Grewal 1

Experiment 1: Flow of Current

Isha Grewal
TEJ2O0

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Aim:
To investigate the flow of current in an electric circuit.
Materials:
1. 1 Sk-50 breadbourding socket
2. 1 battery
3. One 100 ohm resistor
4. One 1000 ohm resistor
5. 1 LED
6. 3 wires
Procedure:
1. Assemble the circuit
2. Observe the LED
3. Replace the 100 ohm resistor with a 1000 ohm resistor
4. Observe the LED
5. Repeat (3) and (4) with several different resistors.
Observations:
Resistance

Resistor Resistance

LED Brightness

0.05 amps

100 ohms

Very bright

0.005 amps

1000 ohms

Bright

0.00106 amps

4700 ohms

Not very bright

Resistance vs Brightness
4
Brightness 2
0

2000 4000 6000

Resistance

Observation 1:100 Ohms

Observation 2: 1000 Ohms

Observation 3: 4700 Ohms

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Discussion
1) Describe the change in brightness of the LED as the resistors are changed.
Based on what I observed during this lab, I came to the conclusion that the higher the
resistance, the dimmer the brightness of the LED light. This can be proved when looking
at my observations, pictures and graph. My data shows that the LED was at its brightest
when the resistance in the circuit was at its lowest, and the LED was at its dimmest when
the resistance was at its highest.
2) Suggest an hypothesis to account for the observations.
Based on my observations I conclude, if the resistance of the circuit is higher, then the
dimmer the brightness of the LED light will be.
Conclusion
To sum up, the flow of the electric current in a circuit depends on the resistance of the circuits.
The higher the resistance, the slower the flow of electric current. In this case, the higher the
resistance, the dimmer the LED light, due to the resistance of the flow of electric current in the
circuit.

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Experiment 2 (Diode)
Aim:
1. To investigate the properties of diodes.
Materials:
1. 1 SK-50 breadboarding socket
2. 1 battery
3. One 100 ohm resistor
4. 1 diode
5. 1 LED
6. 4 Wires (depending on wiring)
Procedure
1. Assemble the circuit on the breadboard.
2. Observe the LED.
3. Reverse the direction of the diode.
4. Observe the LED.
Observations:
Diode

LED

1st position

Bright

2nd position

Off

First position:

Second Position:

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Discussions:
1) Describe the change in brightness of the LED when a diode is reversed.
Based on what I observed during this experiment, I learned that when the diode is
reversed, no light would be emitted from the LED. But when the diode is in the first
position, a bright light would be released from the LED. Thus meaning, the current is
only able to flow in one direction of the diode.
2) Suggest possible observations if (a) the LED is reversed, and (b) the resistor is reversed.
If I were to do this experiment again with the LED reversed, a possible observation
could be an improper circuit. I believe that it would put a stop to the flow of current. A
LED would be just like a diode, where the current only flows in one direction. If I were to
perform this experiment with the resistor reversed, I dont believe it would affect the
circuit at all. There is no certain direction the resistor has to be, so either way, the current
would still flow through the circuit.
3) Suggest an hypothesis to account for the observations.
Based on my observations, I came to the conclusion that if the diode is in a reversed
position, then the flow of electric current will be disrupted.
Conclusion:
To conclude, through this experiment I learned how diodes affect the flow of a current. If a diode
were to be reversed in a circuit, the circuit would no longer be active. The current is only able to
flow in one direction of the diode, therefore if it were to be reversed, there would be no
amperage.

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Experiment 3 (Series and Parallel Resistors)

Aim:
1. To investigate resistors in series
2. To investigate resistors in parallel
Materials:
1. 1 Sk-50 breadboarding socket
2. 1 battery
3. Two 470 ohm resistors
4. 1 LED
5. 3 wires
Procedure:
1. Assemble circuit (a) on the breadboard and observe the LED.
2. Assemble circuit (b) on the breadboard and observe the LED.
3. Assemble circuit (c) on the breadboard and observe the LED.
Observations:
Circuit
a
b
c

