pair of fully nailed hurricane clips (see
figure 44) may be used in accordance with the manufacturers requirements.
In certain cases, the designer may specify a special fixing detail to be
followed by the erector for making the purlin-to-truss connection.
11.16.2.2 Splicing
Purlins on long buildings have to be spliced. A normal scarf cut and nailing
joint (see figure 41(a)) are inadequate
a)
in the purlin closest to the eaves in any building of more than one
floor, and

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b)
in the purlin closest to the eaves in buildings outside built-up areas
(as defined in SANS 10160 ).
In such cases, a nail plate splice (see figure 41(b)) shall be used.
The positions of purlin splices should be staggered to avoid splices being in a
row at any section parallel to the trusses.
11.16.2.3 Spacing
Purlins shall be spaced in accordance with the design specifications (see 5.4)
where the roof covering will be the prime determining factor.
11.16.3 Battens
11.16.3.1 General
Tiling battens are generally secured to roof trusses by means of one wire nail
at each intersection of the batten and truss (see table 3).
The timber used for battens should comply with SANS 1707 or with
SANS 1783-1 or SANS 1783-4, as applicable.
11.16.3.2 Splicing
Batten splices shall be staggered. Battens should preferably be spliced with
small connector plates (see figure 42(a)). It is not recommended that the
respective batten ends be nailed onto a single truss. Splicing between
trusses may only be by means of a nailed timber splice or connector plates
as shown in figure 42(b). Finger-jointed battens are acceptable.
11.16.3.3 Spacing
The spacing of the battens is given in table 2.
11.17 Ceilings
11.17.1 Brandering fixed to bottom chord
If the ceiling is to brace the bottom chords of the truss in lieu of runners, the
brandering should be fixed directly to the underside of the bottom chords with
one nail (of length 76 mm and of diameter 3,5 mm) per joint for material of
size 38 mm 38 mm, centred at distances not exceeding 450 mm.
Brandering shall be continuous over at least three bays and shall be
staggered to ensure that splices do not occur in one line. Temporary runners
and bottom-chord bracing shall be installed in all cases if a sheeted roof
covering is to be secured before the brandering has been fully secured and
braced.
The timber used for brandering shall comply with SANS 1707 or with
SANS 1783-1 or SANS 1783-4, as applicable.

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11.17.2 Suspended ceilings

If the ceiling is hung from the purlins or battens, as with suspended ceilings,
or if it is to consist of loose panels resting in metal T-sections and the truss
spacing does not exceed 1 500 mm, permanent and continuous runners of
size 38 mm 76 mm shall be provided and fixed to the bottom chords of the
truss with at least two wire nails of length 75 mm. These runners shall be
fixed at the panel points of the bottom chord or at such centres as are
specified by the designer. The roof covering shall not be fixed until such time
as the runners are in position and all bracing has been installed. If the truss
spacing is greater than 1 500 mm, the dimensions of the continuous runner
shall be determined by the designer.
11.17.3 No ceiling
If there is no ceiling the truss spacing shall not exceed 1 500 mm, and
permanent continuous runners of size 38 mm 76 mm shall be provided and
fixed to the bottom chords as for suspended ceilings.
NOTE In special designs where the distance between truss centres exceeds
1 500 mm, ceiling joists and other secondary timber and bracing, etc. might
be required. In these cases the erector should work strictly in accordance
with the designers drawings.
11.18 Roof covering
11.18.1 General
The type of roofing material specified shall not be changed unless the
designer has been consulted.
11.18.2 Sheeting
Roof sheeting shall be attached to all purlins that are spaced as specified by
the truss designer (see 5.4). Sheeting should be fixed in accordance with the
manufacturers specifications.
11.18.3 Tiles and slates
Tiles shall be laid onto purlins that are spaced as specified by the designer
(see 5.4) and in accordance with the manufacturers specifications.
11.18.4 Stacking of roofing material on roof
The roof shall never be loaded with any load whatsoever until such time as all
the permanent runners, purlins, battens and all bracing have been erected
and inspected. Roofing material, stacked in small quantities, shall be
dispersed equally over all areas of the roof.

