KEY CONCEPTS

1. ENERGY BANDS IN SOLIDS

The minimum energy required for excitting an electrond from valency energy band to conduction
energy band is known as forbidden energy gap (Eg)
Eg = CEBmin - VEBmax
2. TYPES OF SOLID MATERIALS ON THE BASIS OF FORBIDDEN ENERGY GAP
2.1 Conductors
CEB"'..
VEBmax
CEBm'"

VEBmin

Those solid substances in which forbidden energy gap is zero are

known as conductors
2.2 Insulators

6eV

Conduction
band

Forbidden
band

These are solids in which the energy band formation occurs in such a manner, that valence band
is completely filled while the conduction band is completely empty. Furthermore the valence band
and the conduction band are separated by a large forbidden energy gap Eg ?.'. 6eV.
2.3 Semiconductors
These are solids in which the forbidden energy gap between the valence band and the conduction
band is small, of the order of leV. At O kelvin temperature, the valence band is completely filled
and the conduction band is completely empty. At OK, it behaves lie an insulator. At a finite
temperature, (room temperature), some electrons gain energy due to thermal motion and jump from
the top of the valence band to the conduction band. These electrons contribute to the conduction
of electricity in a semiconductor.
The forbidden gap in semiconductor is small 1eV .
Conduction
The energy gap is some semiconductors is as follows
L___J band ......
Eg (Silicon)= 1.12 eV
} Forbidden{ ..... .... }
-1eV
band
Eg (Germanium )= 0.7 eV
Valence
Eg (Indium antimonide ) 0.17 eV
band
OK
. TK
Eg (Gallium arsenide)= 1.43 eV
E 0 (Tellurium)= 0.33 eV
Tlie energy gap decreases slightly with increases in temperature.

3. COMMENT: BAND STRUCTURE AND OPTICAL PROPERTIES

The optical properties of a solid are closely related with their energy band structure.The photons of
visible light have energies between about leV and 3 eV, as in the case of insulators like mica,
diamond, then visible light from valence band can not go to conduction band. The such solids are
transparent to visible light.
In case of semiconductors, since band gap is 1 eV , the visible light is readily absorbed and these
are usually opaque, to visible light,. Infrared photons have energies less than 1eV and therefore infrared
light is not absorbed by Si orGe.
The metals are usually opaque, because electrons in the partially filled band can readily absorb visible
light photon without leaving the valence band.
The ultraviolet photons energies are large and if they are more than the Eg ofinsulators, then those
insulators will absorb UV radation. Thus some special glasses are although transparent for visible
light are opaque for UV light.

Semiconductor

[2]

r,,

4. TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTORS
The semiconductor are of two type
(1) A semiconductor in a pure form is called intrinsic semiconductor. The imputity must be less than
0.01 ppm (parts per million), i.e., less than 1 in108 parts of semiconductor. At low temperature, the
electrons are present in valence bonds of the semiconductor. As the temperature is increased a few
electrons are raised to conduction bond .
In intrinsic semiconductors:ne (OJ = nn (O) = n.I = AT 312 e -t. Eg 12KT
Where ne(Ol is electron density in conduction
band, ne(OJ is hole density in valance band and ni is the density of intrinsic carriers.
Free electron&

II

conduction
band

gap Eg

..
..
..
..
.

Valence band
with holes

holes

When a covalent band is broken, the electron hole pair is created.Thus in intrinsic semiconductor
Number of holes = number of free electrons

5. CONDUCTION IN INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

In intrinsic semiconductor , the number of free electrons and holes are equal. Both electrons and holes
contribute in current conduction. For the purpose of flow of current , a hole , behaves like a positively
charged particle having some effective mass. Therefore while the electron moves from n e g a t i v e
electrode a of the battery to the positive electrode though the semiconductor, the hole move sin
opposite side.
The holes exist only inside a semiconductor. There are no holes in a metal. There , electric conduction
through holes takes place inside the semiconductor only. Outside, in the metal w1res, the electric
current flow is due to electrons only. ( In cell current flow is due to the motion of positive and negative
ions).