LED Brightness
Bright
Very bright
Semi Bright
Circuit A

Circuit B

Circuit C

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Discussion:
1. Describe the change in brightness of the LED for circuits (a), (b), and (c).
My observations show circuit (b) being the brightest, circuit (c) being the dimmest, and
circuit (a) being in between. Thus meaning, the parallel circuit had the brightest LED,
while the series circuit had the dimmest. This is because in a series circuit, the resistance
adds up to create a high amount of resistance while in a parallel circuit, the resistance is
dispersed.
2. Use the formula for resistors in series and parallel to explain the observation.
Resistance in the series circuit: R1+R2= 940 ohms
Resistance in a parallel circuit: R1=470 ohms R2=470 ohms
3. Suggest how 3 resistors in series or parallel would affect the observations in circuits (b)
and (c).
If 3 resistors were to be placed in a parallel circuit, it would not affect the observations at
all. On the other hand, the observations for a series circuit would definitely be altered.
With 3 resistors on a series circuit, the resistance would be very high resulting in a dim lit
LED. In the parallel circuit, the LED would have the same brightness as my current
observations while the series circuit would have a very darkened LED.
Conclusion:
To conclude, the brightness of an LED in a series and parallel circuit with the same resistors
drastically vary. In a series circuit, the resistors all as up to create an high amount of resistance
against the flow of current resulting in a dimmer LED. In a parallel circuit, the resistance in
separate parts of the circuit do not add up meaning less resistance against the current compared
to a series circuit, meaning a brighter lit LED.

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Experiment 4a (A Digital Monitor)
Aim:
To assemble and test a digital state monitor
Materials:
1. 1 SK-50 breadboarding socket
2. 1 battery
3. One 470 ohm resistor
4. 1 LED
5. 3 wires
Procedure:
1. Assemble the circuit on the breadboard.
2. Touch the input wire to the ground bus (low or logic 0) and observe the LED.
3. Touch the input wire to the 5 volt bus (high or logic 1) and observe the LED.
Input

LED

High

Light

Low

No light

High input:

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Low input:

Discussion:
1. Describe how the state of the input affects the LED.
Based on my observations, I came to the conclusion that the state of the input determines
whether there is light being emitted from the LED or not. When the state of the input is
on high, the LED will be lit. When the state of the input is on low, there will be no light
released. The input acts as an on and off switch.
2. Discuss how this circuit could be used to monitor the state of any point in a digital circuit.
This circuit could be used to monitor the state in any digital circuit by determining the
inputs of either high or low. High turning the circuit on, and low turning it off. By doing
this, the state of any point in a digital monitor can be determined. The input in a circuit is
what lets the current flow.
Conclusion:
To conclude, the two states of this digital monitor are high and low. High, allowing the
current to flow, while low puts a stop to the flow of current. The input acts as an on and off
switch to the current, or ultimately a switch to the circuit.

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Experiment 4b (A Digital Monitor)
Aim:
To assemble a digital state monitor.
Materials:
1. 1 SK-50 breadboarding socket
2. 1 battery
3. One 330 ohm
4. One 47k ohm resistor
5. One 2N3393 transistor
1 LED
6. 3 wires
Procedure:
1. Assemble the circuit on the breadboard.
2. Touch the input wire to the ground wire (low or logic 0) and observe the LED.
3. Touch the input wire to the 5 volt bus (high or logic 1) and observe the LED.
Observations:
Input

LED

High

On

Low

Off

Input: High

Input: Low

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Discussion:
1. Describe how the state of the input affects the LED.
Based on my observations, I came to the conclusion that the state of the input determines
whether there is light being emitted from the LED. A high input allows the LED to be on,
while a low input turns the LED off.
2. Discuss how this circuit could be used to monitor the state of any point in a digital circuit.
We could monitor the state of any point in a digital circuit by observing the circuit on
high and low inputs. By putting the input on the ground we could observe all the other
components in the circuit.
Conclusion:
To conclude, the two states of this digital monitor are high and low. These states determine
whether there is a flow of current in the circuit. A high input allows the current to move through
the circuit, while a low input acts as an off switch to the current. A low input is when the input
wire is connected to the ground, and a high input is when the input wire is connected to the 5 volt
bus.

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Experiment 5 (7-Segment Display)
Aim:
To investigate the operation of a 7-segment display.
Materials:
1. 1SK-50 breadboarding socket
2. 1 MAN 72A 7-segment LED display
3. 1 battery
4. One 220 ohm resistor
5. 3 wires
Procedure:
1. Assemble the circuit on the breadboard.
2. Touch the ground wire to each pin on the 7-segment display.
Observations:
Pin Number
1
2
3
6
7
8
9
10
11
13
14

LED Segment on
a
f
do not connect
right dot
e
d
left dot
c
g
b
do not connect

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Pin 1

Pin 2

Pin 6

Pin 7

Pin 8

Pin 9

Pin 10

Pin 11

Pin 13

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Experiment 6 (AND Gates)
Aim:
To investigate the operation of an AND gate.
Materials:
1. 1 SK-50 breadboarding socket
2. One 7408 TTL integrated circuit (IC)
3. One 470 ohm resistor
4. 1 LED
5. 7 wires
6. 1 battery
Procedure:
1. Assemble the circuit on the breadboard.
2. Observe the LED for steps (3) and (6).
3. Connect inputs A and B to 5 volts (high).
4. Connect input A to 5 volts (high) and input B to ground (low).
5. Connect input A to ground (low) and input B to 5 volts (high).
6. Connect inputs A and B to ground (low).
Observations:
Input A
High (1)
High (1)
Low (0)
Low (0)