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Site Documentation
Overview
The following documents must be sent to site, the designer has to ensure
that the Erector receives, signs and erects inline with these documents:
Roof Layout (PrimeCAD or equivalent drawing with all applicable

notes)
Diagrams of the following trusses:
All Girders (Single + Multi Ply).

All Trusses Requiring Bracing Whether Localized (T-Bracing)
Or General (Web Runners And Bracing).
Asymmetrical Trusses.
Trusses With Internal Configurations That Have Been Altered
For Specific Requirements, E.G. Internal Wall Supports, Large
Point Loads, Asymmetrical Shapes.
All Relevant Bracing Details
A Drawing Waybill

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Roof Layout and Applicable Notes

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Diagrams of Trusses

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All Relevant Bracing Details

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A Drawing Waybill
TO:.
RE:.........
I hereby acknowledge receipt of the documentation attached hereto.
A
ANTI
BCBGEN
BFH
BFH1
BFS
BFSP
BFSPC
BUILD
C-H45
C-HFA
C-HFA90
C-SHC
CON1
ECO-STRAP
FISH
GNSHEET
GNTILE
GT
HC1A
HC2
HC2A
HC3S
HC3T
HC3SBG
HC4
HD
HD-SLAB
HEELPOS
HIPBAT
HIPCON
HOLDALT
M-BCBGEN
M-SBBS
M-SBBT
ROOF LAYOUT PLAN

Anti Spilt Reinforcement
Tie Beam Runners and Bracing
Bracing frame installation
Bracing frame connection detail at heel
Bracing frame connection at stub-end support
Bracing frame connection details at apex
Typical bottom chord bracing frame splice connection
Caddie connection symbols legend
45 Hip cleat connection
Remedial for heavy duty cleat on a truss without a vertical web
Position of multiple ply girders
Standard Hip connections
Timber pack support connection
Joint reinforcement detail
Fish plate connection
General notes for sheeted roof
General notes for tiled roofs
Geyser support deck
Standard heel bracing connection where beamfill is not used
Stub or cantilever shelf bracing for tiled roofs with brick beamfill
Stub or cant. Shelf bracing for tiled roofs without brick beamfill
Rafter bracing for sheeted roofs with stub or cantilever heels
Rafter bracing for sheeted roofs with stub or cantilever heels
Stub or cantilever vertical bracing at support wall
Rafter bracing for stubbed sheeted roofs for spans less than
15m
Holding down detail
Truss fixing to concrete slab
Limitations for wallplate positioning
Connection of batten or purlin to single ply hip trusses
Typical hip corner connection for large overhangs
Alternative holding down details
Bottom chord bracing with M-Runner
Speedbrace BC bracing with metal M runners for light
(sheeted) roofs
Speedbrace BC bracing with metal M runners for heavy (tiled)
roofs
Detail
Revised
Date
01/11/02
01/11/02
01/11/02
01/11/02
01/11/02
01/11/02
01/11/02
01/11/02
01/11/02
01/11/02
01/11/02
06/11/02
01/11/02
01/11/02
01/11/02
01/11/02
01/11/02
01/11/02
01/11/02
01/11/02
01/11/02
01/11/02
01/11/02
07/11/02
07/11/02
07/11/02
Supplied
to Site
07/11/02
01/11/02
01/11/02
01/11/02
06/11/02
06/11/02
01/11/02
01/11/02
01/11/02

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M-SBWB
MSBWBSPEC
M-WBGEN
M-WBSPEC
MULTIPLY
NOTES
ADD
BRASTRAP
NOTSYM
OHANG
VALDES
PBG
PBG1
PC
PIG3D
PIGMRUN
PIGOP1
PWD
RBDH
RBS
RBT1GEN
RBT2GEN
RBTGEN
RUNGIR
SBBS
SBBT
SBDH
SBHA
SBHB
SBHC
SBHS
SBHSA
SBL2A
SBL2B
SBL3A
SBL3B
SBL3C
SBLC
SBRPS
SBRPT
SBTS
SBTT
SBWB
SH
SLDSH
SPBC
SPC
TCR
TOR
Speedbrace single runner web bracing with metal M runner