...__ ...__ ...__

electron flow
hole flow

---+ ---+ ---+

Intrinsic semi
conductor
+I

I -

11

In an instrinsic semiconductor the current flow occurs due to the motion of both, the electrons and the
holes,. Let e = magnitude of charge on the electrons, n h = number density of holes,
e = mobility ofelectrons an b = mobility ofholes , then the conductivity ofintrinsic semiconductor is
=
CJ e ( ne e + nh h ).

Semiconductor

[3]

Comment
(i) In pure semiconductors, at any temperature t, the carrier concentration ne = nh = n and the
conductivity cr is determined by the value ofEg (width ofthe forbidden band) (see relations given
above).
(ii) In metal , however , the value ofn is almost the same at different temperatures. The resistance
arises due to interaction offree (conduction) electrons with the lattice vibrations (see, chapter 3, 3-5
also).
(iii) At absolute zero, n = 0, cr = 0 i.e., the pure semiconductor behaves like a perfect insulator.
However , as temperature increases both n and cr increses.In germanium at T;::;: 300 K, ne = nh = 2.5
x 10 19 per m3 . The higher is the temperature , higher is the conductivity and lower is the resistivity.
(iv) The temperature coefficient of the resistance ofa semiconductor is negative .
(v) Pure semiconductors are oflittle use ( may be used as heat or light sensitive resistance).
6. EXTRINSIC SEMiCONDUCTORS
A semiconductor in which impurities have been added in a controlled manner is called extrinsic
semiconductor . The process ofdeliberately adding impurities to a semiconductor is called doping.
The impurity atoms are either from V group ( such as arsinic (as), antimony (Sb), phosphorus (P) etc.
or from III group ( such as Aluminium (AI) , gallium (Ga) , indium (In) etc. There are two types of
extrinsic semiconductors, (i) N,.type (extrinsic) semiconductor and (ii} P-type (extrinsic)
semiconductor.
The conductivity ofextrinsic semiconductor is controlled by the amont ofdoping, I part ofa donor
impurityper 109 parts of germanium increases its conductivity by a factor ofneraly 103 .
The compounds of trivalent and penta valent elements also behave like semiconductors,
(indium antimonide), In P, GaP.
6.1 N-Type Semiconductor

Fifth electron

Si

P
. Impurity atom

N- Type ( n- type ) semiconductor is obtained by adding a small amount ofpentavent (V group)

impurity to a sample ofintrinsic semiconductor.

Semiconductor

/4]

11

Conduction
Band

majoruty

electrons
. . . .. . . .
.
W<

..: ...,;;.1:;

..

r
"-.._doner
level
....
....
..
..............
.
..
.........
.
.
.
0 . 01 (G e) :: ::: :::: 0 ::::::::::::::0 ::::::::::
0 . 05 (s.1) :: ::: ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
................................
:...................................................
... ............................................
(eV)
ii....i:::::
.::. .. .:::
. ' .....:))i:)iii:i)ii::
...... . .... . ... . ..... . . . . . . . . . i... .
. .. ... ...........................................
1..
I
Valence band

In the energy band pricture we say that impurity atoms, produce

donor energy levels just below the conduction band. Tuer electrons
Free. electrons
from these levels jump to the conduction band easily by gaining
. . . . .. . .
....
thermal energies (at room temperature). There may also break some
n-type
semi
covalent bonds producing electron hole paire, but their number is @ . :- ,. ._... conductor
small. So in this type ofextrinsic semiconductor, there are a large ()
number of free electrons (donated by impurity atoms) and a
Immobile positive
ions ( imurity)
negligible number ofholes from cavalent cond breaking.
The impurity atom on donating electrons becomes positive ions. However the over all charge on the
semiconductor is zero. The negative charge ofthe electron is balanced by positive charge of the
immobile positive ions . The majority charge carriers are electrons (negative charge). Therefore, this
type ofextrinsic semiconductor is called n - type . The few hole s formed by covalent bond breaking
are called minority charrge carriers. The conductivity ofth n-type semiconductors is controoled by
the amount ofimpurity atoms added in it.
6.2 P-Type Semiconductor

Ge

Ge

Ge

Acceptor
atom
,,,...o... Y--. hole

....

