Maxwells Equations:

The da Vinci Code of Electromagnetism

Solution to ME in Free Space:

Under certain conditions, these functions for E and B
solve Maxwells Equation for the case q=I=0 (i.e., in
empty space):
E=E0sin(kz-wt)i.
B=(E0/c)sin(kz-wt)j.

These are electromagnetic waves, propagating

oscillation, moving in the z direction at a speed v=w/k=c,
where c is the speed of light.
And indeed, the rest of the semester will take up the
properties of these solution, a part of electromagnetism
called optics.

Coupled Oscillations

The general motion can appear very complicated, but

there is hidden simplicity in the form of
Two normal modes, patterns of oscillation that have a
fixed frequency. For the two springs, these are the
symmetric and anti-symmetric modes.
Each normal mode has its own natural frequency, so
there are two for the system above.
Any motion can then be expressed as a superposition of
the two normal modes.

Temporal and Spatial oscillation

Another interesting thing happens with coupled
oscillators. If we start mass 1 oscillating and mass 2
fixed, we observe that after a while mass 1 will stop and
mass 2 will start.
The energy propagates from mass 1 to mass 2.
When we have an oscillation developing in time and
propagating in space we have the makings of a wave.
Similar phenomena would occur for 3 coupled oscillators
(3 natural frequencies, 3 normal modes) or even N
coupled oscillators (N natural frequencies, N normal
modes).
We will take N and look at waves in elastic media.

Waves in confined media

When many oscillators hook together, oscillations can
develop in space and time. Well confine ourselves to
single frequency sine or cosine waves.
These waves repeat at a fixed position in space over a
time T, the period; and at a fixed instant in time over a
wavelength l.
The only way both of these conditions can be met is if
the wave peaks move a distance l in a time T at a phase
velocity vP=l/T=lf=(l/2p)(2pf)=w/k.

Determining wavelength

Consider the example of waves travelling on a string of

length L with its ends fixed.
The key insight is that any wave must fit onto the
string in such a way that the ends never oscillate.
This can happen if there are an integral number of halfwavelength cycles on the string, L=nl/2, where
n=1,2,3
Two observations come out of this:
1. The wavelengths are quantized. Not all values are
possible. Have you seen this before?
2. The wavelengths occur in an infinite sequence that will
always have the form ln=n(size of object supporting
wave).

Determining frequency
If the phase velocity is constant,
then the frequency is quantized as
well
On a string fn=nvP/2L.
There is a lowest allowed frequency,
corresponding to a longest possible
wavelength, called the fundamental.
The higher frequencies are called
harmonics. The nth harmonic has n
nodes on the string, not counting the
fixed ends.

Determining Phase Velocity

Since f=vP/l, and f is determined by factor of the form
[force/inertia]1/2, we would expect vP to be determined by
this factor as well.
We will not derive exact expressions for vP that go with
different kinds of waves. Instead, we will identify the
force and inertia properties of the elastic media and then
employ a technique called dimensional analysis.
For the string, the force quantity is the tension and the
inertial quantity that describes the type of string is the
linear mass density m. Thus we make the conjecture
(exactly true in this case) that vP=(T/m)1/2.

Sound Waves
We hear the plucked cello string because the vibrating
string drives oscillations of air pressure, density, and
velocity that we call sound.
The sound waves propagate outwards in three
dimensions at the same frequency as the driver, but with
a different phase velocity and wavelength.
If we can identify the inertia property of air and the force
property, we can take a shot at the speed of sound.

Force and Inertia in a Fluid

A.
B.
C.
D.

A.
B.
C.
D.

What is the inertia property of air?

Temperature.
Density.
Pressure.
Velocity.
What is the force property?
Temperature.
Density.
Pressure.
Velocity.

Speed of sound

Our ansatz is then vP=(P/r)1/2. This is almost right; a

more careful treatment gives vP= =(cP/cV)1/2(P/r)1/21.3
(P/r)1/2.
At room temperature and atmospheric pressure, vP340
m/s. We can clearly perceive the propagation delay for
sound.
When it gets hotter, sound travels?
A. Faster.
B. Slower.
C. Same speed.

Intensity of Sound
Sound waves carry energy. If the energy is produced at
a rate P at a source and the sound wave propagates
spherically, then a listener at a distance r can detect a
power/area, or intensity I=P/4pr2.
We can perceive sound over a wide range of intensities,
so wide that is more convenient to use a logarithmic, or
decibel scale.
If I0 corresponds the minimum detector intensity, then
the number of decibels is given by dB=10log10(I/I0).
Thus 10dB is 10louder than 0dB.
In healthy ears at middle frequencies, I010-12 W/m2,
corresponding to a minimum pressure wave amplitude p0
210-5 Pa = 2 10-10 atm!

How many dB
Suppose that turning up the volume of your car speaker
increases its loudness by 20 dB relative to its normal
state. What factor intensity increase does this
correspond to?
A. 1.2
B. 2
C. 20
D. 100

Frequency and pitch

We can also perceive frequencies of sound over a fairly
wide range, 20 Hz < f < 20 kHz in a healthy ear.
The physiological response to frequency is called pitch.
Doubling the frequency corresponds to an increase in
pitch by one octave.
We can hence hear over a range of about 10 octaves.
Lower frequency sound waves are called infrasonic.
You can sense their presence, for example, when a train
approaches.
Higher frequencies than audible correspond to
ultrasonic, used in many medical applications.

Sound resonators
Devices than confine fluids produce sound waves with
quantized frequencies.
The general rule follows that there are an infinite set of
fn, with the fundamental frequency inversely proportional
to the size of the resonator. E.g. f1(piccolo)>>f1(tuba).
The boundary conditions differ between sound
resonators and a string.
In a string the displacement is zero at each end.
In an pipe with one end open, the displacement of air
from equilibrium exhibits a node at its closed end and an
anti-node at its open end.

The Ear