Speedbrace web bracing with metal M runner and special
conn.
Web bracing with metal M runner
M-Runner with special bracing connection for timber web
bracing
Multiply
GENERAL NOTES
Additional members note
Top chord bracing (eCo Bracing Strap)
Not Symmetric note
Overhang note
Valley design note
Purlin/Batten connection for heavy girders
Purlin/Batten connection for heavy girders
50 x 76 purlin connection details
Piggyback bracing detail
Piggyback connection for Metal M-Runners
Connection of piggyback truss to truncated truss with eCo strap
Joint Legend
Dutch hip timber rafter bracing
Rafter bracing for sheeted roofs
Rafter bracing for tiled roofs for spans of lees than 6600m
Timber top chord bracing layout for tiled roofs of spans above
9m
Rafter bracing for tiled roofs for spans of less than 9000m
Connection for bottom chord runners to girder bottom chord
Tiebeam bracing with eCo speedbrace for light weight roofs
Tiebeam bracing with Eco Speedbrace for tiled roofs
Dutch hip eCo Speedbrace rafter bracing
eCo speedbrace std heel conn where no beamfill
eCo speedbrace std heel conn where beamfill occurs
eCo speedbrace heel connection for cantilever trusses
eCo speedbrace heel connection for stub end trusses
eCo speedbrace wall connection for sheeted roofs
eCo speedbrace TC bracing layout tiled roofs span 9m 13m
eCo speedbrace in-line connection of segments
Return point connection for sheeted roofs
Return point connection for tiled roofs
Rafter eCo Speedbrace layout for sheeted roofs up to 15m span
eCo Speedbrace TC bracing layout tiled roofs up to 9m span
Return point connection for tiled roofs
Strap hanger connection for 2, 3 & 4 ply girders
Sliding shoe assembly
Barge board Connection to Steel Purlin
Steel Purlin Connection
Girder top chord restraint
Torsional restraint strap
Detail
Revised
Date
06/11/02
01/11/02
Supplied
to Site
01/11/02
06/11/02
01/11/02
06/11/02
06/11/02
06/11/02
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TORS1
TRUNC1
TRUNC2
TRUNC3
VB
VERTBRA
VSA
VSB
WBGEN
WBSPEC
WS
Torsional restraint strap for trusses connected at elevated level

Standard single ply truncated rafter connection
Standard 2ply truncated rafter connection
Standard 3 & 4 truncated rafter connection
Vertical bracing for tiled roofs > 8m span
Installation of runners and vertical bracing
Intermediate Valley runners for tiled roofs
Intermediate Valley runners for sheeted roofs
Web runner and web cross bracing
Web bracing with metal M runner and special connection
Web stiffeners
Print Name
:.
Detail
Revised
Date
06/11/02
06/11/02
06/11/02
06/11/02
06/11/02
06/11/02
06/11/02
06/11/02
06/11/02
06/11/02
06/11/02
Supplied
to Site
Signature of Recipient:.
Date
:.

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ITC Roof Erectors Handbook - Volume 1, which is a pocket size edition is

geared specifically towards the roof erector, professional or amateur, erecting
roof trusses over a domestic dwelling up to 8,5 metre span.

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Task 12a
1)
List the documents that must be

sent to site:
2)
List 4 critical pieces of information

that must be indicated on the actual
roof layout sent to site.
3)
Drawings of which trusses must be

included in the documentation to be
sent to site?
4)
List 3 critical pieces of information

that must be indicated on the truss
drawings.

