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CHAPTER8

Facilities and Workstation Design

8.1

INTRODUCTION

In this chapter, the workplace is defined as thephysical area where u person performs tusks. The workplace may include physical fixtures such as furniture, equipment, hallways, stairs, vehicles, and displays and will be affected by environmental
variables such as lighting, temperature, and noise. A workstation is defined as a locution where the operator may spend only a portion of the working shift. Clearly,
workstations are a subset of the workplace. An operator may travel between and
work at several different workstations in the workplace.
A good workplace and workstation design is based on biomechanical, physiological, and psychological requirements of the user. Body stress can result from
manual material handling, constrained posture, frequent movement between tasks,
and frequent repetitions. Poor work flow and layout can cause unnecessary fatigue
even as production processes become more automated. For example, a person unloading bales from an automated conveyor system may not be able to keep up with
the system. The operator should be able to control and adjust the speed.
The following are some general principles in work place and workstation design
that were taken from Attwood et al. (2003). The reader should note that specifications exist for most of the general statements. However, specific dimensions and
forces are beyond the scope of this book. The interested reader should read the
many sources available if more detail is required.
Design workplaces to accommodate the extremes of the user population.
Design workplaces to adjust to the characteristics of the user population (Figure 8-1).
Design equipment to be physically accessible (Figure 8-2).
Avoid forcing a joint beyond its natural range of movement, especially while
applying force, or holding posture (Figure 8-3). The solution to the valve posture issue shown in Figure 8-3, is to specify the preferred location and orientation of valves as demonstrated in Figure 8-4.
Avoid holding tensed muscles in fixed positions for long periods.
Locate frequently accessed items within easy reach from the working position.
Locate work with hands at approximately elbow height depending on the
task.
Human Factors Methodsfor Iniproving Performance in the Process Industries
C 2007 American Institute of Chemical Engineers

49

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FACILITIES AND WORKSTATION DESIGN

Figure 8-1: Adjustable height workstation (Photograph courtesy Evans Consoles Inc. Calgary AB, Canada).

Minimize highly repetitive tasks.

Avoid frequent and repetitive high contact force.
Provide specialized tools to reduce body stress (Figure 8-5).
Arrange computer-based workstations and seating according to accepted human factors standards (BSWHFES, 2002).
Ensure that the working environment, especially temperature and lighting, is
properly designed
Schedule proper rest breaks depending on the work effort required by the
task.

For sitting tasks all items should be within reach, the hands should work no more
than 6 inches above the work surface, and the weight of objects handled should not
exceed 10 pounds (Attwood, 1996). Special adjustments may be required for fine
assembly, writing, or precision work.
For standing tasks avoid:
Frequent high andor low extended reaches.
Frequent movement between work stations (several times per minute).
Work stations with no knee clearance.
Exerting downward forces.
For combinations of sitting and standing tasks, design elevated workstations and
seating that allow workers to move easily between seated and standing positions.

8.1

INTRODUCTION

51

Figure 8-2: Minimum clearance required for a technician to work on a pump from a squatting position. [Reproduced from Attwood et al. (2003).]

Figure 8-3: Technician in an awkward posture while applying force on a valve wheel.

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FACILITIES AND WORKSTATION DESIGN

Figure 8-4: Preferred mounting heights of horizontal stem valves.

This category of workstation can offer users the best of both worlds, since they do
not suffer the fatigue experienced from standing, yet have more range of motion
than is offered by seated workstations alone.
Equipment breakdowns can affect productivity and increase the costs of equipment replacement and repair. Two principles should be followed in this area. First,
equipment must be designed for ease of maintenance. It should be provided with
adequate access panels, doors, shelves, and drawers so that access is assured to
components that frequently wear out and must be replaced. Second, equipment
must be installed so it can be maintained properly. Operators must be able to access
equipment safely and easily to prevent injury and enhance efficiency.
~~

A pressure gauge was installed in a location that was not easily visible to the operator. A mirror was installed to solve the problem. This resulted in the operator
reading the pressure gauge incorrectly since the gauge direction was now reversed!