Input B
High (1)
Low (0)
High (1)
Low (0)

Output (LED On or Off)

On
On
On
On

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Experiment 7 (OR Gates)
Aim:
To investigate the operation of an OR gate.
Materials:
1. 1 SK-50 breadboarding socket
2. One 7432 TTL integrated circuit
3. One 470 ohm resistor
4. 1 LED
5. 7 wires
6. 1 battery
Procedure:
1. Assemble the circuit on the breadboard.
2. Observe the LED for steps (3) to (6).
3. Connect inputs A and B to volts 5 (high).
4. Connect input A to 5 volts (high) and input B to ground (low).
5. Connect input A to ground (low) and input B to 5 volts (high).
6. Connect inputs A and B to ground (low).
Observations:
Input A
High (1)
High (1)
Low (0)
Low (0)

Input B
High (1)
Low (0)
High (1)
Low (0)

Output (LED On or Off)

On
On
On
On

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Discussion:
1. Describe the input states (voltages) required to obtain an output of 5 volts (LED-On).
The input states required in order for the LED to transmit light would be a high and
low input. In my observations, I conducted experiments testing the different input
states and the output of the LED. My results above prove that the LED will be on no
matter the input.
2. Describe the input states (voltages) required to obtain an output at 0 volts (LED-Off).
Because my observations do not show an input in which the outcome of the LED will
be off, I believe that there is no input state for the LED to be turned off. No matter
where the input is placed, the LED will continue to transmit light.
Conclusion:
To sum up, the output of an OR gate responds to its input states. The outputs act as on and off
switches, when the input is on low, it goes to ground. Based on my observations, I can conclude
that both inputs need to be low in order for the output to be low. Furthermore, If any of the stated
inputs are high, the outcome will be high.

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Experiment 8 (Inverters)
Aim:
To investigate the operation of a logic inverter.
Materials:
1. 1 SK-50 breadboarding socket
2. One 7404 TTL integrated circuit
3. One 470 ohm resistor
4. 1 LED
5. 6 wires
6. 1 battery
Procedure:
1. Assemble the circuit on the breadboard.
2. Observe the LED for steps (3) and (4).
3. Connect input A to 5 volts (high).
4. Connect input A to ground (low).
Observations:
Input A
High (1)
Low (0)

Output (LED On-Off)

Off
On

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Discussion:
1. Suggest why a 7404 integrated circuit has been designed.
This circuit is an inverting buffer, this circuit is helpful when the output of a circuit
cannot produce much current. Circuits such as these have two or more emitters. Each of
the inputs in the circuit is connected to one of these emitters.
2. What output would occur if 2 inverters are used in series.
If two inverters were to be connected together in series, the output of one and the input of
the other would clash and cancel each other out, thus there would be no inversion from
input to final output.
Conclusion:
To conclude, an inverter is a device in a circuit which transforms a direct current (DC) into
alternating current (AC). The inverter produces AC voltage to its output when the main supply
for the AC is not available.

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Experiment 9 (NAND Gates)
Aim:
To investigate the operation of a NAND gate.
Materials:
1. 1 SK-50 breadboarding socket
2. One 7400 TTL integrated circuit
3. One 470 ohm resistor
4. 1 LED
5. 7 wires
6. 1 battery
Procedure:
1. Assemble the circuit on the breadboard.
2. Observe the LED for steps (3) and (6).
3. Connect inputs A and B to 5 volts (high).
4. Connect input A to 5 volts (high) and input B to ground (low).
5. Connect input A to ground (low) and input B to 5 volts (high).
6. Connect inputs A and B to ground (low).
Input A
High (1)
High (1)
Low (0)
Low (0)

Input B
High (1)
Low (0)
High (1)
Low (0)

Output (LED On or Off)

Off
On
On
On

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Discussion:
1. Describe the input states (voltages) requires to obtain an output at 5 volts (LED-On).
Based on what I learned from my observations, I believe the input states required to
obtain an output at 5 volts would be no more than one input at 5 volts (high). During this
experiment I discovered that in circuits with NAND gates, having at least one input with
a low state would result in an output of 5 volts and the LED on.
2. Describe the input states (voltages) required to obtain an output at 0 volts (LED-Off).
Through my observations, I conclude that to obtain an output at 0 volts and have an LED
with no light, more than one input would have to be at 5 volts. I learned that having
multiple inputs with high states would result in an output of 0 in the circuit.
3. What does the N stand for in the word NAND?
The N stands for negative (negative-AND).
4. What is the relationship between AND and NAND gates?
A NAND is a logic gate that produces a wrong output if all its inputs are true, therefore,
the output is a complement of the AND gate.
Conclusion:
To sum up, a low output of 0 volts is only a result if both the inputs are at a high state. If the one
or both of the inputs are at a low state, then the output will be 5 volts (high).