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References

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272
The National Building Regulations and Building Standards Act (Regulation A19 of the
National Building Regulations)
SANS 10400 - Application of the National Building Regulations
SANS 10160 - The loadings and procedures to be adopted in the design of buildings
SANS 10243 - The manufacture and erection of timber trusses.
SANS 1783 - Sawn Softwood Timber
SANS 1460 - Laminated timber
SANS 1005 - The preservative treatment of timber
SANS 1082 - Timber buildings
SANS 1096 - Manufacture of finger-jointed structural timber
ITC Roof Erectors Handbook - Volume 1,
ITC Roof Erectors Handbook - Volume 2
ITC Estimator / Designer Handbook
Websites:
Institute for Timber Construction
www.itctruss.co.za
Engineering Council of South Africa
www.ecsa.co.za
National Home Builders Registration Council
www.nhbrc.co.za
South African Wood Preservers Association
www.sawpa.co.za
South African Timber Auditing Services
www.satas.co.za
South African Institute of Steel Construction
www.saisc.co.za
South African Bureau for Standards
www.sabs.co.za
Further Reading for interested students:
The World of Roof Technology (www.mitek.com.uk)
The Gang-Nail Truss System (www.mitek.com.au)
Please note that some of the components shown in these documents are not available in South
Africa ~ for further information please contact your local MiTek office:

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274
Check Sheet

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275

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276
Task 1a:
1)
Name the Acts that guides Roof

engineering in South Africa?
The National Building Regulations and Building

Standards Act (Regulation A19 of the National Building
Regulations)
2)
Name the standards that outlines

structural design practise?
SANS 10160 - The loadings and procedures to be

adopted in the design of buildings; and
3)
4)
Which governing body is responsible

for the inspection of roof design and
erections (a), and which governing
body (b), sets the standards to which
these inspections align to?
Name and describe the 4 inspection

categories?
a) Institute of Timber Construction (ITC)
b) South African Bureau for Standard (SABS)
A - Very Complex roofs

B - Complex Domestic and simple Industrial and
Commercial Roofs, including up to 10m
C - Simple Roofs up to and including 8.5m span with
standard loadings
D - Gable to gable roofs (no hips or valleys) up to 6.5m
5)
Name the areas that an inspector

reviews:
All trusses are straight and plumb

All specified bracing is installed / fabricators site
details
Multiply girders are nailed and bolted
All hangers and brackets are installed and either fully
nailed or bolted.
Truncated trusses & truncated girders have top
restraints installed
Valley bracing
Tie downs Sheeted Roofs

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Task 2a:
1)
Describe the following terms:
a)
Truss Designer
is the design professional, individual or organization

(system engineers), having responsibility for the
design of nail plated timber trusses. This responsibility
shall be in accordance with the statutes and
regulations governing the professional registration and
certification of engineers, but hereinafter will be
referred to as Truss Designer.
b)
Truss Design Drawing
shall mean the graphic depiction of an individual Truss

prepared by the Truss Designer.
c)
Truss Manufacturer
shall mean an individual or organization regularly

engaged in the manufacturing of Trusses.
d)
Truss Layout Plan
is the drawing identifying the location assumed for

each Truss based on the Truss Designers
interpretation of the Construction Design Documents.
2)
Outline the responsibilities of the

Designers
Prepare the Truss Design Drawings in conformance

with the requirements set forth in the latest approved
edition SANS 10243. For each Truss Design Drawing,
set forth as a minimum the following:
Pitch or Height, span and spacing
Truss Configuration
Required bearing widths
Design loads as applicable:
Top chord live load;
Top chord dead load;
Bottom chord dead load;
Concentrated loads and their points of application.
Awareness of metal connector for unusual conditions
of use.
Awareness of excessive reaction forces and directions.
Connector plate type, size and the dimensioned
location of each metal connector plate except where
symmetrically located relative to the joint interface.
Timber size and grade for each member.
Connection requirements for:
Truss to girder;
Multiple truss connections;
Site splices approval by system engineers.
Required truss and bracing detailed drawing to the site
for installation and erection purposes.

