Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
SUPPLEMENT SERIES
357
Editors
David J.A. Clines
Philip R. Davies
Executive Editor
Andrew Mein
Editorial Board
Richard J. Coggins, Alan Cooper, J. Cheryl Exum, John Goldingay,
Robert P. Gordon, Norman K. Gottwald, John Jarick,
Andrew D.H. Mayes, Carol Meyers, Patrick D. Miller
Carleen Mandolfo
For my grandmothers
Beverly Medford (1918-1995)
and
Angela Seina (1913-1998)
Their memory is cherished
ISBN 0-8264-6200-6
CONTENTS
Acknowledgments
Abbreviations
vii
ix
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Chapter 2
HEARING VOICES
A Distant Voice on Voicing
Modern Voices on Voicing
Previous Multi-voiced Interpretation
9
9
11
16
Chapter 3
28
30
92
Chapter 4
104
107
110
112
117
Chapter 5
SOCIO-RHETORICAL CONTEXT
Defining'Cult'
Bakhtin and Socio-rhetorical Criticism
Dialogism and Psalms
Psalms and their Socio-ideological Context
Socio-rhetorical Conclusions
149
150
156
166
175
193
vi
Chapter 6
197
204
207
215
221
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study began with a simple desire to understand better the rhetorical
function of voicing in lament psalms. In the process, a whole new theological, philosophical and linguistic world opened up before me. I am
indebted to those who aided my receptivity to this new world. John Hayes
deserves my deepest gratitude for making me aware of the need for such
an undertaking in Psalms study, and for keeping me on the path when
I might have strayed. He is not only a brilliant scholar, but a model
of generosity and humaneness. Any theoretical contributions this study
might make to the field of Psalms research would not have been possible
without the sagacious and diligent input of Martin Buss. I cannot thank
him adequately.
The department of religious studies at Saint Mary's College was kind
and supportive enough to make allowances in my workload so that I might
finish this project on time.
Although not directly involved in this project, the debt of gratitude
I owe to Dr Barbara Green, OP, is immeasurable. She is responsible for
igniting and nurturing my passion for biblical literature, in general, and
dialogic criticism, in particular, and continues to be a model of erudition
and dedication to our profession. She was my first true mentor, and now a
valuable friend. Last, but far from least, I want to thank my parents, Jerry
and Sandra Mandolfo, for always being proud of me, and my partner, Dr
Cheshire Calhoun, who's made me a better scholar and person.
ABBREVIATIONS
AAJR
AB
ANETS
ATLAMPP
BES
BHT
Bib
BKAT
BO
BR
BWANT
CBQMS
CJT
ConBOT
CRAIBL
CThM
CTQ
FOTL
FRLANT
HAR
HSM
Int
IRT
IS
ISBL
JAOS
JBL
JBR
JCS
JR
JSOT
JSOTSup
Jud
LAE
LAI
LAPO
LBS
LCBI
MLBS
MSA
MT
NAcc
OBT
OCM
OTL
PEGLBS
RelSRev
SANE
SBLDS
SBLSS
SBT
ScDoc
SHCANE
STDJ
SUNYSJud
THL
TUMSR
TynBul
UTPSS
VTSup
WB
WMANT
ZA W
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
For many generations scholars and readers have attended to the shift in
tonefrom lament or complaint to praise or thanksgivingthat is a generic
feature of most individual lament psalms. What has not been recognized is
that these tonal shifts are at times accompanied by a shift in voice, from
first person to third person, respectively. In general, whether directly connected to a shift in tone or not, voicing shifts within individual laments have
been given little notice. In a number of laments, a third person, didactic
voice, is inserted into what otherwise constitutes a prayer (supplicatory
discourse directed toward the deity).1 These shifts are recognizable primarily by means of a simple grammatical shift, though content can also
play a part in recognition:
Psalm 4
v. 2 When I call, answer me, God of my justice (vindication?);
when besieged, widen the ramparts for me.
Pity me and hear my prayer.
v. 3 People, how long will my glory be turned to shame?
You love vanity, you seek falsehood, sela.
v. 4 Know that YHWH sets apart the devout for himself.
YHWH hears when I call to him.
v. 5 Tremble and sin not;
speak in your heart (contemplate), upon your bed, and be silent, sela.
1. These psalms are: 4; 7; 9; 12; 25; 27; 28; 30-32; 55; 102; 130.1 would prefer
the designation 'grievance' or 'protest' rather than 'lament', because it is a more
accurate reflection of the stance taken by the supplicant as highlighted in this study.
Still, because it is the more common and easily recognized term, I will use 'lament'.
1. Introduction
It is the hope of this study that the best way to 'turn toward' the sociotheological world of ancient Israel is by reading with ears tuned to hear
more than one voice, and hence more than one worldview. In this way, we
can achieve a more nuanced hearing of those voices that protest and
sometimes cast doubt on Israel's more normative theological discourse.
Otherwise, those voices are often given less than their due by interpreters
who tend to read all biblical voices through the filter of the normative or
'true' Word.8
The phenomenon of voicing shifts has received very little attention by
form-critics in the past.9 Despite its monumental contribution to psalms
6. R. Bauman's (Folklore, Cultural Performance, and Popular Entertainments
[New York: Oxford University Press, 1992], p. 41) definition of'performance' suits
well our understanding of the function and form of lament psalms: performance is a
type of communicative event, 'an aesthetically marked and heightened mode of communication, framed in a special way and put on display for an audience'.
7. Jay, Throughout your Generations (Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
1992), p. 13.
8. This dynamism has been made the focus of W. Brueggemann's recent theological magnum opus, Theology of the Old Testament (Philadelphia: Fortress Press,
1997). Brueggemann's observations will undergird the theological observations in
chapter four of this study.
9. C. Westermann stands out as one who has paid particular attention to the three
main subjects of psalmic discoursesupplicant, God, enemiesbut this study will
focus on non-divine discourse as well as those voicing shifts that are marked by
nothing more than grammatical shifts, and are almost never recognized as quotations.
1. Introduction
10. S. Balentine, Prayer in the Hebrew Bible (OBT; Philadelphia: Fortress Press,
1993), p. 17.
11. Note, in this regard, the tenth-century giant of Jewish scholarship, Saadiah, who
even while recognizing that most discourse in the Psalms consists of words to or about
God, still characterized them as revelation, meant to provide spiritual and moral
instruction. On this see M. Buss, Biblical Form Criticism in its Context (JSOTSup,
274; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1999), p. 70, and M. Sokolow, 'Saadiah
Gaon's Prolegomenon to Psalms', AAJR 51 (1984), pp. 131-74.
12. J.C. McCann, 'The Psalms as Instruction', Int 46, (1992), pp. 117-18.
tion was dispensed from the outset. In other words, from the beginning,
psalms were not only words of 'faithful persons to God',13 but also contained words of persons directed to persons. And because these speakers
uttered what might be considered God's words in some sense, these psalms
had revelatory or didactic characteristics at their inception, not just late in
their transmission history, when editorial activity rendered them 'scriptural'. A dialogic reading allows us to see more clearly the integral connections between cult and instruction.
In an unpublished dissertation, J. Corvin distinguishes between efficacious and effective prayers.14 Efficacious are those which are meant to
bring about a change in the situation through direct appeal to the deity. But
there are prayers that are also, if not primarily, meant to bring about a
change in the human beings involved in the prayer rite, and that includes
the audience as well as the supplicant. These latter are what Corvin calls
effective.15 Because of their edificatory objective, these prayers necessarily
belonged in a public setting. A number of psalms that are fundamentally of
the efficacious type have components that can usefully be classified as
effective. For example, in those psalms where praise or thanksgiving is the
dominant element, the effective component can be quite significant,
sometimes dominating the psalm to the point that it is more testimony than
prayer. In fact, the instructional aspect of thanksgiving psalms has long
been recognized,16 but in some laments there is also an effective
component, though it tends to be more limited, and in the form of brief
interjections. These didactic components tend to be accompanied by a shift
in voicing.17 This dramatic aspect suggests that they were not intended for
13. McCann, 'Instruction', p. 119.
14. 'A Stylistic and Functional Study of the Prose Prayers in the Historical
Narratives of the Old Testament' (PhD dissetation, Emory University, 1972), p. 145.
15. The effective aspect of prayer can be better understood by looking to ritual
theories and seeing what they can tell us about the power of ritual to shape and control
its practitioners. This will be done in Chapter 5. See also, A. Cronbach, 'The Social
Implications of Prayer', in D. Philipson (ed.), Hebrew Union College Jubilee Volume
(1875-1925) (Cincinnati: Hebrew Union College, 1925), pp. 483-512.
16. S. Mowinckel, Psalms in Israel's Worship, II (New York: Abingdon Press,
1962), pp. 32, 39. Also Seybold, Introducing the Psalms, p. 83. Both make a connection between wisdom psalms and thanksgiving psalms, as the main purpose of both
types is to admonish, exhort and testify.
17. But not always. This study will focus on the didactic elements that are
accompanied by a voicing shift because the shift helps highlight by contrast those
didactic elements. Furthermore, it is through close reading of dialogic lament psalms
1. Introduction
just any manner of public setting (like a school where they might have
been read for edification), but were performed as part of congregational
worship.18
This study will explicate the phenomenon of voicing in the psalms in
two stages: First, in Chapter 3,1 will conduct a thoroughgoing grammatical
analysis of each psalm, paying particular attention to the didactic voice,
thus establishing each one's dialogic structure. Chapters 4 and 5 will be
more theoretical in nature; the didactic content of these interjections will
be examined as a way of teasing out the implications of the phenomenon
for understanding the nature of Israel's religious and ethical worldview.
