EME 2066 Measurement and Instrumentation

CHAPTER 2
BASIC ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND SENSING DEVICES

2.0

Measurement Devices

In engineering works, engineer need to measure variety of physical properties, such as

pressure, temperature, velocity, displacement etc. Most of these measuring devices depend on
some electrical principle in their operation (data gathering, transmission and analysis).
In order to understand the working principles of these measurement devices, we need
to understand the electrical principles involved. For example; measurement of basic electrical
quantities (current and voltage), simple electrical circuit, signal amplification, signal
conditioning etc..

2.1

Electromagnetic Force

From the Lorentzs Law, the Electromagnetic force

F = q(E + v B) newtons

(2.1)

where q= point charge, C

E=Electric field, V/m
v= velocity of the point charge, m/s
B= magnetic flux density, Wb/m2

Fig 2.1 Current-carrying conductor in a

magnetic field

In Fig 2.1, a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field. No electric field is

present in this case. The electric current i in the conductor is defined as the ratio of the charge
dq passing a cross section of the conductor to the transit time dt.

i=
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dq
dt

(2.2)

EME 2066 Measurement and Instrumentation

ids =

dq
ds = vdq
dt

(2.3)

where ds is an element of length along the conductor covered by the moving charge in a time
dt. The force exerted on the charge dq is given by Eq (2.1) as:

dF = dq ( v B) = i (ds B)

(2.4)

Integral both sides:

F=

L
0

i (ds B )

(2.5)

To simplify the results, consider only the situation in which the conductor axis is
perpendicular to B. Then,

ds B = dsB sin 90 = dsB

Assume B is constant and integral eq (2.5); the total force F is

F = Bil

(2.6)

This provide a relationship between the mechanical property F and Electrical quantity, i.

2.1.1 Basic Principle of Ammeter (Current Meter)

Fig 2.2 The primitive ammeter

The apparatus shown in Fig 2.2 is a primitive ammeter. With no current flowing through the
conductor, the spring will be at its unstretched length. As current flows though the conductor,
the spring will stretch and develop the force required to balance the electromagnetic force.
The total distance x moved by the spring is found by equating the two forces.

Kx = Bil

(2.7)

where K is the spring constant. Rearrange it and get

i=

Kx
Bl

(2.8)

This equation gives a direct method of determining the current i flowing in a conductor (The
current can be calculated if the value of x is known)
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2.1.2

Analog and Digital Representation

The current change with respect to time in the primitive ammeter can be represented by two
methods; the analog representation and the digital representation.
In analog representation, the current is treated as a continuous variable; we need to
measure and plot the current with high degree of precision. However, in digital
representation, the current is treated as discrete value.

2.2

Waveform Measures

In electrical measurement, there is a lot of time-varying physical quantity. For example the
current shown in Fig 2.3 is express by

i (t ) = 7 sin(377t )

Fig 2.3 A sinusoidal current

To represent it by a single number; the following are considered:

-Average the time-varying waveform,
-Peak to peak current
-Root mean square (rms) of the time-varying waveform
The first and second methods cannot reflect the actual information of the original signal. The
third method (rms value of the periodic waveform) gave a more meaningful representation.
The rms value of the periodic waveform i(t) is

I rms

1
=
T

T 2
o

i (t )dt

(2.9)

The average power dissipated in a resistor when this current flows is given by the expression
2
Pav = RI rms

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(2.10)

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2.3

Basic Analog Meters

The concept of primitive current measuring
device can be extended to a more realistic
model of actual meters. Fig 2.4 showed a
current-carrying coil in a magnetic field, B.
If the coil has N turns and the length of each
turns and the length of each turn in the

Fig 2.4 Current carrying coil in a magnetic

field

magnetic field is L, the force on the coil is

F=NBiL

(2.11)

The force is measured by observing the deflection of a spring. This principle forms the basis
of the construction of the mirror galvanometer (Fig 2.5-a). A permanent magnet is used to
produce the magnetic field, while the telescope arrangement and expanded scale improve the
readability of the instrument. The classical D Arsonval galvanometer with moving coil type
is shown in Fig 2.6. However, the D Arsonval galvanometer can only used to measure direct
current (DC).