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Task 3a:
1)
Name the three methods of grading

timber.
Visual grading
Mechanical grading
Proof grading
2)
3)
Task 3b:
4)
When is it acceptable to use non SABS

graded timber in a roof structure?
Never
Out of 100 pieces of mechanically

graded grade 5 timber, how many pieces
are allowed to be less than grade 5?
5 pieces.
Name the six steps in steel

manufacturing:
Steel making
Hot Rolling
Pickling
Cold Rolling
Annealing
Temper Rolling
5)
Name the ways that corrosion can be

prevented:
Store the sheet under low humidity (less than 40 %)

and constant temperature conditions. High humidity
accelerates corrosion. Stagnant air, which is
subjected to changes in temperature, precipitates
moisture and consequently, corrosion of the sheet
takes place.
If it is impossible to control humidity or temperature,
the sheet must be stored where good air circulation
exists.
When bundles or coils have been opened the
material must be used with a minimum of delay.
In the event of material coming into direct contact
with water, it should be treated with an approved
dewatering oil and used as soon as possible.

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Task 4a:
1)
Gable W all
Identify the following roof terms:
Valley Line
Hip Line
2)
Ridgeline
Apex
Identify the following truss terms:
Top Chord
Bottom Chord
3)
Identify the following dimensions:
Heel
Span
Top Chord Length
Overhang
Pitch

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4)
What is truss triangulation and why is it

necessary/effective?
5)
Sketch an example of a triangulated truss.
6)
Sketch an example of a non-triangulated truss.
Webs and chords form triangles to

ensure the stability of the truss.
Triangulation also ensures the
correct transfer of loads through the
members of the truss.

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Task 5a
1)
Identify the types of Building Ends / Junctions and Roof

Lines as per the following plan drawing
End A:
Gable
End B:
Standard Hip
End A
End C: Dutch
Junction 1
Junction 1: Fly Valley
Line (iii)
End C
Line (i)
Line (ii)
Line (i):
Hip Line
Line (ii):
Ridge Line
Line (iii): Valley Line
End B
2)
From the sketch below name the ends on the roof?
a) Stub
b) Cantilever
a)
b)

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Task 6a:
Determine the apex height (x) and the TC length (y)
X or H = H1 + H2
H1
= Span x Tan pitch

= 6450/2 x Tan 26
= 1573mm
H2
= TC Depth/Cos pitch
= 111/Cos26
= 123mm
X or H
= H1 + H2
=1573 + 123
= 1696mm
= (1/2Span + Overhang)/ Cos pitch

= ({6450/2}+600) / Cos26
= 3825 / Cos26
= 4256mm

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Task 6b:
The Apex height (x) of the truss;

X or H = H1 + H2
H1
= Span x T an pitch
= 8360/2 x Tan 17.5
= 1318mm
H2
= TC Depth/Cos pitch
= 149/Cos 17.5
= 156mm
= H1 + H2 = 1318mm + 156mm
= 1474mm
The sloping length of the top chord (v)

V
= (1/2Span + Overhang)/ Cos pitch

= (4180 + 670) / Cos 17.5
= 5085mm

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Task 6c:
The span of GX1

= Span of A1 / Cos (1/2 Offs et Angle)
= 6700 / Cos (30/2)
= 6700 / Cos 15
= 6936mm
The pitch of GX1 where:
The Span of A1 = 6700
and the Pitch of A1 = 27.5
Firstly calculate the underside height of truss A!
H1
= Span A1 x Tan pitch

= 3350 x Tan 27.5
= 1744mm
Then calculate pitch () of GX1
= Underside Height (H1)/ (1/2 Span of GX1) x Tan inverted

= 1744 / (6936/2) x Tan inverted
= 1744 / 3468 x Tan inverted
= 26.7 Deg

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Task 7a:
1)
Give the definition of stress?