The question that will drive this section is, What can be deduced about
Israel's religious and cultural ethos from the fact that instruction played
an integral role in Israel's liturgical lament tradition? As a part of this
secondary goal, various explanations for the contexts of these psalms
will be explored cursorily (Chapter 6), including how they functioned in
the cult, as well as possible priestly involvement in the recitation of the
psalm ritual.19
Because of the diverse ways in which the interjections operate in the
psalms, it is difficult to describe their structure in general terms without
going to the texts themselves and working through examples. Still, before
proceeding to a detailed analysis of these psalms, it would be useful to lay
out the criteria by which I have determined the existence of voicing shifts.
The two categories in which the phenomenon manifests itself are: (1)
grammatical; and (2) content. Grammatically, the shift can most often be
discerned in terms of person and/or number. Looking again to Psalm 4 as
an example:
v. 2 When I call, answer me, God of my justice (vindication?);
when besieged, widen the ramparts for me.
Pity me and hear my prayer.
v. 4a Know that YHWH sets apart the devout for himself.
that the theological tension evident in almost all lament psalms can best be explored.
18. Seybold, Introducing the Psalms, p. 42, identifies the Psalms as a collection of
liturgical-devotional texts that served to make individual experiences available for the
edification of the whole community. See also, Cronbach, 'Implications', 492-3.
19. By 'cult' I do not necessarily mean formal activity that went on solely within
the temple precinct. Cult permeated the culture of ancient Israel on many levels, both
public and private. See M. Buss, 'The Meaning of "Cult" and the Interpretation of the
Old Testament', JBR 32 (1964), pp. 317-25, for a broad explication of the intricacies of
cultic phenomena.
In cases like this, the speaker may or may not be the petitioner, but the
shift in voice and general tone makes such an attribution unlikely.
Another tell ing grammatical indicator of multi-voicedness is the change
in mood that often accompanies these interjections. It is not surprising to
note that frequently the mood that characterizes an instructional interjection is the imperative. In Ps. 4.5-6, for example, we hear a commanding
voice that offers the listeners (the imperatives are plural) a lesson in how to
remedy a perceived rupture with YHWH. But just as frequently the mood
of the didactic interjection remains in the indicative.
Not every shift in voice and mood implies a change in speaker, of
course, and sometimes a shift may be discerned when the grammar is
ambiguous. Content-based clues must be considered alongside grammatical hints. Little can be said about this criterion without going to the
texts themselves, so further explication must await Chapter 3.
Chapter 2
HEARING VOICES
10
finer distinctions within the various types of biblical literature,3 but it was
not until the work of Gunkel that an extensive formal system was worked
out for the Psalter. Furthermore, I am not suggesting that Gunkel turned
away from an interest in aesthetic characteristics. On the contrary, that
was a primary focus of his work, but those coming after him have deemphasized that aspect of his scholarship.4
Drawing on Lowth's ground-breaking work on Hebrew poetry, Horsley
addresses generic concerns related to the Psalter:
The Psalms are all poems of the lyric kind; that is, adapted to music, but
with great variety in the style of composition. Some are simply Odes...
Some are of the sort called Elegaic... Some are Ethic, delivering grave
maxims of life... In all these, the Author delivers the whole matter in his
own person. But a very great, I believe the far greater part are a sort of
Dramatic Ode, consisting of dialogues between persons sustaining certain
characters. In these Dialogue-psalms the persons are frequently the Psalmist
himself, or the chorus of Priests and Levites, or the leader of the Levitical
band...5
Horsley's descriptions are based mainly on aesthetic and stylistic considerations ('Odes'), or subject matter ('Ethic'). Where his interests intersect
with the main interests of this study, is in his assignation of 'Dramatic
Ode' to a large number of psalms. Horsley does little more than distinguish the psalms as performative, as well as lay out the differing voices in
a few psalms. He does not draw out the implications (whether rhetorical,
cultic or ethical) of this distinction. In Psalm 55, for example, he
distinguishes between the supplicant's (vv. 1-21, which he breaks down
into three parts), an oracular (v. 22) and the psalmist's (v. 23) voices. His
'oracular' voice'Cast your burden upon YHWH, and He will sustain
you. He will never let the just one stumble'coincides with what I will
call the didactic voice in this psalm. However, the distinctions he makes
do not seem to be based on grammatical voicing shifts, but rather on
content and, perhaps mostly, on intuition.
One reason the multi-voiced structure of the psalms has rarely been
emphasized might have to do with our relatively modern notions of the
3. One common way of delineating the various types of psalms was to categorize
them according to subject matter, a system that for all intents and purposes often
looked very similar to Gunkel's classification.
4. See Buss, Biblical Form Criticism, pp. 209-62, for a review of Gunkel's place
in the history of ideas.
5. Horsley, The Book of Psalms, pp. xiv-xv.
2. Hearing Voices
11
12
interested first and foremost in how the psalms were used in the religious
(whether public or private) life of the ancient Israelites. Furthermore, this
cultic (broadly construed)8 orientation to the Psalter continued for nearly
50 years without a real competitor to challenge its supremacy. Recently
there has been a move away from reading the psalms as the cultic prayers
of ancient Israel and toward understanding them in their context as Scripture.9 This approach tends to understand the Psalter as a type of wisdom
book, compiled to be read privately for the edification of the pious.10 This
move accords with the gaining popularity over the past two decades of
new literary critical methodologies, as well as with B. Childs's notions of
canonical criticism, which many see as a subcategory of the new literary
approach. Although rarely stated explicitly, this critique reads in the
psalms God's word to humanity, and de-emphasizes the performative, or
prayerful, aspect of the psalms. The existence of multiple voices, one of
which performs a didactic function not unlike the goal of some wisdom
literature, illustrates that we have not yet exhausted the efforts to understand the public and ritual role played by the psalms. To set the stage for
this endeavor, the following brief review of twentieth-century scholarship
will focus on form-critical and cult-functional methods.
Throughout the twentieth century, scholars understood the psalms in
one of two ways: as the word of humans to God, or as the word of God to
humans; in other words, as either prayer or revelation. Form-critical or
cult-functional critics concern themselves primarily with the former designation, attempting to discover under what historical circumstances these
prayers were directed toward God. Newer literary and canonical critics
address themselves to the latter, seeing the psalms in their final form as
8. A definitive understanding of cult has yet to be achieved. As will be discussed
in Chapter 5, Gunkel (and Mowinckel) operated with an overly narrow definition of
cult.
9. It should be noted that the Catholics, A. Robert and A. Deissler had made
moves in the same direction several years earlier. While they were influential in France
and Germany, respectively, their work seems to have been subsequently neglected in
this particular regard. See especially A. Robert, 'L'exegese des psaumes selon les
methodes de la Formgeschichte Schule', in R. Diaz (ed.), Miscellanea Biblica B.
Ubach (ScDoc; Montiserrati, 1953); and A. Deissler, Die Psalmen (3 vols.; WB 1;
Dusseldorf: Patmos-Verlag, 1963).
10. Or to be read in a non-cultic public setting, such as a school. See G.H. Wilson,
The Editing of the Hebrew Psalter (SBLDS, 76; Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1985); and
J.C. McCann (ed.), The Shape and Shaping of the Psalter (JSOTSup, 159; Sheffield:
Sheffield Academic Press, 1992), for studies that exemplify this approach.
2. Hearing Voices
13
14
where that voice clearly belongs to the deity (apparently speaking through
a human agent). For example, even with Mowinckel's insistence on reading psalms as cultic products, produced for liturgical situations, he is mostly
deaf to human-to-human communication in the lament psalms. However,
his acknowledgement of the performative aspects of the psalms as a part
of one cultic ritual or another is an area where he and this study agree:
[I]t [the festival cult] is a sacred drama, representing the salvation which
takes place. This dramatic character tallies with the fact that the cult is a
mutual act on the part of God and of the congregation, with address and
answer, action and reaction.13
2. Hearing Voices
15
16
their own voice. Roman Catholic priests come closest in Christian circles
to this type of authority. In the confessional, the penitent confesses to and
receives moral instruction from the priest. It is acknowledged that the
priest speaks with divine authority, but it is also the case that the priest is
not speaking the word of God in quite the same way that we understand
prophets in ancient Israel to be speaking in God's own voice, understood
by the formulaic phrases 'thus says YHWH', 'utterance of YHWH', etc.
Form-critical and cult-functional methods have helped develop the
rhetorical and historical tools needed to understand better those psalms
that contain didactic interjections, but have not been employed as yet to
study systematically the phenomenon. Apart from the bias of modern
religious sensibilities, another, more concrete, reason why such a study has
not been undertaken is that since Gunkel, form critics have typically
worked with established generic categories, each of which have several
characteristics in common with several other psalms (including similar
terminology, often syntactically arranged in similar ways and conveying a
similar state of mind). Didactic interjections are never listed as one of
these characteristics simply because they seem to occur willy-nilly,
crossing generic boundaries and occurring in only about 20 per cent of the
Psalter. This type of multi-voicedness could constitute a distinct category
of its own, but to label as a separate genre the psalms containing it would
be pushing the accepted understanding of the term 'genre'. Unlike most
form-critical categories, this phenomenon takes on a different form and
function from psalm to psalm, depending on the rhetorical goal of the
particular genre in which it is utilized. Furthermore, the content and tone
vary significantly. The only consistent features are a change in voice along
with a didactic content. Further, there is not any theme or tone of voice in
the psalms in which the interjections appear that can lead us to postulate a
single life setting ('cult' is too broad a setting to be satisfactory in this
regard). These factors contribute to the difficulties encountered in studying
instructional elements in multi-voiced psalms.