Ge

I"

Ge

Ge

Ge

I
Ge

Ge

Ge

Ge

In

.
6. .
.
..
_::_ .

hole
migrates

Acceptor
ion
Ge

I Ge
I

P-type (pype) semiconductor is obtained by adding a small amount

oftrivalent (III groupe) impurity to intrinsic semiconductor. For
each acceptor ion there exist a hole in this type ofsemiconductor ,
there are a large number ofholes present. The majority charge
carriers are holes. Therefore it is called a p-type semicondutor.

Semicoliductor

Conducton
Band

.....____._..._+ :;'

__________________Acceptor level

1::::0::1::>.::o::o

i:/F\)f}Ft):

Majority
,...................=-= holes
Valence Band

[5/

In the band picture, we say that acceptor energy levels lie just above the valence band. These levels
accepts electrons from the valence band and creates holes. The breaking of covalent bonds may
create electron-hole pairs but their number is very little. The majority carrier are holes. The minority
carriers are electron. The conduction takes place mainly through the motion ofholes
Free holes
nh >> ne , crp "' eh nh
The overall charge on p-type semiconductor is zero. It is represented
0. 0. 0.
as shown in Fig. The positive charge of free holes is balanced by the
0 0 0
negative charge ofimmobile impurity ions.
p-type semi conductor
Immobile negative
ions ( imurity)

COMMENT
When temprature is increased, covalent bonds break. This increases minority charge carriers. At very
high temperature, it may happen that electron-hole numbers obtained from bond breadking , far
exceeds the charge carrirers from impurities . Then the semiconductor behaves like intrinsic
semiconductor . The critical temperature at which this happens is 85 C for germanium and 200C for
silicon.
7. PN JUNCTION
When a piece of p-type material and piece of n-type matrial
are joined in such a manner that cyrstal structure remains
continuous at the boundary, then a pn junction is formed.It is
also called a pn junction (PN junction) diode. A PN junction
can not be made by simply pushing the two piecestogether as
it would not lead to a single crystal structure . There are special
fabricaton techniques to form a PN junction. Immediately after
a PN junction is formed, the following process are initiated

Barrier
Electric
Field

P-type
0

0:

I
I -

I
I

o'

..,
Depletion
,..
I

hole
acceptor
!On

e:5:

o:

N-type

region

free
electron

ion

(i) The negative ions on P-sides and positive ions on N-sides are immobile.The majority holes from P
region diffuse into N region, and the majority electrons from N region diffuse into P region.
(ii) Due to the above, the electrons and holes at the juction region recombine and disappear (i.e.,
cavalent bonds are completed ).
(iii)As a result, a layer ofnegative ions on P-side and a layer ofpositive ions on N-side is formed at
the junction. In this region, due to recombination of electrons and holes, depletion qf free charge
carriers occurs. So this region is called depletion region. Thecharge dens\tY on the two sides of the
junction ( due to ion layers) is shown in Fig.
(iv) The uncompensated ion layers in the depletion region generates an electric field in this region. The
electric field points from N side to P side. This electric field prevents further diffusion ofholes from P
sides. It also prevents further diffusion ofelectrons from the N side to P side . The electric field is called
barrier electric field.
(v) The barrier electric field gives rise to a difference ofpotentail from one side to the oti1.er side. This
is called barrier potential (or potential barrier ). For silicon PN junction the barrier potential is about
0.7 V while for germanium PN junction, it is about 0.3V.
P-type

P-type

(A)

I depletion
: region
I

,'+------------...:
Charge density

(B)-

N-type

Electrostatic potential
energy barrier for holes
(potential barrier for holes)

Semiconductor

P-type

y N-type

(C) --------Potential barrier for

electrons

[6}

(vi) For holes the potential on the N-sides is higher. Holes can not cross the deplection region because of
this barrier potential
(vii) On the average the potential barrier height in PN junction is - 0.5 V and the width of the
depletion region -1 m or 10-6 m. The barrier electric field is thus
V
d

0.5
10-

E = - = --6 = 5 x IO 5 volt Im
8. PN JUNCTION WITH FORWARD BIAS
(i) When the positive terminal ofa battery is connected to the P-side and the negative terminal to the
N-side ofa PN-junction, then it is said to be forward biased (Fig).
E---+

P-side
+
-

e::ee ()
()

I
80 1
18
0
I
8
19
01

0
0

G :g

+I'-

...