Stress =
2)
Give the formula for Combine Stress Index

(CSI)?
Fb
fb
Force
Area
Fc
=
fc
1,0 and
3)
What is the max permissible CSI?
1,0
4)
If a member is overstress suggest 2 ways of

modifying the design in order to reduce the
CSI?
Increase the timber size
5)
What is the maximum length of a compression

web under normal loading before it will require
a runner (36mm timber)?
6)
Why is the runner required? What effect does

it have?
7)
What is the maximum length of a tension web

under normal loading before it will require a
8)
Why is the runner required? What effect does

it have?
Ft
ft
Increase the grade

Reduce the effective length by adding a runner
or T Brace (only webs & BC)
36 x 52 = 1872mm (1.8m)
To reduce the effective length of the web,
thereby preventing buckling and to provide
lateral stability for the truss.
36 x 72 = 2592mm (2.6m)
In case of reversed conditions (i.e. stress
reversal) which would change the web from
tension to compression. In this case a runner is
needed to reduce the effective length of the web,
to prevent buckling.
The runner will also provide lateral stability for
the truss.

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Task 8a:
1)
Describe Dead & Live Loads, and give

examples of both
Dead Load: A permanent load
Geyser
Kitchen Canopy
Hospital Equipment
Roof Covering
Air conditioning duct
Ceiling
Live Load: A temporary load, exerted on the roof

truss for less than 3 months
2)
Calculate the Top Chord Dead Load in kN/m.

eg. Cement Tiles Double Roman 0.49kN/m
@760c/
Given the f ollowing information:
Workers
Wind
Snow
Hail
Tile = 63kg/m2 = 630N/m2 = 0.63kN/m2

Battens (38x38) @320cc
1000/320 = 3.125m
V=L x b x h
Tile Weight: 63 kg/m2
=3.125m x 0.038m x 0.038m
Batten size: 38 x 38 mm
= 0.0045m3
D=M/V M=D x V
Volume (Grade 5)
= 470kg/m3
= 470kg/m3 X 0.0045m3
= 2.12kg
= 21.2N
= 0.02kN
Top Chord Dead Load = Tiles + Battens
= 0.63kN/m2 + 0.02kN/m2
= 0.65kN/m2

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Task 9a:
1)
Why do Timber Roofs need to be braced?
To provide lateral stability to the roof trusses, i.e.

prevents movement due to lateral forces (Wind)
or buckling forces due to compression.
To provide buckling of the chords and webs by
reduce their effective lengths.
To prevent the pack of cards effect.
2)
Give two cases where bottom chord br acing

and runners are required.
On roofs with lightweight roof covering, e.g.

Metal Sheeting
Where no or suspended ceilings are fitted.
3)
Why must bottom chord bracing and runners

be used in the above cases?
4)
When are prefabricated bracing frames

required:
a)
In cement tile roofs?
The bottom chord is usually in Tension, thus in

case of stress reversal, due to wind the BC will
temporarily go into compression, runners are
fitted to reduce the effective length of the bottom
chord to prevent buckling and to provide lateral
restraint.
Top Chord only on spans greater than 9m but

less than 15m.
On Top and Bottom chords, on spans greater
than 15m
b)
In metal sheeted roofs?
On Top and Bottom chords, on spans greater

than 15m
5)
What is a Web Stiffener (or T Brace)?
A piece of timber (Min 38x114mm) fix along the

full length of the edge a web, forming a T shape.
The T brace is fixed with 1 x 75mm nail @ 300cc
along the centerline of the T piece.
6)
When is a Web Stiffener required/effective?
When the web is over stressed, or if the web is

in compression and is longer than 1.8m, or
where the web is in tension and is longer than
2.6m.
The Web Stiffener is used on less than 3 trusses
in a run, or where effective runner cross bracing
cannot be fitted.

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Task 10a:
1)
In the roof plan shown below, all trusses have been designed with Effective Lengths of 1200mm.
o
The roof pitch is 26 , eaves overhangs are 670mm from the outside face of the 230mm thick walls,
and the gable overhang is 300mm.
Calculate:
The total length of W allplates;
1.
Calculating the Length of the Rafters

Refer to trig equation: L = B CosA
Where B = the horizontal distance from ridgeline to eaves line
= (overall Span) + Overhang.
and A = the roof pitch = 26 .
o
i.e. L = Length of rafter = ( overall Span + 600) Cos26
2.
Calculating the Number of Purlins along each Rafter Length

Subtract 100mm from L (50mm each end of the rafter) and divide by th e maximum purlin
spacing, 1150. Round the result up, to get the number of spaces between purlins, and add 1 to
get the number of purlins.
Section A A
2. No. of Spaces = (6564 100) 1150 = 5.62
The rafter is divided into 6 spaces and requires 7 purlins
(at 1077 c/c).