Fig 2.5 A typical galvanometer (a) Optical System (b) D Arsonval movement

Figure 2.6
DArsonval movement used as a pointer type
instrument

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For AC measurement, the iron-vane and

thee electrodynamometer are used. In the
iron-vane (moving-iron) instrument, as
shown in Fig 2.7, the current is applied to
a fixed coil. The iron vane is movable and
connected to a restraining spring as shown.
The displacement of the vane is then
proportional to the inductive force exerted
by the coil. The meter is subjected to
eddy-current losses in the iron vane and
various hysteresis effects which limit its
accuracy.

Fig 2.8 Electrodynamometer

movement instrument.

Fig 2.7 Iron vane instrument

Fig 2.9 Electrodynamometer

movement used as an ammter

In the electrodynamometer movement instrument, as shown in Fig 2.8, the alternating

current actuates an electromagnet. The field in the electromagnet may be made to operate in
synchronization with an alternating current in the moving coil.
In order to use the electrodynamometer movement for ac measurements, it is
necessary to connect the electromagnet and moving coil as shown in Fig 2.9.
Both the iron-vane and the electrodynamometer instruments indicate the rms value to
2
the alternating current, and the meter deflection varies with I rms
. The scale of the instrument

is not necessarily based on a square law because the proportionality constant between the rms
current and the meter deflection changes somewhat with the current. These instruments
normally measure at low frequency (25 to125 Hz).

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For

measurements of

high

frequency

alternating currents, a thermocouple meter

(Fig 2.10) can be used. The alternating
current is passed through a heater element,
and the temperature of the element is
indicated by a thermocouple connected to
an appropriate dc instrument.
To modify the basic dc current
meter to a dc voltmeter, a large resistor is
placed in series with the movement as

Fig 2.10 Schematic of a thermocouple meter

shown in Fig 2.11. When the instrument is

connected to a voltage source, the current in
the instrument is an indication of the
voltage. The range of the voltmeter may be
altered by changing the internal series
resistor.
For ac voltage measurement, the iron-vane
or electrodynamometer instrument is used
together with the series-resistor

Fig 2.11 ds current meter used as

voltmeter

arrangement.
Fig 2.12 showed an electrostatic-voltmeter.
In the voltmeter a fixed plate and a movable
plate are connected by a spring. With the
arrangement shown, the fringe effects of the
electric field produce a net force in the
indicated direction that is proportional to
the square of the rms voltage. As the
movable

plate

capacitance

change

changes,

position,

and

hence

the
the

proportionality between the stored energy

and the voltage varies with the impressed
voltage.

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Fig 2.12 Electrostatic-voltmeter movement

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2.4

Basic Digital Meter

The digital meter gives a more accurate result compare to the analog meter. This is because
the digital meter shows the value of measured quantity directly as digit value.
In digital meter, a quartz crystal is connected to some proper electronic component
and produces an output voltage which is almost sinusoidal with a fixed frequency. This
frequency is controlled by the dimension of the quartz.
The anolog meters normally measure the current. However, in the digital meter, the
device is respond to voltage directly. To measure the current by using digital instrument, a
precision resistor needs to be added in the digital voltmeter. The voltage drop caused by the
current need to be measured and then the value of the current can be calculated.

2.5

Basic Input Circuit

Physical
property

Transducer
Electrical
signal

Display

Input
circuit

Processing

Signal
conditioner

Transmission

Fig 2.13: Block diagram of measurement and display

The basic concept of measurement and display is shown in Fig 2.13. First of all, the physical
property (such as pressure, temperature etc) was converted into electrical signal through a
suitable transducer. The electrical signal was then connected to some additional circuit before
the signal conditional stage. In the signal conditional stage, the noise of the signal was
reduced by using some techniques. The conditional signal was then transmit to another place
for further processing, display and/or display.
The types of basic input circuit are:

The current-sensitive input circuit

The voltage-sensitive input circuit

The voltage-divider circuit

The voltage-balancing potentiometer circuit

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2.5.1

The current-sensitive input circuit

Fig 2.14 Current-sensitive input circuit

Fig 2.14 showed a current-sensitive input circuit. A variable resistor R (a transducer) is

connected in series with a voltage source (battery), Ei and an internal resistance Ri. The
current is given by

i=

Ei
R + Ri

(2.12)

The maximum resistance of the transducer is Rm and the current in dimensionless form is

i
1
=
Ei / Ri (R / Rm )(Rm / Ri ) + 1

(2.13)

From the equation, the current output is not vary linearly with the resistance change of the
transducer. (Non-linear output)
2.5.2

The voltage-sensitive input circuit (Ballast circuit)

Fig 2.15 Voltage-sensitive input circuit

A voltage-sensitive input circuit (Ballast circuit) can be modified from the current-sensitive
input circuit by adding a voltmeter as shown in Fig 2.15. The internal impedance of the
voltmeter is very large compared with the resistance in the circuit and the current drawn by
the meter ban be neglected. The current flow is

i=

Ei
R + Ri

(2.14)

and the relationship between the voltage and resistance is:

(R / Rm )(Rm / Ri )
E
iR
=
=
Ei i(R + Ri ) 1 + (R / Rm )(Rm / Ri )

(2.15)

where E is the voltage across the transducer.

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The sensitivity S of the Ballast circuit is defined as the rate of change of the transducer
voltage with respect to the transducer R,

S=

Ei Ri
dE
=
dR (Ri + R )2

(2.16)

The S maximum when,

E (R Ri )
dS
=0= i
dRi
(Ri + R )3

(2.17)

*for maximum sensitivity, R=Ri. But R is a variable, Ri need to be selected in the range of R
to give the maximum sensitivities.
2.5.3

Voltage-divider circuit

Fig 2.16 Simple voltage-divider circuit

Fig 2.16 showed a voltage-divider circuit. In this arrangement a fixed voltage E0 is impressed
across the total resistance Rm, while the variable contact is connected to a voltmeter with
internal resistance Ri. The indicated voltage E is proportional to the variable resistance R; i.e.,

E
R
for Ri >> R
=
E 0 Rm

(2.18)

The current drawn from the voltage source is:

i=

E0
Rm R + Ri R / (R + Ri )

(2.19)

The indicated voltage is therefore

or

E = E 0 i ( Rm R )

(2.20)

R / Rm
E
=
E 0 (R / Rm )(1 R / Rm )( Rm / Ri ) + 1

(2.21)

As the loading action of the meter, the voltage does not vary in a linear manner with the
resistance R. The loading error is
Loading error=

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(E / E0 )true (E / E0 )ind
(E / E0 )true

(2.22)

EME 2066 Measurement and Instrumentation

To determine how much the voltage ratio of (2.21) differs from the simple linear relation of
(2.18), the fractional loading error is calculated by use (2.21) for the true value and (2.18) for
an assumed linear indication.
Fractional loading error=

R
Rm

R
Rm

Rm
Ri

(2.23)

The deviation from a linear indication is:

Deviation from linear=

2.5.4

(R / Rm )2 (1 R / Rm )
(R / Rm )(1 R / Rm ) + Ri / Rm

(2.24)

Voltagebalancing potentiometer circuit

Fig 2.17 Simple voltage-balancing potentiometer circuit

In a voltagebalancing potentiometer circuit (Fig 2.17), a known voltage E0 is impressed on

the resistance Rm, while the unknown voltage is impressed on the same resistor through the
galvanometer with internal resistance Ri and the movable contact on the resistor Rm. At some
position of the movable contact the galvanometer will indicate zero current, and the unknown
voltage may be calculated from

E
R
=
E 0 Rm

(2.25)

Example 2.1
The output of a transducer with a total resistance of 150 is to be measured with a voltagesensitive circuit. The sensitivity is to be a maximum at the midpoint of the transducer.
Calculate the sensitivity at the 25 and 75 % positions, assuming a voltage source Ei of 100V.
Solution
For maximum sensitivity at the midpoint of the range,
Ri=R=0.5Rm=75
at the 25% position R= (0.25)(150)=37.5