N-side

@
0

depletion region

(ii) The holes are repelled from the positive terminal and compelled to move towards the junction. The
electrons are also repelled from the negative terminal and move towards the junction . This reduces
the depletion region for a forward biased PN-junction
(iii) The potential barrier is reduced . More charge carries diffuse across the junction.
(iv) In the P-type material, near the positive terminal , an electron breaks the covalent bond and goes
to battery. As a result a hole is created in P-sides . At the same time an electron enters the N-sides
from the negative terminal. The currrent in the P - region airses due to flow ofthe holes while the
cument in the N-region is due to electrons.
(v) The electric field at the barrier, due to the battery is from P side to N side (forward bias). This is
in opposition to the barrier electric field.
(vi) Ifbattery potential is increased, the potential barrier is further reduced. More majority carriers
diffuse across the junction. The current increases.
9. PN JUNCTION WITH REVERSE BIAS
N-side
(i) When the positive terminal ofa battery is connected to the
P-side
N-side and the negative termanl is connected to the P-side of
I
u'le
9 () II lJ
thePN junction , then it is said to be reverse biased.
+
I
I
t'.i:\ I
'+'
(ii) The holes in the P-region are attracted towards the negative
v,
t'.i:\.
8 I
-1
I lJ
terminal and the electrons in the N-region are attracted
:G 8 0 () II
twowards the positive termanl . Thus the majority carriers
move away from the juction. The depletion region increases
depletion region
for a reverse biased PN- junction,
(iii) The barrier potential increases , This makes it more difficult
for the majority carriers to diffi.1se across the junction
(iv) A very little current called reverse saturation current flows due to minority carrier flow.It is ofthe
order ofnanoamperes ( I o-9A)for silicon and microamperes (10----:6 A) for germanium PN -diodes.
(v) In reverse bias situation , the junction behaves like a highresistivity material sanwiched in between
two regions.
(vi) The effective capacitance ofPN junction in the reverse bias condition is ofthe order offew pico
farads.

ee
e,:
,e e

Semiconductor
lde.:1/forScholars

\:.)

[7]

10. PN JUNCTION DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

Forward bias characteristics
The circuit diagram for studying the V-1 characteristics of a
PN junction diode in forward bias is shown in Fig. The current
voltage chracteristics is shown in Fig.

The diode current is negligibly small for first few tenths of a volt. The
I (mA)
reason is that the diode does not conduct will till the external voltageV,
overcomes the barrier potential . The voltage at which the current starts
to increse repidly is called cut-in or Knee voltage (V 0) of the diode. For
a silicon diode V0 '.:::'. 0.7 volt and for germanium V0 junction diode in
(Volt)
0
V
reverse bias is shown in Fig.
In reverse bias state, the depletion region increases and potential barrier also increases. The majority
holes in P region and majority electrons in N region, now do not cross the junction. They donot give
rise to any current.
In reverse bias a very smal current flows. This arises due to the flow of minority charge carriers across
the junction . The reverse current is only few A for germanium diodes and only a few nA for silicon
diodes. It remains small and almos.t constant for ail reverse bias voltages less than the break down
voltage V z At breakdown, the current increses rapidly for small increase in voltage
The full charactaristics, forward and reverse bias are shown in Fig.
(mA)
The PN junction diode thus is a unidirectional device. Large current
v
(mA) flows in one direction, but neglible current flows in the reverse
direction. The symbol used for PN junction diode is shown in Fig.