3. Previous Multi-voiced Interpretation
We are ready to look at instances in which scholars have indeed recognized more than one voice in several psalms, or have noted in them the
presence of horizontal discourse. None of these readings, though, makes a
systematic attempt to explain the grammatical phenomenon on which this
study is based.
2. Hearing Voices
17
To date, there seems to be three main categories of multi-voiced interpretation: (1) oracular interjections (or indications of such even when they
do not actually appear in the psalm); (2) those psalms (or parts of) that
seem to reflect wisdom themes and language and are thus thought to be
directed to human audiences (in cases where the whole psalm seems to be
a wisdom address, there may not be more than one voice present); and (3)
psalms frequently called liturgical psalms that have antiphonal elements
and that may have been sung in part by the congregation or choruses.
The first and third categories include examples of psalms where shifts in
voicing have been discerned, but in these cases the non-petitioner voice(s)
does not necessarily include a didactic element. On the other hand, the
wisdom psalms certainly are characterized by an instructional tone, only a
couple of which, though, also include a shift in voicing. By looking at
previous work that considers all the components about which we are
concerned (even if these components are not brought together as a distinct
subject of study), we will be better able to define the parameters of'didactic interjections' as understood in this study.
Oracular Interjections
As early as H. Gunkel and J. Begrich, the notion that the ritual accompanying many psalmic petitions included a divine oracle has been routinely
accepted, although the details have been disputed. Mowinckel suggested
that supplicants in distress would seek guidance from a priest, or some
other cultic functionary, and that the response they subsequently received
was in the form of an oracle.19 Strictly defined, an oracle is simply 'a word
of God'. In some psalms, direct, first person speech by the deity is made
explicit. In others, it is missing altogether and only a rhetorical gap marks
where an oracle may have been inserted during the course of the prayer.
Sometimes all that is recorded is an 'imitation' oracle, in which God's
speech is recorded indirectly, in the third person. In still others, there is an
ambiguous voicing shift, containing oracle-like elements, but the identity
of the speaker is unclear. In terms of actual, first person oracles, Gunkel
and Begrich believed they were delivered by a priest, speaking for the
deity.20 The oracle itself rarely shows up, even in lament psalms, where we
would most expect it. In Ps. 60.12-14, there is an indication that a inquiry
has been answered, although the actual oracle goes unrecorded:
19. Mowinckel, Israel's Worship, II, p. 53.
20. H. Gunkel and J. Begrich, Einleitung in die Psalmen (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck
& Ruprecht, 1966), pp. 370-75.
18
2. Hearing Voices
19
mark speech of YHWH and makes clear that we are dealing with what is
intended to be vertical speech. In fact, this is one piece of evidence that
leads Mowinckel to suggest, against Gunkel and Begrich, that the psalmic
oracles were relayed by a cultic prophet rather than a priest.24 Using
comparisons drawn from ancient Mesopota*mian and Arabian customs, he
argues that Israel's first priests were originally custodians of the sanctuary,
oracle priests, or 'seers', not yet the sacrificial practitioners they later
became. They were responsible for the casting of lots with 'Urim and
Thummim' in a quest for answers to petitions. After the settlement in
Canaan, there developed a distinction between two types of revelation:
priestly (which still included Urim and Thummim and more 'official'
modes of revelation), and prophetic (which consisted of more spontaneous,
ecstatic modes of revelation). The prophetic role also included that of
intercessor, that is, the prophet may have been the one responsible for
praying for the congregation.25 While affirming the existence of a distinct
kind of prophet who was connected to the temple, Mowinckel concedes
that it would have been difficult to distinguish between priest and prophet
when both were working under the auspices of the temple cult.26
Given Mowinckel's desire to locate psalms within the temple-cultic
apparatus, it is not surprising that if there was any connection between
Israel's psalmody and its prophets, then Mowinckel would find a connection between those prophets and the temple. Mowinckel compares
these cultic prophets to the 'seers' of Babylon who were included among
the temple personnel. For Mowinckel, the strongest argument for prophetic involvement in the psalmic oracle is his distinction between the
form of prophetic utterance and what he perceives would have been the
priestly 'style' had they been responsible for the revelatory proclamation.
Basing his conclusions on the form of priestly torah as found in the
Pentateuch, he expects to find in the psalms either an apodictic or casuistic
style of address, one that is commanding and didactic, rather than the
'picturesque' style preserved in the Psalter. Instead,
As far as the psalms are concerned, neither the promises ('oracles') of
Yahweh that have been handed down to us, nor those that may be inferred
20
His assumption that priestly oracles would have to follow the form of
priestly torah does not necessarily follow. It seems just as likely that the
prophets borrowed from the corpus of communal worship forms, finding a
discourse accessible to the multitude. Mowinckel says as much when he
argues against the long-held opinion that hymns found in the Psalter are
reliant on forms borrowed from Second Isaiah, and that furthermore, there
are many examples of prophets borrowing from the Psalter.28 Overall, his
message seems mixed: cultic prophets delivered oracles in a 'prophetic'
style, but prophetic literature, in general, shows signs of having relied
heavily on psalmic forms. Relying on comparative ANE literature, I. Engnell is a strong proponent of prophetic dependence on psalmic material:
The psalms as cult poetry represent an older and more original type of piety
and Sitz im Leben, which the Prophets presuppose and upon which they
depend to a large extent... The Prophets are also the ones who receive, and
not the ones who give, as far as language, form, and style are concerned: they
draw from the ancient sacral language which is to be found, in part, in the
psalms with their fixed liturgical terms and phrases, their forms and figures.29
2. Hearing Voices
21
22
Wisdom Psalms
These are often considered human-to-human communication, as is the
case with most wisdom literature. In addition, those psalms that include
only a small section that is wisdom-like often include a voicing shift.
Sometimes only the addressee switches, most often from God to the congregation, but sometimes the new addressee may just as well be the
petitioner, in which case there is clearly a change in speaker.
There is very little agreement on which psalms to label wisdom. Entire
psalms that parallel wisdom themes (e.g. emphasis on torah or an acrostic
style, etc.) and seem to have no obvious connection to liturgy (e.g. Pss. 1;
19; 119) are fairly universally defined as wisdom psalms. The status of
others that only have some wisdom elements are disputed. Of late, there
has been a huge body of scholarship accumulating on this question by
those reading the psalms in their final form as literature, rather than as
performative texts. Focusing on the last stages of the editorial process,
many of them read the entire Psalter through a wisdom lens, attributing the
wisdom elements to wisdom redactors.33 In other words, going back to the
distinction I made previously, they choose to read the Psalter on the whole
as revelation. In addition, scholars often locate these psalms outside the
cult, in terms of both composition and usage.
It should be noted, however, that there are those who deny the existence
of wisdom psalms altogether, notably I. Engnell:
It is now generally thought that the psalms in the Book of Psalms were
revised for the purpose of making them edifying literature. Some scholars
think that this may be explained by assuming that the final redaction of the
Book of Psalms as a body of literature was partly accomplished in scribal
circles, and not in priestly circles connected with the cult. However, this
point of view should not be overemphasized, partly because it clearly rests
on the assumption that the Book of Psalms contains several so-called
Wisdom Psalms, which is by no means true.34
The didactic elements of many psalms that most assume have their provenance in sapiential circles, Engnell believes belonged to Torah liturgies
originally connected with the king.35 He cites Psalm 1 as exemplary:
33. L. Perdue (Wisdom and Cult [SBLDS, 30; Missoula, MT: Scholars Press,
1977], however, does consider the possibility that so-called wisdom elements are
intrinsic to the Psalter and that the later sages and scribes learned part of their style
from cultic prayer.
34. Engnell, 'Book of Psalms', pp. 75-76.
35. Engnell, 'Book of Psalms', p. 100.
2. Hearing Voices
23
24
Unexpectedly, Mowinckel concludes that these psalms may have been part
of a cult-free psalmography developed by learned laymen who were the
intellectual heirs of the cultic prophets and temple scribes. Still, he concedes that many of the composers of wisdom psalms may have been
Levitic priests who were in charge of composing and collecting cultic
hymns, and so may have indeed composed these works (especially, for
instance, thanksgiving psalms) for use in cultic ceremonies.44 For the most
part, though, he believes that those psalms he considers originally private
poetry came into the cult at a later time when the scribes who were editing
the final collection included some poems familiar to them from settings
other than a worship service.45 All said, there is little reason to ascribe
didactic elements solely to a non-cultic setting. As J. Corvin points out,
public prayer provides a perfect pedagogical opportunity: 'If education is
direction or the other, usually arguing for the influence of wisdom upon psalmography
(see J.C. McCann, G. Wilson, et al. cf. also Mowinckel, Israel's Worship, II, p. 112).
41. A. Laytner is one who understands instruction as one of the main functions of
laments (Arguing with God: A Jewish Tradition [Northvale, NJ: J. Aronson, 1990]).
42. Gerstenberger, Psalms, p. 20.
43. Mowinckel, Israel's Worship, II, p. 108.
44. Mowinckel, Israel's Worship, II, p. 110.
45. Those he considers originally private poetry include Pss. 1; 19; 34; 37; 49; 78;
105; 106; 111; 112; 127.