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the sensitivity is S =

Ei Ri
100 75
dE
=
=
= 0.592V /
2
dR (Ri + R )
(75 + 37.5)2

At the 75% position, the sensitivity is S =

Ei Ri
dE
100 75
=
=
= 0.213V /
2
dR (Ri + R )
(75 + 112.5)2

Example 2.2
The voltage-divider circuit is used to measure the output of the transducer in Example 2.1. A
100V source is used (E0=100V), and the internal resistance of the meter Ri is 10,000 .
Calculate the loading error at the 25 and 75% positions on the transducer and the actual
voltage readings which will be observed at these points. (24.93V, 74.79V)
Solution

Rm
150
=
= 1.5 10 2
Ri 10000
At the 25% position R/Rm =0.25 and
fractional loading error = -(0.25)(1-0.25)=0.281%

The deviation from linear =

(0.25)2 (1 0.25)
= 7.01 10 4
(0.25)(1 0.25) + 1 / 0.015

The indicated voltage, E= (100)(0.25 7.01 10 4 ) = 24.93V

At the 75% position R/Rm =0.75 and
fractional loading error = -(0.75)(1-0.75)(0.015)=0.281%

The deviation from linear =

(0.75)2 (1 0.75)
= 2.103 10 3
(0.75)(1 0.75) + 1 / 0.015

The indicated voltage, E= (100)(0.75 2.103 10 3 ) = 74.79V

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2.6

Bridge Circuit and The Wheatstone Bridge

Various bridge circuits are used in the measurement of resistance, capacitance and
inductance. Many transducers convert physical variable to a resistance, a capacitance or an
inductance change. The resistance bridge (Wheatstone bridge), capacitance bridge and
inductance bridge are used for these purposes.

Fig 2.18 Schematic of basic Wheatstone bridge

2.6.1

Wheatstone bridge

A simplest form of the Wheatstone bridge is showed in Fig 2.18. The cornerstone of the
bridge consists of the four resistances (R1, R2, R3, Rx), which are arranged in a diamond shape.
R2 and R3 are known resistors, R1 is a variable resistance and Rx is the unknown resistance
value associated with the transducer output. The voltage E is applied to the bridge by closing
the switch S1, and by adjusting the variable resistance R1, the bridge may be balanced
(potential difference between B and D is zero). The balance condition can be checked by
closing the switch S2 and adjusting the value of R1 until the sensing device indicates no
current flow. When this occurs, the voltage drop across R2 must equal the voltage drop across
R1 since this implies that the voltage difference between B and D must be zero.
i2R2=i1R1

(2.26)

i 2 = i3 =

E
if balanced
R2 + R3

(2.27)

i1 = i x =

E
if balanced
R1 + R x

(2.28)

substitute (2.27) and (2.28) into (2.26) and get:

RR
R2 R1
or R x = 1 3
=
R3 R x
R2

(2.29)

If accurate measurements are to be made with a bridge circuit, the values of the resistors (R1,
R2, R3) must be precisely known, and the sensor must be sufficiently sensitive to detect small
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degrees of imbalance. When the unknown resistance Rx is connected to the circuit, care must
be taken to use the connecting leads which have a resistance that is small in comparison to the
unknown. The ratio arm is the two known adjacent arms in a Wheatstone bridge (R2 and R3
in Fig 2.18).
2.6.2

Unbalance bridges

There is some Wheatstone Bridge that maybe balanced with two independent adjustment (in
null condition), for example: Wien bridge, Owen Bridge, Maxwell bridge etc... However, in
practice, the Wheatstone bridge is employed in an unbalanced mode. At unbalance mode, the
galvanometer reading will be deflected from the null condition by a certain amount, which
depends on the degree of unbalance. The signal at the galvanometer or detector is used as an
indication of the unbalance of the bridge and may indicate the deviation of one of the arms
from some specified balanced condition.