The equation for diode current is

(A)

-[Jill

Easy direction for

conventional current

I= Io ( eeY /kT -1)

Where I0 is called saturation current, V is positive for forward and negative for reverse bias, k is
Boltzmann constant, T is temperature and e = 1.6 x 1o- 19 C.
p-n Junction Diode as a Rectifier
The conversion ofAC into DC is called the rectification.
(i)
Half wave Rectifier: The circuit diagram for junction diode as halfwave rectifier is shown in figure.

lnpu1

00
t

{b}

(a)

Semiconductor

[8/

(ii)

FuU Wave Reedier: For full wave rectifier we use two junction diodes. Tae circuit diagram for full
wave rectifier using twojunction diodes.

:::,
..---ot---,

--....-

n
Light Emitting Diode (LED) :
A light emitting diode is simply a forward biased p-njunction which emits spontaneous light radiation.
When forward bias is applied, the electron and hoies at thejunction recombine and energy released is
emitted in the form of light. for visible radiation phosphorus doped GaAs is commonly used. The advantages ofLEDs are :
(i) Low operational voltage and less power.
(ii) Fast action with no warm up time.
(iii) Emitted light is nearly monochromatic radiation.
(iv) They have long life.
1-V characterisitics of LED are similar to that of Sijunction diode but the threshold voltages are much
higher and slightly different for each colour. The reverse breakdown voltages ofLED'sare very low,
about SV.

Light

P
'
'

... i"
.., ... ..,_,,__ _.

n/
"'

'

#
-
LED symbol

Ffg.: L.ED

( 1)
(2)

Photodiode :
It is a reversed biased p-njunction, illuminated by radiation. When p-njunction is reversed biased
with no current, a very small reverse saturated current flows across the junction called the dark current.
When thejunction is illuminated with light, electron-hole pairs are created at thejunction, due to which
additional current begins to flow across thejunction; the current is solely due to minority charge carriers.
A photodiode is used in reverse bias, although in forward bias current is more than current in reverse bias
because in reverse bias it is easier to observer change in current with change in light intensity.
Photodiode is used to measure light intensity because reverse current increases with increase ofintensity
oflight.

Semiconductor

/9]

light

-C5f-.!$
. n

Symbol
(b)

(a)

Fig. Photodlode

The characteristic curves of a photodiode for two different illuminations 1 1 and 12 (12 > 1 1 ) are shown in
figure.

Volt-

Solar Cell
A solar cell is a junction diode which converts light energy into electricl energy. A p-n junction solar cell
consists of a large junction with no external biasing. The surface layer of p-region is made very thin so

'1I

!,t.

I
V Open circuit voltage
, oc,t:"'
I -
rV

Construction and WOfking

Symbol

lsc

k//

Short circuit current

(b}

(a)

that the incident photons may easily penetrate to reach the junction which is the active region. In an
operation in the photovoltaic mode (i.e., generation ofvoltage due to bombardment ofoptical photons);
the materials suitable for photocells are silicon (Si), gallium arsenide (GaAs), cadmium sulphide (CdS)
and cadmium selenide (CdSe).
Working:
When photons of energy greater than band gap energy (hv >Eg) are made incident on the junction,
electron-hole pairs are created which move in opposite directions due to junction field. These are
collected at two sides ofjunction, thus producing photo-voltage; this gives rise to photocurrent. The
characteristic curve of solar cell is shown in fig. solar cells are used in satellites to recharge their batteries.

Semiconductor

{JO]

le

---...--...-
! ..-.
o--!""'i-...... ..--. c

;;;;;;I

1;;;;1

IE =le+ IB ' IB << le, and IB << IE

Thus le is always less than IE, but the difference is small.
Since the emitter junction is forward biased its resistance is small, while the collector jucntion is
reverse biased, therefore its resistance is large. Thus , a transistor is a device which transfers IE
current from low resistance circuit to a high resistance circuit Cle - IE). Thus it is,
transfer + resistor =transistor
( The name transistor originated from the above action of the transistor).

14. TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATION AND ITS USE AS AN AMPLIFIER

A junction diode cannot amplify a signal. A transistor consisting of two p-njunctions, one forward
biased and the other reverse-biased ,can , however , be used for amplifying a weak signal The forward
biased junction has a low-resistance path whereas the reverse-biased junction has a high-resistances
path. The weak input signal is applied across the forward-biased (low resistance) junction and the
output currents are signal is taken appears with a much higher voltage. The transistor thus acts as an
amplifier.
P-n-P

OUTPUT

INPUT
- I+

(a)

COMMON-BASE

OUTPUT
-\illlf-+ -----u

(b) COMMON-EMITTER
p-n-p
E

OUTPUT

(b) COMMON-COLLECTOR

When a transistor is to be operated as amplifier, three different basic circuit connection are possible,
as illustrated inFig. These are (a) common-base (b) common emitter and (c) common-collector circuits.

Semiconductor

[14]

'I

i
,,

:1
;

14.1 Transistor as Common-Emitter Amplifier :

Common-Emitter Amplifier using an n-p-n Transistor: Fig.shows the common-emitter amplifier circuit
using an n-p-n transistor. The emitter is made common to the input and the output circuits.
The input (base-emitter) circuit is forward-biased by a low-voltage battery VBE so theat the resistance
of the input circuit is small. The output (collector-emitter) circuit is reverse-biased by means of a high
voltage battery Vcc so that the resistanc eofthe outputcircuit is high. RL is a load resistances econnected
in the collector-emitter output circuit. The weak input a-c signal is applied across the base-emitter
circuit and the amplified output signal is obtained across the collector -emitter circuit.

c
n-p-n

L\:r

INPUT
a-c
SIGNAL

,__-------
+ i8
Vee

OUTPUT
a -c
SIGNAL

Let iE, i8 and ic be the emitter-current, base-current and collector- current respecitively when no a
c voltage signal is applied to the input curcuit. (The arrows represent the direction of the hole
current, that is conventional current which is opposite to the direction of electron current.) By Kirchhoffs
first law, we have
iE = iB + ic
Due to the collector current ic (Which is only slightly smaller that iE ), the voltage drop across RL is ic
RL. Therefore , the collector -to -emitter voltage (potential between collector and emitter) V CE
would be given by
v CE = Vcc-icRL
When the input a-c voltage signal is applied across the base-emitter circuit, it changes the base
emitter voltage and hence the emitter -current iE which, in tum, changes the collector current iC.
Consequently, the collector-to-emitter voltage V CE varies in accordance with equation. (ii). This
variation in V CE , when the input signal is applied , appears as an amplified output.
14.2 Phase Relationship between Input an Output Voltage Signals :
In a common-emitter amplifier the input voltage signal and the output voltage signal obtained across
the collector and the emitter are out of phase with each other.
The output voltage signal is 180 out of phase with the input voltage signal in the coinmon
emitter amplifier.
15. GAINS IN COMMON-EMITTER AMPLIFIER
The various gains in a common-emitter amplifier are as follows:
(i) d-c Current Gains: it is defined as the ratio of the collector current to the base current, and is
denoted by p (d-c) . Thus
ic
p (d-c) = -:-la

In a typical transistor , a small base- current ( 1 OA) produces a large collector -current
( 500A). Thus
500
p (d-c) = -=
50
10

(ii) a-c Current Gain: It is defined as the ratio of the change in the collector -current to the change
in the in the base -current at a constant collector to emitter voltage , and is denoted by P (a-c) . Thus

p (a -c) = (ic)
Ti'

B VcE

Semiconductor

/15]

(iii) Voltage gain : Suppose , on applying an a-c input voltage signal, the input base-current changes
by 8-iB and correspondingly the output collector-current changes by 8-ic If Rin and Rout be the
resistance of the input an dthe output circuits respectively , then
Av

f1iex Rout
.
f11sx Rin

f1

Rout
-x-.ie
f11s
Rin

Now, 8-icf8.iB is the a-c current gain (a-c) and R0u/ Rin is the resistance gain
:. Av= P (a-c)xresistance gain.
Since P (a-c) >>a (a-c), the a-c voltage gain in common-emitter amplifier is larger compared
to that is common -base amplifier., although the resistance gain is smaller .
From equation (i) and (ii), it follows that
Av = gmxRout
(iv) a-c Power Gain : It is defined as the ratio of the change in the output power to the change in the
input power.
Since power = current x voltage , we have
a-c power gain = a-c current gain
xa-c voltage gain
= p (a-c)xAv = p (a-c)x { p (a-c) x resistance gain}
= p2 (a-c)x resistance gain.
Since P (a-c) >> a ( a-c) , the a-c power gain in common-emitter amplifier is extremely large compared
to that in common-base amplifier.
(v) Common-Emitter Amplifier using a p-n-p Transistor:

INPUT
a-c
SIGNAL

,---------i0
BE

Tr

OUTPUT
a-c
SIGNAL

16. RELATION BETWEEN a AND p

CB cuqnt gain (a)
CB current gain (a) is the ratio of output current to the input current in common base configuration of
a transistor.
le

f11e

adc = "i;' aac M E

CE current gain (P)
CE current gain (P) is the ratio of the output current to the input current in emitter cofiguration of the
transistor.
=

f11e

le .

Pctc = "i;, Pac= M 8

The CB current gain a and CE current gain
1

p are related by the rollowing relations.

a

=
=
1
a = + [3' a P+1' P 1-a
The above relations are applicable for both de and ac current gains.

Semiconductor

/16}

Comment. The value or a is always less than 1. a-0.9 to 0.99 or more. The value ofpis always
much greater than l .p-95 to 999 or so.
Transistor as a Switch
A switch is a device which can turn ON and OFF current in an electrical circuit.
A transistor can be used to tum current ON or OFF rapidly in electrical circuits.
le

Jf Vo

Operation : The circuit diagram ofn-p-n transistor in CE configuration working as a switch is shown in figure.
v BB and Vcc are two de supplies which bias base-emitter and emitter collecter junctions respectively.
Let VBB be the input voltage. This is also input de voltage (V c). The de output voltage is taken across
collector-emitter terminals, is the load resistance in output circuit.
Applying Kirchhoff's second law to input and output meshes (1) and (2), we get
VBB = IB + V BE
and V cc = lcRL + VcE
=
We have V BB =V i and VcE V 0, so above equations take the form
and
Vo (=VCE) = Vee -ICRL
v i = v BE + IBRB
Let us see the change in V O due to a change in V i . In case of Si transistor; the barrier voltage across
base-emitterjunction is 0.6 V. Therefore, when Vi is less than 0.6 V, there is no collector current Cic =0),
so transistor will be in cut off state. Hence, from (4) with Ic = 0, VO = V cc When V i becomes greater
than 0.6 V, I c begins to flow and increase with increase ofV i Thus, from (4), Va decreases upto V; =1
V; the increase in Ic is linear and so decrease in output voltage VO is linear. Beyond Vi =1 V, the change
in collector current and hence in output voltage VO is non-linear and the transistor goes into saturation.
With further increase in Vi , the output voltage further decrease towards zero (though it never becomes
zero). Ifwe plot V0 versus V;, we get the graph as shown in figure. (this characteristics curve is also
called transfer characteristic curve ofbase biased transistor.) The curve shows that there are non-linear
regions. (i) between cut off state and active state and (ii) between active state and saturation state ; thus
showig that the transitions (i) from cut off to active state and from active to saturation state are not
sharply defined.

lute: Active
region region

. ..

'
'
'

..
.
'

...

..

'
'

...
'

Saturation
region

:+----- -+

0.6V

Semiconductor

v,
/17]

Now we are in the position to explain the action of transistor as a switch. When transistor is non
conducting Cle= 0), it is said to be 'switched off' but when it is conducting Cle is not zero) ; it is said to
be 'switched ON'.
As long as input voltage V i is low and unable to overcome the barrier voltage of the emitter base
junction, V0 is high Cle= 0 and V0 = Vcc), so the transistor is 'switched OFF' and ifit is high enough to
derive the transistor into saturation Cle is high and so V0 (=Vcc-le) is low, very near to zero, so the
transistor is 'switched ON'. Thus we can say low input switches the transistor in OFF state and high
input switches it ON.
Th switching circuits are designed in such a way that the transistor does not remain in active state.
Transistor as a Oscillator:
A transistor may be used as an oscillator. An oscillator is a device which converts de into ac.
The essential parts ofan oscillator are

1
(i)
(ii)
(iii)

LC circuit usually called a tank circuit.