2. Hearing Voices
25
best achieved during the time of greatest attention, then it was inevitable
that the didactic motive would become associated with prayer. Both prayer
and education were important and complementary aspects of Israel's
religion.'46
He is concerned mostly to point out the obvious edifying features of the
thanksgiving psalms and hymns, even while maintaining their status as
prayers. He asserts that many of these psalms were prayed as much for the
benefit of a secondary audience as for YHWH. Psalms 34 and 66 are
excellent examples of the crucial role the congregation played in the
performance of this type of psalm:
Let me bless YHWH at all times;
His praise is in my mouth continually.
My soul will boast about YHWH;
The poor will hear and they will rejoice.
Magnify YHWH with me!
And let us exalt his name together (34.2-4).
Come! Hear! And let me recount for all who fear God
what He has done for me (66.16).
The fact that psalms of this type often speak of God in the third person
raises the question whether or not they should be considered actual
prayers. The human-to-human didactic element (of which only a part is
quoted here) certainly goes beyond a few interjectory lines, unlike most of
the lament psalms with which we will be dealing. Still, the psalms of
praise can help fill in the picture of the divers ways didactic elements
function in the psalms, and in the cult, as a whole.
Liturgical Psalms
Lastly, there is a peculiar category of psalm, often multi-voiced, that few
scholars have been able to label satisfactorily. These psalms are often
called 'liturgical'. This designation is misleading since so many psalms are
understood to have functioned liturgically within the cult. Westermann's
definition is the simplest:
Those psalms are called liturgies which are clearly shaped by some liturgical activity, those in which a combination of liturgical speech with liturgical
action can be recognized. In its simplest form this might consist only of
clearly recognizable antiphonal dialog. Such antiphonal dialog at worship
always presupposes, as far as we know, an activity (stylized as it may be):
46. Corvin, 'Stylistic', p. 149.
26
2. Hearing Voices
27
Chapter 3
ESTABLISHING THE DIALOGUE
At this point, it is assumed that the phenomenon being investigated is, at
the very least, identifiable on a textual level, even if it cannot be proved to
be a reflection of actual ancient performances. The presence of voicing
shifts in a number of psalms is a reality in and of itself, the exploration of
which can illuminate our reading of these particular psalms, as well as the
entire Psalter. Furthermore, in the event our reading conflicts with actual
ancient usage (something we can probably never know with certainty) we
can be assured, whether it was intentional or not, that the original composers of these psalms have provided us with 'inside' information on
the worldview under which they operated, and from which emanates the
theology and ethos reflected in the psalms. After the textual evidence has
been explored, it will be the task of the later, more theoretical, chapters to
explore the limits of what can be deduced about the rhetorical and theological message, as well as the physical setting of multi-voiced psalms.
Many more psalms than appear in this study could arguably be placed in
the multi-voiced, or dialogic, category. To provide as succinct an introduction as possible to the phenomenon, it seems wisest to limit this
particular analysis to only those psalms that most obviously fit the criteria
already covered in the introduction, that is, those psalms that primarily
occur in the form of a prayer (human-to-deity discourse), but into which
are inserted interjections that play a didactic role in the psalm. The
majority of these are lament psalms, but Psalms 30 and 32, usually identified as thanksgiving psalms, will also be analyzed.' These two prayers,
both of which contain a fairly thorough lament, as well as a didactic
element, will help round out the study.
In the following exegetical work, grammatical and thematic data will be
analyzed to determine the delineation of discourses. For the sake of
simplicity, the terms 'speaker', 'actor', 'addressee', etc. will be used to
1.
29
30
deal only with those psalms that fit the category of 'prayer', the role of
speaker will usually be assigned to what I am calling the 'petitioner'. In
the parentheses that often follow, the grammatical evidence for making
such a determination is indicated. For example, 'Ics' alludes to the first
common singular pronouns or suffixes employed in the pertinent verses.
The other designation that will occur in this column, 'didactic voice' (for
stylistic ease hereafter often referred to as 'DV') is never followed by
parenthetical information. In fact, the lack of determinative pronouns in
the verse or verses characterized as such is one of the criteria used to
determine a shift in voice.
In the column designated 'addressee' is indicated whether the speech is
directed toward a divine or a human audience. Pronominal information is
provided in the parentheses that follow. When the addressee is identified
as human, the information in the parentheses indicates in what way, if any,
the discourse is still oriented toward the deity. This will usually take the
form of '3ms ref to deity', which simply means that the deity is being
spoken of, rather than spoken to. As expected, the didactic discourses will
always be assigned a human addressee, only the number will vary.
In the notes that follow the charts, the information summarized in the
charts will be explicated. In the first set of notes, the focus will be on
grammar and structure. In the second set of notes, content will be the
focus, with an emphasis on the way in which the discourses dialogically
interrelate. This will include identifying the main thrust of the petitioner's
discourse, as well as the didactic discourse, and then juxtaposing them to
see where they are in tension and where they are comparable or complementary. In this way, the worldview assumed by the discourses can be
made explicit. For the sake of maintaining a logical flow of argument,
comments on the structure of a psalm will, from time to time, naturally
include some allusion to content, but only in so far as it assists in explaining a grammatical or structural point.
1. Analysis of Dialogic Lament Psalms
Psalm 4
v. 2 When I call, answer me, God of my justice;
when besieged, widen the ramparts for me.
Pity me and hear my prayer.
v. 3 People, how long will my glory be turned to shame?
You love vanity, you seek falsehood, sela.
31
nature of discourse
speaker
addressee
petitioner
petitioner or YHWH
didactic voice
petitioner
didactic voice
indeterminate
petitioner (Ics)
deity (2ms)
human (2mp)
human (3ms refto deity)
human
human (mp imv)
deity
deity (2ms)
3
4a
4b
5-6
1
8-9
32
vv. 5-6, and perhaps 4a. In each of these cases we have a human addressee,
and YHWH is spoken of in the third person. This is in contrast to those
verses where a 1 cs actor speaks to God directly (we can safely attribute
this voice to the petitioner). The use of mp imperatives (-lin-l, -im, -IKCDnrr
^N, TIEN, -1(211, im?, -intm) in vv. 4a and 5-6 indicates more than one
participant. Assigning a different speaker to the separate halves of v. 4 is
somewhat awkward, but the fact that vv. 4a and 5-6 share verbal forms
and a similar exhortative tone, suggests that they should be considered as
playing one role within the psalm. What is clear is that in what is essentially a prayer (human-to-God discourse), human-to-human discourse is
interjected. Gerstenberger's assumption of a single-voiced prayer forces
him to understand the exhortations in w. 4-6 as directed toward the
opponents by the petitioner. That it is directed toward a numerous human
audience (would the petitioner's particular enemies be present at such a
ritual?) seems fairly obvious based on the use of plural imperatives. What
is less certain is that the petitioner is doing the exhorting. Verse 2 makes it
clear that the petitioner is asking God to vindicate her. In such a context, it
seems somewhat unlikely that the petitioner would then take it upon
herself to chastise directly the opponents.5 It is common throughout the
psalms to hear the supplicant complain about enemies, but it is rare to hear
them directly addressed. Instead of spoken by the petitioner, these verses
might be addressed to the petitioner (and audience) in response to the
request made in v. 2. The supplicant asks for help, and the instructional
discourse provides a method for obtaining relief from suffering. Once
these words are spoken in answer to the petition, the following words of
confidence, spoken by the petitioner once again, are understandable.
The didactic interjection is centrally positioned in the psalm, coming
between the petition and resolution. The entire mid-section of the psalm
involves some complicated shifts in voicing. The switch to mp imperatives
in w. 5-6, combined with a move away from discourse directed to YHWH,
would seem to suggest a different voice.6 As opposed to the first voice,
which was tentative and clearly in some kind of distress, this other voice
seems to be responding to the petitioner and the audience in a confident,
5. C. Westermann, Praise and Lament in the Psalms (Atlanta: John Knox Press,
1981), p. 193, notes that one of the hallmarks of an individual lament is the supplicant's seeming inability to act against his enemies on his own behalf.
6. Verse 4b is the obvious exception. Either there is rapid shifting or this verse can
be attributed to the speaker of the instructional material acknowledging her ability to
reach God. It is somewhat disruptive to the flow I am suggesting, but does not annul
the validity of the broad structural observations.
33
34
at ersr'ia.
The initial discourse consists of a request directly addressed to YHWH
to 'hear' and 'pity' the supplicant, based on the deity's previous acts of
mercy. There is no suggestion on the part of the supplicant that the present
plight is deserved. The implication, then, is that the world is not presently
obeying the expectations of p*"TJ. Implicit in this plea, unaccompanied by
repentance or admission of guilt, is an indictment of YHWH. This implicit
35
36
nature of discourse
speaker
addressee
2-3
4-6
7-8
9a
9b-10a
lOb
petitioner (Ics)
petitioner (Ics)
petitioner (Ics)
didactic voice
deity (2ms)
deity
deity (2ms)
human (3ms refto deity)
deity
11
12-14
15-17
18
description of YHWH
(response to v. lOa)
assertion of confidence
description of YHWH
description of wicked
vow of praise
petitioner (Ics)
didactic voice
petitioner (Ics)
didactic voice
didactic voice
petitioner (Ics)
37
38
human audience (the supplicant and/or the audience). Now it seems we are
hearing the supplicant in conversation with someone other than God. The
discourses represented in multi-voiced psalms resemble dance partners at a
square dance, in which established partnerships make up the predominant
configuration of the dance, but are broken up from time to time for aesthetic reasons and other partnerships are temporarily established.