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Experiment 10 (NOR Gates)
Aim:
To investigate the operation of a NOR gate.
Materials:
1. 1 SK-50 breaboarding socket
2. One 7402 TTL integrated circuit
3. One 470 ohm resistor
4. 1 LED
5. 7 wires
6. 1 battery
Procedure:
1. Assemble the circuit on the breadboard.
2. Observe the LED for steps (3) to (6).
3. Connect inputs A and B to 5 volts (high).
4. Connect input A to 5 volts (high) and input B to ground (low).
5. Connect input A to ground (low) and input B to 5 volts (high).
6. Connect inputs A and B to ground (low).
Observations:
Input A
High (1)
High (1)
Low (0)
Low (0)

Input B
High (1)
Low (0)
High (1)
Low (0)

Output (LED On or Off)

Off
Off
Off
On

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Discussion:
1. Describe the input states (voltages) required to obtain an output at 5 volts (LED-On).
Based on my observations, I can conclude that in order for an output of 5 volts, both the
input states need to be at ground (low). My observations display that the only time there
was a high output, inputs A and B were both grounded.
2. Describe the input states (voltages) required to obtain an output at 0 volts (LED-Off).
In the experiment conducted, I learned that in order for the output to be a 0 volts, at least
one of the input states need to be at 5 volts (high). This can be supported by my
observations and pictures above.
3. What does the N stand for in the word NOR?
The N stands for negative.
4. What is the relationship between OR and NOR gates?
An NOR gate is a combination of an OR gate along with an inverter. An OR may use a
NOR along with a NOT. A NOR is the logically inverted OR gate.
Conclusion:
To conclude, an NOR gate is a logic gate with a high output only being the results if both inputs
to the gate are low. A low output can only result if at least one or both the inputs are at high.

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Experiment 11 (Exclusive OR Gates)
Aim:
To investigate the operation of an exclusive OR gate.
Materials:
1. 1 SK-50 breadboarding socket
2. One 7486 TTL integrated circuit
3. One 470 ohm resistor
4. 1 LED
5. 7 wires
6. 1 battery
Procedure:
1. Assemble the circuit on the breadboard.
2. Observe the LED for steps (3) to (6).
3. Connect inputs A and B to 5 volts (high).
4. Connect input A to 5 volts (high) and input B to ground (low).
5. Connect input A to ground (low) and input B to 5 volts (high).
6. Connect inputs A and B to ground (low).
Observations:
Input A
High (1)
High (1)
Low (0)
Low (0)

Input B
High (1)
Low (0)
High (1)
Low (0)

Output (LED On of Off)

Off
On
On
Off

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Discussion:
1. Describe the input states (voltages) required to obtain an output at 5 volts (LED-On).
Based on my observations, the input states required for an output at 5 volts would be one
input on high (1) and one input on low (0).
2. Describe the input states (voltages) required to obtain an output at 0 volts (LED-Off).
My observations show that the input states needed for an output of 0 volts would be both
the inputs at either high (1) or low (0).
Conclusion:
To sum up, the output for an exclusive OR gate is only high when one of the inputs are at 5 volts
and is only low when both inputs are at either 5 volts or grounded.

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Experiment 16 (Digital Clock Circuit)
Aim:
To investigate the operation of a digital timer circuit.
Materials:
1. 1 SK-50 breadboarding circuit
2. One 555 integrated circuit
3. 1 battery
4. One 100 ohm resistor
5. Several wires
6. 1 LED
7. One uF capacitor
8. One 1k ohm resistor
9. Several resistors valued 1M ohm, 680k ohm, 470k ohm, 100k ohm, 47k ohm
Procedure:
1. Assemble the circuit on the breadboard with R2 initially at 47k ohms
2. Use a watch with a second hand to record the number of seconds required for each LED
cycle.
3. Replace R2 with a variety of other resistors and record the number of seconds for each
LED cycle.
Observations:
R2

Blinks per sec/LED cycle

47k

19

100k

10

470k

680k

1M

Other

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Axis Title

1,000,000
900,000
800,000
700,000
600,000
500,000
400,000
300,000
200,000
100,000
0
0

10

Axis Title

Conclusion:
To sum up, based on my observations I can conclude

12

14

16

18

20