Fig 2.19 Unbalanced bridge

Fig 2.20 Equivalent circuit of bridge

as presented to the galvanometer

Fig 2.19 showed an unbalanced bridge, R1, R2, R3 and R4 are the four arms of the bridge; Rg is
the galvanometer resistance; and ib and id are the battery and galvanometer currents,
respectively. Rb represents the resistance of the battery or power supply circuit. When the
bridge is only slightly unbalanced, it can be shown that the value of Rb does not influence the
effective resistance of the bridge circuit as presented to the galvanometer. The galvanometer
current, ig is

ig =

Eg
R + Rg

(2.30)

where R is the effective resistance of the bridge circuit (shown in Fig 2.20) presented to the
galvanometer and is given by

R=

R R
R1 R4
+ 2 3
R1 + R4 R2 + R3

(2.31)

The voltage presented at the terminals of the galvanometer Eg is

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Eg = E

R1
R2

R1 + R4 R2 + R3

(2.32)

The voltage impressed on the bridge E depends on the battery or external circuit resistance Rb
and the resistance of the total bridge circuit as presented to the battery circuit, R0. For small
unbalances the resistance R0 may be calculated by assuming that the galvanometer is not
connected in the circuit,

R0 =

(R1 + R4 )(R2 + R3 )

(2.33)

R1 + R4 + R2 + R3

The voltage impressed on the bridge is then

E = Eb

2.6

R0
R0 + Rb

(2.34)

Amplifiers

The raw electrical signals produced by most

of the transducers in measurement are
normally weak and it is necessary to
amplify them for further processing.
The gain A of the amplifier is
defined as the ratio of the output voltage Eo
to the input voltage Ei.

A=

Eo
Ei

(2.35)

Fig 2.21 Amplifier with feedback loop

For amplifier with feedback loop which attenuates the output voltage by a factor of k (shown
in Fig 2.21), the feedback voltage is Ef = kEo. This feedback voltage needs to be subtracted
from the input voltage and resulting in an input to the amplifier of E = Ei-Ef. For amplifier
with feedback loop, the gain Af is defined as:

Af =

Eo
Eo
A
=
=
Ei E o / A + kEo 1 + kA

(2.36)

when the amplifier gain (kA) is very large, then

Af

A 1
=
kA k

(2.37)

The input impedance for the feedback system is defined as:

Z i, f =

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Ei
Ii

(2.38)

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and the output impedance for the feedback system is:

Z o, f =

Eo
Io

(2.39)

The input impedance for the amplifier is

Zi =

E
E
= o
I i AZ i

(2.40)

and then the input impedance for the feedback system can write as:

Z i, f =

Eo (k + 1 / A)
= Z i (1 + kA)
Eo / AZ i

(2.41)

The output voltage Eo is defined as

Eo=AEIoZo

(2.42)

with the AE is the output impedance.

For Ei = 0, the input voltage to the amplifier will be E = kEo
and

Eo= AkEo IoZo

E=

IoZo
kA + 1

(2.43)

The effective output impedance is then

Z o, f =

Eo
Zo
=
I o 1 + kA

(2.44)

The effect of feedback is to lower the output impedance by a factor of 1+kA.

2.6.1

Differential Amplifiers

A differential amplifier is a type of amplifier that multiplies the difference between two inputs
by some factor (the gain, K). A common form of differential amplifier is the operational
amplifier. Given two inputs A and B, a perfect differential amplifier gives an output O as:

O= K(A-B)

(2.45)

However, the application of equal voltages to the inputs or equal ac voltages of the same
phase will cancel out. This feature is called common mode rejection.
The common mode rejection ratio (CMRR) is a measure of the capability of an
instrument to reject a signal that is common to both input leads. For example: if you are
measuring a thermocouple in a noisy environment, the noise from the environment appears on
both input leads. Therefore, this noise is a common mode voltage signal that is rejected by an
amount equal to the CMRR of the instrument. The CMRR is defined by the following
equation:

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CMRR =

CM i
CM o

(2.46)

where CMi=common mode signal at input and;

CMo= common mode signal at output
2.6.2

Operational Amplifier

The operational amplifier (op amp) is a type of amplifier that amplifier a voltage to produce a
larger output voltage. The schematic diagram of an op amp is showed in Fig 2.22. The (+)
input is named as the noninverting input because the output from this source is in phase with
the input. The () is named as the inverting input because the output from this source is 180O
out of phase with the input.