Verse 12 serves as an introduction to a final, lengthy instructional
section which extends through v. 17. Verse 12 is set off from the concluding didactic section in that, as with the previous didactic sections, it speaks
of divine attributes, while vv. 13-17 describes the fate of the wicked. It is
hard to show conclusively that a voicing shift occurs from v. 11 to v. 12
since in v. 11 we heard the supplicant speak of the deity indirectly as well.
Verse 12 does not contain any first person pronouns that would verify it as
belonging to the supplicant, but that does not necessarily prove the verse
belongs to a voice other than the supplicant. In a case like this, content
must be relied on to make a determination.
Notes on Content. As we have seen with other verses in this psalm, vv. 11
and 12 can be read dialogically. In other words, reading for content only, it
makes sense to read v. 12 as a response to v. 11supplicant: 'My defense
depends on a god who saves the upright of heart.' respondent: 'God is a
just judge, but a god who is indignant everyday.' As with much of the
psalm, reading dialogically helps make sense of the repetition that occurs
in these two verses. Stylistically, this interpretation makes sense as well. It
seems reasonable to read v. 12 as an introductory statement to vv. 13-17
(as well as a response to v. 11).
v. 11 My defense depends on a god who saves the upright of heart.
v. 12 God is a just Judge, but a god who is indignant every day.
v. 13 If one does not turn back then He whets his sword,
He has bent his bow and readied it.
v. 14 And He has readied for himself instruments of death
He has made arrows into burning ones.
v. 15 Observe! He pledges iniquity, and conceives trouble,
and gives birth to falsehood,
v. 16 He has dug a ditch and hollowed it out,
and fallen into the pit he made.
v. 17 His trouble will return on his own head
and upon his scalp his violence will descend.
39
In v. 12 God is described as a judge with the emphasis on his harsh judgments. The following verses then go on to describe how God's judgment is
played out against the iniquitous. More precisely, v. 12a echoes v. 11,
whilev. 12b announces the theme taken up in w. 13-17.Even ifwe accept
that v. 12 does belong to a voice other than the supplicant and is connected
to the following verses, it still must be shown that w. 13-17 do not fit the
rhetoric of the supplicant.
It seems somewhat illogical to assign vv. 13-17 to the supplicant
(although scholars often do it). It seems unlikely that the voice that
petitions the deity in a time of crisis to intercede against her enemies is the
same voice that confidently asserts a universal order that assures the selfdestruction of the wicked. Trying to make sense of these verses as part of
the discourse of the petitioner, Gerstenberger understands w. 13-15 as the
resumption of the supplicant's complaint (v. 3) and vv. 16-17 as an
imprecation against, or condemnation of, the enemies.'' He seems perplexed by his own explanation: 'Strangely enough, there is another round
of complaining and of condemning enemies.'12 He explains this in light of
'the ceremonial procedure': 'The supplication has to be repetitive in order
to reach the divine addressee'.13 Although possible, this explanation seems
to complicate the data. These verses are not suggestive in form or content
of either complaint or imprecation. Even Gerstenberger recognizes that vv.
16-17 'are proverbial in character', but insists that they 'are here used in
imprecative form'. 14 In fact, 'proverbial' is a term that could be used to
describe all of vv. 13-17. As Gerstenberger is clearly recognizing, they
have a didactic bent and do not fit the previous rhetorical style used by the
supplicant in the early part of the psalm.15
In short, the psalm begins with a petition, but ends (penultimately) with
a moral lesson, not with further complaints by the supplicant. The
instructional discourse acts as a response to the petition.16 We do not hear
a discourse that seems clearly to belong to the supplicant again until the
40
vow of praise in v. 18, the rationale for which can be seen in the instruction imparted in vv. 12-17.
Unlike Psalm 4, which contains direct instruction in the form of commands, the didactic interjections in Psalm 7 simply provide information on
the attributes of YHWH (or Elohim). As was touched on above, the dialogical structure of this psalm is particularly evident. The repetition of
themes coupled with frequent changes in person serves to highlight this
quality.
The supplicant's discourse resounds with the hope that YHWH will
adjudicate her case fairly, and every didactic interjection (vv. 9a, lOb, 1217) responds to this fervently expressed wish in the affirmative'God is a
just judge!' is the prevailing message. In Psalm 4, the theme of YHWH as
judge is implicit in the rhetoric, but here it is explicit. YHWH adjudicates
Cp"7) in v. 9a and is able to judge a person based on that person's intentions, not just outward actions (v. lOb). Verse 12 explains that God metes
out justice according to just deserts, and w. 13-17 provide an extended
description of how this attribute is manifestedthe world is set up so that
the evildoer brings about his own demise. YHWH does not need to act
directly, but both v. 12, preceding this section, as well as the praise
expressed in v. 18 makes it clear that YHWH, the just judge, is to be given
credit for this self-correcting system.
At the start of the psalm, the supplicant makes her request and emphatically asserts her innocence (vv. 2-8). In accord with her relatively
lengthy assertion of innocence (vv. 4-6), the supplicant demands 'fairness'
(v. 7) from YHWH. The first interjection (v. 9a) is noncommittal, but
simply states that YHWH is judge, a statement that offers little in the way
of direct comfort to the petitioner. The petitioner responds with a more
pointed request that YHWH not only judge, but also judge based on the
supplicant's p~IH and DR. This is followed up by the supplicant with a
request that YHWH specifically eliminate evil and establish the innocent.
The interjectory voice in lOb offers even more assurance than was requested by responding with the information that God judges according to
what is inside a person. The implicit message is that one may not always
be privy to God's standards of judgment, but that they are above those of
mere humans in so far as God judges what cannot be seen by humans. The
particular point being made to the supplicant is that if she is indeed innocent, she has nothing to fear because God knows her heart; but at the same
time there is an implicit threat that things may not go as the supplicant
would like or expect based on what God finds in the supplicant's soul. The
41
The remainder of the interjection follows through on this point and lays
out in detail exactly how the wicked will be recompensed. Finally, with
this extended reassurance that YHWH does 'Ordain fairness!' (v. 7c), the
supplicant seems satisfied and in the final verse vows praise to YHWH.
The fact that the supplicant offers praise only after a detailed accounting
of the fate of the wicked makes it clear that vindication for her consists
primarily in the destruction of her enemies. At the core of the psalm is the
issue of what constitutes divine justice.
Psalm 9
v. 1 For the leader; on the death of Labben. A psalm of David.
v. 2 I will praise you, YHWH, with all my heart;
I will relate all your wonders,
v. 3 I will be glad and rejoice in you;
I will sing in praise of your name, Elyon,
v. 4 when my enemies retreat,
stumbling and perishing at your presence.
v. 5 For you have upheld my cause and my case;
sitting on the throne as a just judge,
v. 6 You have rebuked the nations;
you have destroyed the wicked;
their name you have blotted out forever and ever,
v. 7 The enemy is no more,17 in perpetual ruin;
You have uprooted cities: their very memory is blotted out.
17. Or, 'the enemies are no more'. The noun Q'l&H) is singular; the verb (liSH) is
plural.
42
nature of discourse
speaker
addressee
2-4
5-7
vow of praise
account of salvific
acts/motivation
petitioner (Ics)
petitioner (Ics)
deity (2ms)
deity (2ms)
8-10
description of YHWH
didactic voice
18. The translation TANAKH has 'you who lift me from the gates of death'. To
make better sense of the syntax, and to assume a parallel structure, I'm choosing to
read 'DDllD from the root DQ"1 rather than DTI.
affirmation of
confidence
exhortation/description
ofYHWH
petition/vow
of praise
description of fate of
wicked at YHWH's hands
petition
43
petitioner (?)
deity (2ms)
didactic voice
petitioner (Ics)
humanmp imv
(3ms for deity)
deity (2ms)
didactic voice
petitioner (?)
Notes on Structure. It is frequently suggested that Psalms 9 and 10 constitute a unity. There are two main reasons for this: First, the two psalms
together were clearly intended originally to adhere to an acrostic style.20
This pattern has either been disrupted in subsequent redactions, or was not
closely adhered to in the first place. Secondly, the lack of a superscription
for Psalm 10 suggests that it once was read in conjunction with the psalm
that precedes it. Other factors that impede reading Psalm 9 as a unity unto
itself include its confusing generic characteristics. Because of its opening
lines, most scholars categorize Psalm 9 as a thanksgiving psalm. If so, v.
14, which is clearly a plea of the kind we hear in psalms of lament, seems
out of place. This can more easily be accounted for if we consider Psalm
10, which is clearly a lament, as an integral part of Psalm 9. But there is
some internal evidence available for designating Psalm 9 a lament (or at
least more lament than anything else).21 A close reading of the tense (or
aspect) and other grammatical indicators in the early part of the psalm
suggests that the thanksgiving there proffered is contingent upon the
assistance of the deity. The combination of imperfect verbs in vv. 2-3
along with the use in v. 4 of the preposition 3, which is used to introduce
an adverbial clause, is indicative of a vow, a generic element characteristic
of lament psalms, although they are typically placed at the end of such
19. Gerstenberger, Psalms, p. 73, labels this section 'the call to worship', an
element most frequently found in hymns, where it typically opens the psalm. He
explains its presence here by proposing that it was borrowed from the hymn form. It is
hard to defend the central positioning of this particular call to worship if it were indeed
functioning in such a way.
20. As preserved in the LXX, from the second century.
21. This psalm, along with Ps. 10, according to C.C. Broyles, Conflict,p. 44, is a
God-lament, that is, a lament that blames God for the misfortune being endured by the
supplicant.