Transistor Amplifier : It amplifies the oscillations produced in LC circuit.
Positive feed back circuit : In this arrangement a fraction ofoutput voltage or current is fed back to input
circuit in the same phase as the input signal.
If P is the back fraction, the Barkhausen criterion ofoscillation is
PA 1.
There are a variety ofoscillator circuits. A typical oscillator circuit is shown in figure.
The frequenc ofoscillations in LC circuit is
1
f=
2rc-JfE
Logic Gates :
A logic gate is a digital circuit that follows certain logical relationshipbetween one or more inputs and one
output. The input and output are voltages which are always in two states only. The input or output may
be low or high. The high level is termed as' 1' while the low level is called 'O'. By convention, a voltage
of 5 V corresponds to levelland voltage O corresponds to 0.
Fundamental Logic Gates :
(i) The OR gate: It has two or more inputs and one output It follows the rule "the output ofan 'OR
gate' assumes 1 state ifone or more inputs assume 1 state". The two input symbols ofan 'OR Gate' are
shown in figure .
y
Boolean expression for 'OR Gate'
A+ B = Y. Here+ symbol denotes OR operation.

Semiconductor

[18]

D.

D,
R

The Truth Table

Input

OutDUt

---- A _____+-____B__
. ---+-----Y;;.... ---t
0
0
0
0
1
l
0
l
l
l

(a)Clearly ifeither or both ofAandB are ON, theBulb in ON.

(b)If either or both ofAandB are in 1 state, the voltage across Ris
5V i.e., output is 1.
.....
-- Y
(ii)AND Gate : It has two or more inputs and one output.It follows

the rule "The output of an "AND Gate" assumes 1 state ifall its
:
AB . ....-----;:
_
inputs assume 1 state".
AND Gate

I )

The two - input symbol of an AND Gate is shown in figure.Boolean Expression for "AND Gate" is
AB = Y
Here symbol ()represents AND operation. Truth Table ofAND Gate is
A

0
1
0

0
0

y
0
0
0

the switching circuit and realisatioin ofAND gate using

diodes is shown in figure.
The bulb lights when both AandB are ON. Similarly
the voltage across output will be battery voltage only
when both AandB are connected to 1.

lr

Tsv

0 "-&"

(tr)

Semiconductor
:JeaiforS(hoia

a.__'2__....

RcaHsa1,on of AND Gato

[19]

(iii) NOT Gate: It has only one input and one output. If follows the rule : The output of aNOT gate is
1 if input isO and vice-versa. the symbol ofa "NOT Gate" is shown in figure.
The Boolean expression is A = y
whereA-bar (or A) means thatAis inverted. The truth table and realisation ofNOT gate is shown in
figure.
lnp1,.1t
Output
A
y
1
0
0 ----- - --. -- --1 --..,... .

A-{>-Y

NOT Gate

l
v

Rc and RB are so chosen that a large collector current flows under suitable conditions. When Ais
connected to 1 state (+5V), the voltage drop across Rc is nearly 5V and Y is equal to zero, but whenA
is connected toO state, there is no current in Rc and so Y reads +5V or 1 state.
Combination of Gates:
(i) NOR Gate : It is the combination of 'OR' and 'NOT' gates. When the output of an OR gate
c01mected to the input of aNOT gate, the circuit is called NOR gate and follows the rule
"The output of a NOR gate is 1 only if the both inputs are zero".
The symbol of aNOR gate is
The Boolean expression forNOR gate is y = A+ B
The truth table for a NOR gate is
Input
----

(ii)

Output
B

,..

NOR Gate

NAND gate: It is combination of 'AND' and'NOT' gates. When the output of an'AND' gate is
connected to the input of a'NOT' gate, the circuit is called 'NAND' gate and follows the rule
"The output of aNAND gate is 1 only if at least one of its inputs is O".
The symbol of aNAND gate is
The Boolean expression for'NAND gate' is y =A. B
The truth table forNAND gate is

Semiconductor

[20]