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289
Section B B
2. No. of Spaces = (5563 100) 1150 = 4.75
(at 1093 c/c).
Section C C
2. No. of Spaces = (4684 100) 1150 = 3.99
(at 1146 c/c).
The purlins can now be drawn onto the plan as shown
here:
3.
7 rows of purlins on the side planes and hip

ends of the widest roof section.
6 rows of purlins on the side planes and hip

end of the narrower section on the right.
5 rows of purlins on the side planes of the

vertical roof section, extending from the
valley lines to the end of the 300mm gable
overhang.
Estimating the Lengths of the Purlins

It is not necessary to calculate the actual length of each purlin. The lengths can be estimated by
applying the following short-cut:
To illustrate this, the purlin layout may be re-drawn as shown here.

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290
With the purlin layout re-drawn as described above, the total purlin length can now be estimated as
follows:
268 800 mm
84 000 mm
34 000 mm
Total
386 800 mm
Total Length of Purlins = 386 800 mm or 386.8 meters

Total length of Wallplates
The total length of load bearing walls, measured along outside wall dimensions, is :
2 x (total horizontal length + total vertical length) length of gable wall i.e. 2 x (25 000 + 14 300)
7 220
2 x (25 000 + 14 300) 7 220 (3 x 220) = 70 720 mm.
Total Length of Wallplates = 70 720 mm or 70.72 meters

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Length of Ridgelines, Hip Lines and Valley Lines
The length of the ridgeline, R1, in the top left section of the building is given by the length of this section
(L1), minus half the width (W1), at each hip end.
i.e. R1 = L1 W1 = 19 800 11 800 = 8 800
R1 = 8 800 mm
The length of the ridgeline, R2, in the top right section of the building is equal to the length of that section
(L2), since the valley length added at the left is equal to the hip length deducted at the right.
i.e. R2 = L2 = 6 400
R2 = 6 400 mm
The length of the vertical ridgeline, R3, in the lower section of the building is equal to the l ength of that
section (L3), plus the length of the valley section, which is half the width (W3) .
i.e. R3 = L3 + W3 = 3 400 + (8 420) = 7 610
R3 = 7 610 mm
Total length of Ridgelines = R1 + R2 + R3 = 8 800 + 6 400 + 7 610 = 22 810 mm.
Total Length of Ridgelines = 22 810 mm or 22.81 meters

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Hip Lines and Valley Lines

2
= A +A
Since the two shorter sides are equal, this becomes :

2
= 2.A
Taking the square root on both sides of this equation, gives :

L
= 2.A
Substituting the values from the top left corner of the building,
gives :
H1
= 2.( W1)
= 2.(5900) = 8 343.86
i.e.
H1
= 8 344 mm
Similarly for the hip line H2 and valley lines V2 and V3 :

H2
= V2
= 2.( W2)
= 2.(5000) = 7 071.07
V3
i.e.
H2
= 7 071 mm
and
V2
= 7 071 mm
= 2 ( W3)
= 2 (4210) = 5 953.84
i.e.
V3
= 5 954 mm
The partial hip line, H1b, may be calculated by simply

subtracting
H2 from H1, as shown here :
H1b
= H1 H2 = 8 344 7 071 = 1 273

i.e.
H1b
= 1 273 mm
Alternatively, H1b may be calculated in the same way as the other diagonal Hip and Valley lines above
by using Pythagoras theorem and the eaves length, W1b :
H1b
= 2.( W1b) = 2.(900) = 1 272.79

Total length of Hip Lines = 3.H1 + H1b + 2.H2 = 25 032 + 1 273 + 14 142 = 40 447 mm.
Total Length of Hip Lines = 40 447 mm or 40.45 meters
Total length of Valley Lines = V2 + 2.V3 = 7 071 + 11 908 = 18 979 mm.