Fig 2.22 Schematic for operational amplifier

Generally, in the op-amp, the input current is nearly zero because of its high input impedance
(> 1M); the output impedance is very low (< 1.0) and the open-loop gain is very high
(around 106). The configuration for some specific op-amps is showed in Fig 2.23.

Fig 2.23 Operational amplifier configurations

(a) Open loop, differential input; (b) open loop, single input; (c) inverting, differential input; (d)
non-inverting; (e) non-inverting voltage follower; (f) voltage follower with gain greater than
unity; (g) voltage follower with resistance in feedback; (h) inverting summer or adder;
(i) noninverting adder; (j) circuit for high input impedance and common mode rejection; (k)
integrator; (l) differentiator; (m) current to voltage converter; (n) charge amplifier
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Fig 2.23 (continued)

Further reading:
1. Page 176-180, Experimental Methods for Engineers, J.P. Holman.
2. Page 844-864, Measurement Systems: Application and Design, E.O. Doebelin.

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2.6.3

Degree of amplification and attenuation

The degree of amplification is measured by its gain or amplification ratio,

output
input

Gain is defined as

(2.47)

The output and input quantities may be voltage, current, or power, depending on the
application. The decibels of gain is defined as

Decibels = 10 log

P2
P1

(2.48)

with P1 and P2 are the input and output powers. Since P can be expressed as E2/R or I2R;
the decibel notations for voltages and currents are:-.

Decibels = 20 log

E2
E1

(2.49)

Decibels = 20 log

I2
I1

(2.50)

Example 2.3
A 1.0 mV signal is applied to an amplifier such that an output of 1.0 V is produced. The 1.0 V
signal is then applied to a second amplification stage to produce an output of 25 V. For the
three voltage points indicated, calculate the voltage in decibel notation referenced to a) 1.0
mV and b)1.0 V. Also, calculate the overall voltage amplification in decibels.
Solution
With refer to a) E0=1.0 mV;
1.0 mV in Decibels = 20 log

1.0 V in Decibels = 20 log

1.0 mV
1.0 V

1.0 mV

25.0 V in Decibels = 20 log

=0

1.0 mV

= 60

25 V
1.0 mV

= 87.92

With refer to b) E0=1.0 V;

1.0 mV in Decibels = 20 log

1.0 V in Decibels = 20 log

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1.0 mV
1.0 V

1.0 V
1.0 V

= 60

=0

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25.0 V in Decibels = 20 log

The overall amplification is = 20 log

2.7

25 V
1.0 V

= 27.92

25 V
1.0 mV

= 87.92 dB

Transformers

Fig 2.24 Ideal transformer

Fig 2.24 showed an ideal transformer of n turns. The relations between the voltages and
currents are:-

v2 = nv1

(2.51)

i
i2 = i1
n

(2.52)

Dividing the first by the second results in the following:

v2
v
= n2 1
i2
i1

(2.53)

For single-frequency voltage and current, the relationship between the output impedance Z2
and input impedance Z1 is

Z 2 = n 2 Z1

2.8

(2.54)

Power supplies

Fig 2.25 Bridge full-wave rectifier

There are two sources of dc power supplies: batteries and electronic modules that convert ac
to dc. To convert ac to dc, solid-state diodes (shown in Fig 2.25) are used to rectify the 60Hz
sine wave to a rectified wave. This voltage contains a dc component as well as a series of
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sinusoids with frequencies which are integer multiples of 60 Hz. The ripple caused by these
harmonics is undesirable and is reduced by further filtering. The basic process of rectification
is shown in Fig 2.26.

Fig 2.26 Rectification

Fig 2.26b Power-supply voltage regulation

Fig 2.26b showed various possible voltage-vs.-current characteristics for power supplies. The
perfect curve indicates a practically unattainable ideal (the voltage supplied is independent
of the current drawn). The degree to which the output voltage is independence of the current
supplied is termed voltage regulation.