8.2 TOOLS

53

Figure 8-5: Hydraulic wrench designed to reduce the requirement for operator force at a

well head

8.2 TOOLS
The proper design of workplaces can be assessed using several tools that are commonly used by human factors specialists.
Activity Analyses
Activity analyses are used to determine the time spent on each work place task and
when each task is performed. The separate activities that make up the task are identified prior to data collection. Then, operator behavior is observed at standard intervals during the task and the activity performed is noted. At the end of
the task, the number of times each activity is performed is totaled, then multiplied
by the sampling interval to obtain the total time per activity (Eastman Kodak, 1983)
Task Analysis
In its simplest form, a task analysis is a systematic process that is used to:
produce an ordered list of activities that people perform in a task, and
identify the human factors issues associated with each activity.
The technique presented in Attwood et al. (2003) requires the analyst to develop a
functional description of the task, then develop a list of sequential activities and an-

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FACILITIES AND WORKSTATION DESIGN

alyze them. While there are many variations on the analysis, the process typically
involves identifying the error potential, the human factors issues and the potential
intervention for each activity (Woodson, 1981).
Link Analysis
Link analysis optimizes the location of people and equipment in a workplace. It
considers the following principles:
Services needed by several people should be located in a central location.
People and equipment should be located to maximize communication between them.

Table 8.1: Checklist for Human Factors Task Assessment. It can be difficult to know when
an in-depth Human Factors assessment is required. The following checklist may be of use to
the site HF team to help guide their thought process. As with all checklists, this one is not
meant to capture all possible HF issues. Its purpose is to identify situations where additional
evaluation is required. If any of the questions are answered with yes, a more in-depth job
evaluation should be considered.
Questions
1. Do workers complain frequently about this or similar
tasksfwork spaces?
2. Is turnover on this task excessive?
3. Is product quality frequently too low on this or similar
tasksfwork spaces?
4. Is productivity too low on this task?
5 . Does this taskiwork space involve the use of new technology,
work methods, tools, or work procedures?
6. Is there a history of possibility of personnel assigned to this
task being restricted due to body size, strength, age, gender?
7. Is the training time unusually long for this or similar tasks?
8. Do workers frequently try to change the work
space/methods for comfort?
9. Are workers frequently away from the work space performing
unnecessary activities?
10. Is the work space used on more than one shift per day?
1 1. Is the work space used by more than one individual per day?
12. Is there a record of cumulative trauma disorders associated
with This tasldwork space or with a similar one?
13. Is there a record of overexertion associated with this or a
similar task?
14. Is a record of human error accident events associated
with this or a similar taskiwork space?
15. Is there a record of medical cases or numerous visits to
medical facilities associated with this or a similar
taskiwork space?

No

Yes

Comments

8.4

ADDITIONAL REFERENCES

55

Distances between components that are important to each other should be

minimized.
The probability of unnecessary physical interaction between people or equipment should be minimized.
The technique involves identifying the site areas and equipment in the workplace
and measuring the distance between them. The analyst then relocates areas and
equipment according to the principles above, then recalculates the distances to ensure they have decreased (Attwood et al., 2003).

Checklists
Checklists are most often used to assess the need for a more thorough, in-depth
analysis. The checklist provided in Table 8-1 is intended to identify situations in the
work process where conditions, including workstation design, are not optimal and
where additional attention and study are required.

8.3

REFERENCES

BSWHFES 100 Human Factors Engineering of Computer Workstations. Human Factors

and Ergonomics Society (HFES), P.O. Box 1369, Santa Monica, CA: 2002.
Attwood, D. A,, Deeb, J. M, and Danz-Reece, M. E. (2003) Ergonomics solutions for the
Process Industries (Burlington, MA: Gulf Professional Publishing).
Attwood, D. (1996) The Office Relocation Sourcebook (New York: John Wiley & Sons,
Inc.).
Eastman Kodak (1983) Ergonomic Design for People at Work, vol. 2 (New York: Van
Nostrand Reinhold).
Woodson, W. E. (1981). Human Factors Design Handbook (New York: McGraw-Hill.

8.4 ADDITIONAL REFERENCES

Sanders, M. S. and McCormick, E. J. (1993), Human Factors in Engineering and Design
(New York: McGraw-Hill).
Grandjean, E. and Oldroyd, H. (translator) (1988), Fitting the Task to the Man: A Textbook
of Occupational Ergonomics (New York: Taylor and Francis).