44
psalms.22 Therefore, the supplicant is not in fact praising YHWH after the
actual fact of deliverance, which is what one expects in the thanksgiving
genre, but is vowing to offer thanks when YHWH provides deliverance.
All told, it does not seem unreasonable to read Psalm 9 by itself as a
unified lament psalm, as it now appears in its extant MT form. As with
many other prayers in the Psalter, it begins and ends by invoking YHWH
to action of some sort. Simply because the vow and the petition seem to
have been inverted in this case is not a sufficient reason to read this psalm
as other than a psalm of supplication.23 Perhaps the restrictions imposed
by the acrostic pattern have contributed to the generic idiosyncrasies
witnessed here.
As with the psalms we have looked at thus far, Psalm 9's dialogic structure alternates between the voice of the supplicant and a didactic voice.
The supplicant's initial vow and account of YHWH's salvific acts comprise about a third of the entire psalm. Verses 2-4 employ imperfect verbal
constructions, while, as would be expected, the accounting of past deeds in
vv. 5-7 occurs in the perfect form. It is difficult to determine whether the
past activities are supposed to have occurred in the far or the recent past. If
we take v. 14 as the primary petition of the psalm, it makes less sense to
understand vv. 5-7 as describing the resolution of the present crisis for
which v. 14 serves as the petition. The only other option would be to read
the psalm as a thanksgiving psalm, with v. 14-15 then occurring as a
complete anomaly. This seems less preferable than taking w. 5-7 to be
referring to the remote past, recounting times gone by when YHWH had
come to the aid of the supplicant in particular (v. 5), and upheld the
universal ethical structure in general (vv. 6-7). If this reading is correct,
then the supplicant is trying to establish, by persuasive rhetoric, a situation
in which YHWH can do little else but respond positively to the supplicant's petition when it is finally made.24
22. Weiser, The Psalms, p. 150, also comments on the tense that leads him to call
Pss. 9 and 10, together, 'a prayer of supplication'.
23. As M. Buss points out, form critics expect a rigidity of form that is not natural
to genres. Genres may be, in fact, fairly fluid configurations: '[A] "genre" is a probabilistic structure and not an "all-or-nothing" structure. One should deal with
probabilities of genres rather than with the lines between genres. The features of a
genre are all probabilistic; they do not lie side by side but crisscross each other. In fact,
there is no strictly right or wrong arrangement' (private email correspondence).
24. S. Pulleyn, Prayer in Greek Religion (OCM; Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997),
pp. 19-20, notes the propensity of ancient Israelite supplicants to use the formula daquia-dedisti ('Give because you have given') in addressing their concerns to YHWH.
45
46
47
The section composed of vv. 16-19 shifts tone radically away from
petition and vow to another accounting of YHWH's juridical and martial
attributes. YHWH is referred to once again in the third person. The first
interjection (vv. 8-10) echoes v. 5,andw. 16-18 pick up the supplicant's
second concern, as voiced in v. 6the wickedness of the nations. But in
vv. 16-18 the primary audience is not YHWH and so should not be seen as
an attempt at persuasion, but rather descriptive and didactic.
The final two verses return to more petition, addressed directly to
YHWH. They are odd in that they make no reference to the personal plight
of the supplicant, but only request of YHWH that he assert his power over
the D'll The repetitive character of this psalm has been pointed out
throughout this analysis, so it is not at all surprising that the theme of the
wicked nations should arise again. The fact that there is no explicit
mention of the supplicant's plight is more surprising. The less-thanspecific tone is reminiscent of v. 11, in which case YHWH was also
directly addressed, but no mention was made of the supplicant's particular
case. These verses may have been sung by a chorus, or the congregation,
as well. The possibility that an I-psalm was used in a public setting along
with the fact that throughout this psalm allusions suggestive of a more
universal nature were made, can help explain the impersonal ending. In
other words, in the early accounting of the deeds of YHWH the supplicant
is setting up a scenario in which her personal enemies are put in perspectiveif YHWH has thwarted entire nations, as well as evil ones, in
the past, surely he can defeat the supplicant's enemies. In this light, vv.
20-21 make sense as a summary petition.
Notes on Content. The types of interjections used in this psalm vary, direct
command (vv. 12-13) and indirect instruction (vv. 8-10, 16-19). As with
Psalm 7, the main thrust of the didactic portions of Psalm 9 paints YHWH
as a just judge. In fact, this psalm is teeming with juridical language (C3SKJ,
C3S2JQ, ]*~1, "fin, etc.). YHWH as judge is made especially explicit in vv.
8-10. These verses both affirm the previous discourse of the supplicant and
fine tune it to some extent. On the surface the didactic discourse seems
simply to reassure the supplicant by reiterating, although in a more general
way, the rhetoric of the supplicant. This it indeed does do, but less obvious
in the interjection is a censure of the supplicant's conditional phrasing.
(referring also to vv. 20-21) in what he considers a thanksgiving psalm by suggesting
that the congregants were playing it safe and petitioning YHWH prophylactically, in
the event of future misfortune.
48
The supplicant tries to appeal to YHWH by recounting past accomplishments (vv. 5-7). The discourse that is then interjected (w. 8-10) into this
persuasive rhetoric speaks of attributes rather than potentially idiosyncratic deeds, thus negating the need for supplicant's persuasive tactics.
The instructive voice is, in essence, asserting that just judgment is at the
very heart of who YHWH is; thus, as this same voice then prompts us in v.
12, YHWH is to be praised unconditionally. This helps to explain the
function of the universal language found in what is clearly an 1-psalm.
Likewise, it accounts for what seems an odd endingconcern for the fate
of the nationsin an individual psalm. The conditionality of the
supplicant's plea is being remolded to reflect a more dependable theology.
As already mentioned, vv. 12-13 occupy a roughly central position in
the psalm and are possibly meant to legitimate the theology posited in the
instructional discourse by involving the audience in activity that actualizes
the beliefs. Furthermore, the mp imperatives used in v. 12 offer a way of
indoctrinating the human audience into this theology by urging them to
vocalize the message. This is the most obviously effective didactic
moment in the prayer, its explicit goal being to 'effect' a change in the
audience rather than bring about a resolution to the crisis.
After the climax of vv. 12-13, the supplicant persists in making a petition couched in a vow of conditional praise (vv. 14-15). This is again
refuted with the notion that YHWH is completely trustworthy, presiding
over a world in which the wicked are snared in their own trap (vv. 16-19).
The upshot of this message is again that the supplicant need not bribe
YHWH to act justly.
Psalm 12
v. 1 For the leader; on the Sheminith. A Psalm of David
v. 2 Help, YHWH! For the pious one is no more;
for the faithful ones have vanished from among human beings,
v. 3 Everyone speaks vanity with their neighbors;
with flattering lips and a double heart they speak.
v. 4 YHWH will cut off all flattering lips,
the tongue speaking grandiosely,
v. 5 those who say, 'by our tongue we will prevail;
our lips are our own, who is lord over us?'
v. 6 'Because of the ruin of the poor,
the sighing of the needy,
Now I will arise,' says YHWH.
'I will set in safety the one who pants for it.'
49
nature of discourse
speaker
addressee
2-3
invocation and
complaint
(oracular) description of
YHWH's future acts
(response to w. 2-3)
salvation oracle
for deity
descriptive comment
on oracle
affirmation of
confidence
summary complaint
(or instructional?)
petitioner
deity
didactic voice
intermediary
human
didactic voice
human
petitioner (for
congregation?)
petitioner
(didactic voice?)
deity (2ms)
4-5
6
7
8
9
indeterminate
50
51
contrary, v. 9 seems set off in style and content from the other two verses.
Verse 7 has a didactic quality that v. 8 lacks with its return to direct
address to YHWH. Each of these three verses can be read as rhetorically
distinct discourses. The didactic voice in v. 7 parallels the same voice in
vv. 4-6 and forms an inclusio around the discourse of YHWH, acting as
affirmation of the power and trustworthiness of the deity. With v. 8 we
return to the discourse of the supplicant. Using the pronoun 'us', the
supplicant is now clearly praying for the benefit of the congregation.31
Even in light of the promise and affirmation of YHWH's trustworthiness, the psalm ends on a dark note. It almost seems a resumption of the
complaint, similar to the statement made in v. 3. There are no grammatical
clues in this verse to help decide to whom the discourse belongs nor to
whom it is directed. Content suggests that it belongs to the supplicant, but
it has a refrain-like, summary quality that may suggest it is meant to be
heard as not belonging to any particular discourse.
Notes on Content. A further structural observation is helpful for understanding how the content of the discourses relate to one another. In terms
of voicing, we see that the psalm forms a chiastic structure that appropriately positions the oracle of YHWH in the center with the addition of a
refrain at the end:
A. Petition for help addressed to YHWH (vv. 2-3)
B. YHWH described as on who can/will respond (vv. 4-5)
C. Oracle of YHWHYHWH will act to save (v. 6)
B1. YHWH (i.e. his promises) described as dependable (v. 7)
A.1 YHWH addressed directly with words of confidence (v. 8)#
Refrain.Reason for petition summarized (v. 9)
The supplicant's discourse forms the outer layer of the structure, with the
didactic discourse forming an inner layer enclosing the words of the deity.
The first didactic interjection (B) responds directly to the petition voiced
by the supplicant, even using the precise phrase used by the supplicant,
'flattering lips'. Like many of the didactic interjections we have already
looked at, the interjection is meant to reassure. And as if to highlight the
absurdity of the question of the impious: 'Who is lord over us?' YHWH
asserts his supremacy. Interestingly, though, the oracle somewhat side31. Verse 8 is prone to amendments. 'Protect us' is often amended to 'protect
them' or 'protect him'. This is probably due to an improper understanding of the referent in the previous phrase 'guard them', 'them' probably referring to the 'promises'
mentioned in v. 7.