2.9

Signal conditioning

Noise occurs in almost all the electrical property measurement. In order to obtain the useful
information (signal), the raw signals must be processed (the noise need to be filtered or
reduced).
To filter or/and reduce the noise, the frequency range of the desired signal need to be
known. The signal that far away from the desired signal frequency (noise) can be filtered
away. This can remove most of the noise. However, there is also noise present in the
frequency band of interest. Filtering will not solve all the problems, but it does provide a
significant degree of experimental improvement.
The filter circuits can be categorised into three categories:

lowpass

highpass and

bandpass

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A lowpass filter permits the transmission of signals with frequencies below a certain cut-off
value with little or no attenuation, while a highpass filter permits the transmission of signals
above a cutoff value. The bandpass filter permits the transmission of signals with frequencies
in a certain range or band while attenuating signals with frequencies both and below the limits
of this band. The approximate performance for the three types of filters is shown in Fig 2.27.
The cutoff frequency is designated by fc for both the high and low pass filters, while the limits
of frequency transmission for the bandpass filter are given by the symbols f1 and f2.

Fig 2.27 Approximate performance curves for three types of filters

2.10

Electronic Voltmeter (EVM) and Digital Voltmeter

The electronic voltmeter (EVM) is used to measure both ac and dc voltage. EVM is one of the
most useful devices for voltage measurement. The input impedance of the EVM is very high
(usually greater than 50 M), therefore the measured circuit is not loaded appreciably and
indicated voltage more closely to the true voltage to be measured.
The conventional analog voltmeters show the reading in pointer scale arrangement.
While the digital voltmeters show the reading in digital form, and this provide more precise
reading. The cost of the digital voltmeters is directly related to their accuracy and versatility.

2.11

The Oscilloscope

The cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a voltage-measuring device with high input

impedance. The CRO is capable to display voltage signals as a function of time.
Fig 2.28 showed the schematic diagram of a cathode-ray tube (CRT), which is the
heart of the CRO. Electrons are released from the hot cathode and accelerated toward the
screen by the use of a positively charged anode. An appropriate grid arrangement then
governs the focus of the electron beam on the screen. The exact position of the spot on the
screen is controlled by the use of horizontal and vertical deflection plates (by adjusting the
voltage of the plates). The screen is coated with a phosphorescent material, which emits light
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when struck by electron beam. If the deflection of the beam against a known voltage input is
calibrated, the CRO can serve as a voltmeter.

Fig 2.28 Schematic diagram of a cathode-ray tube

Fig 2.29 Phase measurements using CRO

A dual beam oscilloscope provides for amplification and display of two signals at the same
time. The CRO may be used to measure phase shift in an approximate fashion, as shown in
Fig 2.29. An oscillator is connected to the input of the circuit under test. The output of the
circuit is connected to the CRO vertical input, whereas the oscillator signal is connected to the
horizontal input. The phase shift angle, (some books use ) is defined as

= sin 1

B
A

(2.55)

where B and A are measured, as shown in Fig 2.29. For zero phase shift the ellipse will
become a straight line with a slope of 45O to the right; for 90o phase shift it will become a
circle; and for 180o phase shift it will become a straight line with a slope of 45o to the left.
The CRO offer a convenient means of comparing signal frequencies through the use
of Lissajous diagrams. Two frequencies are impressed on the CRO inputs, one on the
horizontal input and one on the vertical input. One of these frequencies may be a known
frequency as obtained from a variable frequency oscillator or signal generator. If the two
input frequencies are the same, the patterns that are displayed on the CRT screen are called
Lissajous diagrams. The relation between the shape of these diagrams and the input
frequencies is:
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vertical input frequency

number of vertical maxima on Lissajous diagram
=
horizontal input frequency number of horizontal maxima on Lissajous diagram
(2.56)
Some typical shapes for the Lissajous diagrams are shown in Fig 2.30.

Fig 2.30 Lissajous diagrams for various frequency ratios as indicated.

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