Total Length of Valley Lines = 18 979 mm or 18.98 meters

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Task 11a:
1)
2)
What is the maximum plate positioning

tolerance?
5mm
Describe the maximum allowable gaps in

the following joint types
a)
Heel joints
0 5mm
b)
Apex joints, splices in compression

members and similar joints requiring
wood-to-wood compression.
0mm No Gap
All other joints
2mm
c)
3)
What must be done if, for any joint on a

cutting bill, if...
a)
The plate size is missing?
Refer the truss back to the designer
b)
The required plate size is not in stock?
Use a bigger plate

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Task 12a
1)
List the documents that must be sent to site:
Roof Layout
Drawing / Diagram of girders
Bracing Details
Drawing Waybill / Checklist
2)
List 4 critical pieces of information that must be

indicated on the actual roof layout sent to site.
Truss Labels + spacing

Roof loading Top + Bottom Chord
Fixing details + legend
Bracing required + positioning of bracing and
braced bays, etc.
3)
Drawings of which trusses must be included in the

documentation to be sent to site?
All girders All trusses requiring on -site work,

e.g. bracing
4)
List 3 critical pieces of information that must be

indicated on the truss drawings.
Truss name (label)

Truss Spacing
Plate Sizes
Timber sizes + grade
Truss Ply
Truss Quantity
Required bracing
Asymmetrical note (if applicable) etc.

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296

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An Introduction to

An ITC Approved Programme

An Introduction to Roof Engineering

An Introduction to Roof Engineering

Registered Governing Bodies ....................................................................................................28

Institute for Timber Construction (ITC) .......................................................................................29

Scope & Responsibilities ...........................................................................................................40

An Introduction to Roof Engineering

Truss Designer Responsibilities .......................................................................................................... 40

Roof & Layout Terminology........................................................................................................71

Drawings and Site Plans............................................................................................................84

Junctions Parallel Blocks ......................................................................................................104

Junctions Perpendicular Blocks ............................................................................................106

Other Common Non-Standard Roof Sections ..........................................................................114

An Introduction to Roof Engineering

The Angle and sides of triangles ..............................................................................................121

The Trigonometry Equations....................................................................................................124

The Trigonometry in Roofing Calculations ...............................................................................129

Introduction to forces ...............................................................................................................147

Force Calculations ...................................................................................................................150

Design assumptions ................................................................................................................151

An Introduction to Roof Engineering

Section 8 Loads & Forces

Live Loads ...............................................................................................................................159

Dead Loads .............................................................................................................................161

Top and Bottom Chord Loading Tables ...................................................................................163

Application of Load ..................................................................................................................166

Bracing Components ...............................................................................................................183

Bracing Design ........................................................................................................................184

An Introduction to Roof Engineering

Bracing Calculations ................................................................................................................185

Purlins and Battens..................................................................................................................193

Plant Management System ......................................................................................................213

An Introduction to Roof Engineering

Site Documentation .................................................................................................................246

An Introduction to Roof Engineering

An Introduction to Roof Engineering

An Introduction to Roof Engineering

An Introduction to Roof Engineering

An Introduction to Roof Engineering

This programme is designed to assist the candidates with gaining an

Entry level estimators and designers

Candidates entering this programme are competent in:

An Introduction to Roof Engineering

Learning Outcomes and Objectives

Candidates who have completed this programme are able to demonstrate an

Framing and understanding of roof geometry

The Theory of Structures

Loads & Forces

Measuring Sundry Material

Manufacture of Nail Plated Trusses

Erection of Prefabricated Trusses

An Introduction to Roof Engineering

The Learning Objectives are as follows:

Registered Governing Bodies

Institute for Timber Construction

Scope and Responsibilities

Timber as Structural Material

Steel as Structural Material

Roof and Layout Terminology

Framing and understanding of roof geometry

Drawings and Roof plans

Junctions Parallel Blocks

Junctions Perpendicular Blocks