52
steps the precise complaint as posed by the supplicant. The issue in w. 2-3
has to do with the multiplication of those who speak falsely. The distress
of the pious is only implied, but it is exactly that to which the oracle
responds, mentioning nothing about the seemingly legion liars (although
we can assume they are the ones vanquishing the poor), but rather focusing on the salvation of the poor and needy. The first didactic voice (w. 45) assures the supplicant that YHWH will handle the owners of the
flattering lips as they deserve; or if we read my as a jussive, then this
same voice invokes YHWH to act in such a way. We have seen this theme
in the didactic interjections of previous psalms examinedYHWH can be
counted on to maintain an ethical universe in spite of how things might
appear to the supplicant at the time of the petition. So it is all the more
interesting when we actually hear what is supposed to be the voice of the
deity promising something slightly different. YHWH indeed will protect
the oppressed, but not necessarily 'cut off the oppressors. This is not to
say that the supplicant is not asking for protection for herself (or her
group), she is, but the thrust of the request centers around the proliferation
of the impious. This reading goes some way toward justifying the generically irregular character of v. 9. Instead of praise or a vow, v. 9 does not
seem to move beyond the original complaint. Understandably so, since the
oracle does not completely satisfy the complaint as originally expressed by
the supplicant. Ostensibly, the wicked may not be requited according to
the word of YHWH. Furthermore, the second didactic interjection (v. 7)
offers assurance that YHWH's promises are 'pure', but the promises as
stated in the oracle do not folly address the main complaint. The supplicant then reiterates the point made in v. 7 by saying that she trusts YHWH
to keep his word and preserve the congregation from 'this generation' even
though the wicked might continue to 'walk about on every side'. Thus, the
central objective of the didactic discourse (along with the oracle) is to
eliminate any concern on the part of the supplicant, but the voice of doubt
and complaint gets the last word anyway.
Psalm 25
v. 1 Of David.
To you, YHWH, I lift up my soul.
v. 2 My god, in you I trustmay I not be ashamed;
may my enemies not triumph over me.
v. 3 Moreover, all who wait for you, let them not be put to shame;
Let the frivolous deceivers (or, 'those who take commitment lightly')
be put to shame.
53
54
verse
nature of discourse
speaker
addressee
Ib
2-7
invocation
affirmation of
confidence/ petition
description ofYHWH
petitioner (Ics)
petitioner (Ics)
deity (2ms)
deity (2ms)
didactic voice
petition/confession
of sin
proverbial guidance
petitioner (Ics)
human
(3ms refto deity)
deity (2ms)
8-10
11
12-14
15
16-20
21
affirmation of
confidence
petition/complaint
congregational petition
didactic voice
petitioner (Ics)
petitioner (Ics)
indeterminate
human
(3ms refto deity)
human
(3ms refto deity)
deity (2ms)
deity
55
56
57
58
59
45. "^3 (v. 5) plus nnU (v. 6) suggests a contingency situation: 'If.. .then...' iffl^
in this case implying the immediate, possible, future.
46. Hebrew uncertain.
47. This is a difficult verse. See Dahood, Psalms, I, pp. 169-70, for an explanation
that at least makes sense of the syntax.
60
verse
nature of discourse
speaker
addressee
lb-3
affirmation of
confidence
petition
petitioner (Ics)
petitioner (1 cs)
7
8-12
affirmation of confidence/
vow of praise
invocation
petition
petitioner (Ics)
petitioner (Ics)
human
(3ms ref to deity)
human
(3ms ref to deity)
human
(3ms ref to deity)
deity (2ms)
deity (2ms)
human (v. 10)
13
14
affirmation of confidence
exhortation
petitioner (Ics)
didactic voice
4-5
6
petitioner (Ics)
61
62
63
she hopes that YHWH will help in the future. The chronological possibilities are nearly endless and make the task of translation and interpretation problematic. The only time in the supplicant's experience that
YHWH does not seem to be of aid is in the current crisis (hence the
necessity of a lament psalm). The tension that arises from the alternation
between assertions of confidence in which YHWH is described as being
always present (e.g. vv. 3 and 10) and the pleas that YHWH not hide his
face, nor abandon the supplicant, is indicative of a high level of anxiety,
and suggests that her assertions of confidence are less assured than they
seem at first. This notion finds additional support when w. 5-6 are translated as an 'if.. .then...' clause.
In any case, the many temporal ambiguities at play in this psalm provide
a fitting context in which to read v. 14. The verb nip, used twice in this
verse, is meant to allay the supplicant's anxiety as expressed through the
use of ambiguous tenses and alternating moods. While the supplicant
makes clear her desire for YHWH's immediate intervention on her behalf,
the didactic voice counsels patience and courage. YHWH is indeed trustworthy, but cannot be expected to answer to a human's timetable.
Psalm 28
v. la Of David.
To you, YHWH, I cry;
my rock, do not keep silence with me.
If you are aloof from me,
then I will become like those who go down to the pit.
v. 2 Listen to my request for mercy
when I call to you,
when I lift my hands
toward the innermost place of your sanctuary.
v. 3 Do not drag me away with the wicked
and workers of iniquity,
who speak peace to their neighbors,
while evil is in their hearts.
v. 4 Pay them according to their work,
and according to the evil of their endeavors,
according to the deeds of their hands, pay them;
Render to them their desert.
v. 5 Because they do not discern the work of YHWH,
the deeds of his hands,
64
verse
nature of discourse
speaker
addressee
lb-2
3-4
initial invocation
petition
oracular description
ofYHWH's deeds
(response to vv. 3-4)
thanksgiving
petitioner (Ics)
petitioner (Ics)
didactic voice
deity (2ms)
deity (2ms)
human
(3ms refto deity)
petitioner (Ics)
description of YHWH
(response to vv. 6-7)
final invocation for
communal deliverance
didactic voice
human
(3ms refto deity)
human
(3ms refto deity)
deity (ms imv)
6-7
8
9
indeterminate
65
66
67
and thus we should be able to get a clue to help assign 1D^ a person and
number. Verse 8b reads 'A savior to his anointed is He'. Parallel to ift1? is
the 3ms llYttfQ, 'his anointed'. Thus we have strong support for translating
v. 8a as 'YHWH is his strength...'. And although it is true that a 3ms
translation does not make sense within the discourse of the supplicant, it
becomes perfectly reasonable if we are willing to assign this verse to a
discourse distinct from that of the supplicant's.
Notes on Content. Psalm 28 starts with a heartfelt cry to YHWH to
hearken to the call of the supplicant. The technical, cultic language of v. 2
suggests that the prayer was made in the presence of the deity at the Holy
of Holies.64 Implicit in the cry is a complaint against YHWH, an accusation that YHWH has abandoned the supplicant. The complaint is not
straightforward, but hidden in a petition. Westermann calls this particular
aspect of some lament psalms 'negative petitions'.65 At the outset of the
prayer, the supplicant is clearly uncertain whether God will hear the plea
or will rather pay no heed to the petitioner's suffering.66
As with many of the psalms we have already looked at, the main theme
expressed here has to do with divine/cosmic justice, that is, the hope that
the just will be dealt with mercifully and the wicked harshly. But, unlike
other psalms sharing this same concern, nowhere in Psalm 28 is the
terminology we would expect of psalms focusing on justice, words such as
E3SEJQ or plK, for example. Nevertheless, the supplicant is calling God to
act in a manner befitting the judge of the universe. This notion is expressed most pointedly in the petition of vv. 3-4. The supplicant implores
God not to let her share in the fate of the wicked. Conversely, in v. 4, the
supplicant asks God to recompense the wicked according to their deeds. In
other words, the supplicant assumes an ethical universe, but believes that
only through the just actions of YHWH can this worldview be realized.
Implicit in this plea is an accusation leveled against God that the deity
does not always attend to his duties as judge. Verse Ib gives voice to this
fear: 'If you are aloof from me, then I will become like those who go
down to the pit.'
Verse 5 serves as a response to this point of viewGod will indeed
punish the wicked, particularly because they do not take into proper
account YHWH's deeds. The evildoers' deeds do not, apparently, accord
64. Gerstenberger, Psalms, p. 128.
65. Westermann, Praise and Lament, pp. 185-86. See also Ps. 27.9.
66. Weiser, The Psalms, p. 257.
68
69
70
71
verse
nature of discourse
speaker
addressee
2-3
4-7
invocation/initial plea
personal affirmation
of confidence
petitioner (Ics)
petitioner (Ics)
deity (2ms)
8-9
10-14
vow of praise
petitioner (Ics)
deity (2ms)
complaint/description
of distress
petitioner (Ics)
deity (2ms)
15-19
20-21
petition
petitioner (Ics)
deity (2ms)
affirmation
of confidence
petitioner (Ics)
deity (2ms)
22
23
24-25
hymn
petitioner (Ics)
human
thanksgiving
petitioner (Ics)
deity (2ms)
exhortation
didactic voice
deity (2ms)
(v. 7-human)
72
73
pronouns makes it clear that this discourse belongs to the supplicant. Then
in v. 23, she turns back to the deity and admits to having been concerned
that things might not have gone so positively. Blaming YHWH directly
rarely makes its way into the Psalter, and the voicing of such a complaint
in the form of a report may be a remnant from a time when undiluted
complaint against YHWH had more currency.76 Verse 23b suggests that
the trouble is behind the supplicant: 'I had said, in my alarm, "I am thrust
out from your line of sight!" Yet you heard the voice of my supplications,
when I cried out to you'. This confession is particularly telling in that the
majority of the poem is adamant about expressing only confidence in
YHWH. Any show of doubt has been squelched and could only be
inferred from the almost overly vehement way in which the votes of confidence are declared (vv. 4-7, 15-16, 20-23).
Finally, the didactic section (vv. 24-25) seems to sit outside the main
flow of action. It shifts away from both the direct discourse of prayer, as
well as from the specifics of the supplicant's case. Plural imperatives
move the discourse into an entirely new arena in which an audience is
given a summary appraisal of the preceding oration. The main themes of
the entire psalm are recapitulated in a condensed form, not unlike the
'moral of the story' we are accustomed to in fairy-tales. The themes of
loyalty and protection, pride and recompense permeated the psalm and are,
in the end succinctly reiteratedYHWH guards the faithful and requites
those who act proudlyfor the sake of the audience. The final verse seems
somewhat anti-climactic and not specifically tied to the content of Ps. 31
(see Psalm 27.14). It may have been a standard literary or liturgical final
blessing or exhortation.
Notes on Content. The majority of Psalm 31 belongs to the discourse of
the supplicant; the didactic interjection comes only at the end, and there
does not seem to be any tension between the two discourses. The interjection summarizes and concludes; it does not contend with the worldview
posited by the supplicant. There is no back and forth as commonly found
in other dialogic psalms, where the two discourses seem to wrestle over
theology and worldview.
Verse 24 begins with direct instruction, in the form of an exhortation
('Love, YHWH, all his loyal ones') and is followed by descriptive cola
meant to serve as motivation for the exhortation. YHWH is described as
74
one who takes care of his own ('YHWH guards the faithful'), so it is only
right that 'his own', show him appropriate homage (nnK). The Hebrew
for the 'loyal ones' (from 1DPI) and the 'faithful' (from ]DK) are interchangeable for the most part. The root IDfl occurs four times (vv. 8, 17,
22,24) and ]!DK twice (vv. 6,24). In every instance in which they occur in
the supplicant's speech, they are employed to speak about the deity.
Conversely, in the interjection, they are used to describe humans in
relationship to YHWH. We are told in v. 24 that YHWH guards the
faithful, but the flip side is that he 'requites those who act proudly'. The
entire psalm is concerned with the issue of reward and punishment, the
faithful versus the proud. Although she is never directly described as such,
we are to consider the supplicant among the faithful. For example, in w.
6-7 and again in vv. 15-16 the supplicant alludes to the trust she has placed
in YHWH and how she has committed her life to the deity. Furthermore,
when in w. 20-21 she speaks in general terms about the reciprocal
relationship enjoyed between YHWH and those that trust in him, she
surely counts herself among this circle.
All this adds up to one more psalm that is concerned first and foremost
with the issue of justice, and specifically, YHWH's role in its administration. In this context one would expect some allusion to guilt or innocence
on the part of the supplicant, but there is no such discussion. In addition to
this, it is Gerstenberger's opinion that the psalm lacks, as well, any
reflections on a covenant or moral code.77 Perhaps not explicitly, but
certainly the notion that loyalty and faithfulness deserve the same in return
testifies to a reliance on straightforward, if somewhat unsophisticated,
moral standards. As with many other psalms, we are here confronted with
a concern for justice and ethics, but it is on a uniquely personal level that
these issues are addressed, as evinced by the use of the word 'trust'
throughout, as well as the many ways in which YHWH is described as the
supplicant's 'strength', 'rock', 'fortress'. Putting aside the issue of guilt or
innocence, the supplicant's discourse is concerned simply to convince
YHWH to act on her behalf because she 'trusts' YHWH, because she is
one of YHWH's faithful. In other words, YHWH is being induced to act
on account of some prearranged agreement, not because abstract issues of
justice are at stake. YHWH as ruler and judge of the universe are not what
is at issue. Rather, YHWH as participant in a covenant of mutual
responsibility is appealed to. Psalms 7 and 9 serve as a good contrast to
75
this approach. They certainly deal with YHWH's duties to his 'chosen',
but on a more universal level they are interested in issues of cosmic
justice: the wicked must be punished not only because they are attacking
the petitioner, but because they subvert the cosmic order. In this view
YHWH protects the oppressed (Ps. 9.10) against the enemies, not just the
supplicant's personal enemies. And YHWH judges the world (9.6, 9) not
simply the players within the narrow purview of the supplicant. In Psalm 7
the supplicant asks that YHWH, the one who judges the peoples (v. 9a)
judge her according to her (the supplicant's) integrity (v. 9b), not simply
because they have a contract requiring YHWH's assistance.
The ethos propounded by the supplicant's discourse in Psalm 31 may be
too subtle to allow any certainty, but the didactic interjection cuts through
the nuances and makes explicit the point put forth throughout the psalm
that those who share in some kind of covenant with YHWH can depend on
his assistance in time of trouble. Along these lines, YHWH is described as
'faithful' (v. 6), 'loyal' (v. 8; 17.22), 'my god' (v. 15). Issues of morality
take a back seat when it comes to the realities of covenant duty. The
discourses in conversation in this psalm seem to agree on this point, for
the most part. As we have seen with other didactic interjections, v. 24
projects great confidence that YHWH will meet the supplicant's expectation. The supplicant's discourse, on the other hand, admits more doubt in
YHWH's compliance with the implied covenant, but is no less convinced
that he should comply.
Psalm 55
v. 1 For the leader, with stringed instruments. A Maskil of David.
v. 2 Give ear, God. to my prayer.
Do not hide from my supplication;
v. 3 Attend to me and answer me.
I am restless in my lament, and I moan
v. 4 because of the voice of the enemy before me,
the oppression of the wicked;
for they cast upon me iniquity,
and in anger they persecute me.
v. 5 My heart writhes within me,
and the terrors of death have fallen upon me.
v. 6 Fear and trembling come upon me,
and horror covers me.
v. 7 I said, 'Who might give me wings like a dove,
[that] I might fly and be at rest.
76
78. Splitting niD^ intofllQ D*1^ seems to make more sense than the given qere
mo fcw.
79. The difficulty in making sense out of the tenses in vv. 17-19 has been one of the
main reasons that so many scholars consider this psalm illogical and its parts
disconnected. Whether or not to translate the first two verbs in v. 18 as durative past,
on the one hand, or to translate them as present or future seems somewhat up for grabs
at this point. M. Dahood argues for the former noting the propensity Semitic poetry has
for using imperfects to refer to past time. This certainly alleviates any difficulty the
perfect, ilTS, might pose otherwise. I opt for M. Buttenwieser's explanation of the
precative perfect. In this scheme, HIS should be understood as expressing a wish that
is expected to come to pass (M. Buttenwieser, The Psalms [LBS; New York: Ktav,
77
nature of discourse
speaker
addressee
2-3a
3b-9
10-12
13-15
16
invocation
complaint
petition/complaint
complaint
description of
fate of the wicked
petition
petitioner (Ics)
petitioner (Ics)
petitioner (Ics)
petitioner (Ics)
didactic voice
petitioner (Ics)
20
21-22
description of YHWH
complaint/description
of enemy's transgression
didactic voice
petitioner(?)
23
exhortation to trust
didactic voice
17-19
1969], pp. 18-25). Waltke and O'Connor, Biblical Hebrew Syntax, pp. 494-95, cite 20
uses of the precative perfect in the psalms.
80. Dahood, Psalms, 1,29 translates as 'Your provider is the Most High Yahweh,
your Benefactor who will sustain you; Never will he allow the just man to stumble'.
His arguments for doing so (see also Psalms p. 38) are sound. The didactic tone is
maintained, and the evidence that the supplicant might be the addressee is multiplied
by the repointing of ~[ 7^i~I.
78
24
petitioner (Ics)
deity (2ms)
79
80
81
wilderness. After making her case, the supplicant presents her request in v.
1 Oa, followed by more reasons why the deity should acquiesce to her plea.
Unlike the previous complaint section, though, the entire city is threatened
in vv. 10b-12. Ironically, violence and contention circle its walls in place
of the sentinels who normally would. Not only are the borders of the city
threatened, but so is its core, symbolized by the use of the term 'square',
the place where commerce functioned. Altogether, the imagery is
evocative of the rending of the fabric of society. From this very broad,
inclusive description of enemies, we jump immediately to a detailed and
personalized description. Verses 13-15 paint, in vivid strokes, the enemy
as a former friend. Within the supplicant's discourse there occurs two
more cases of similarly alternating descriptions: in w. 21-22 the singular
enemy is again described in a fairly detailed manner, and lastly, in the final
affirmation of confidence (v. 24), plural, nondescript enemies again are the
focus of imprecatory-type language.
The oscillation between these widely divergent descriptions of the enemy
in the same psalm function rhetorically to establish a textual backdrop of
utter chaos against which the supplicant can more effectively make her plea.
And extra-textually, a scene of havoc-in-the-streets is evoked by the alternating descriptions of the enemy/enemies. In this situation, YHWH must
step in, for the sake of both the individual and the community.86 Against this
backdrop the didactic interjections operate as a balm. Verse 16 promises the
demise of the enemies. The straightforward lesson that comes out of v. 20a
('God hears') acts as a corrective to the supplicant's implicit expression of
doubt about YHWH's willingness to respond (w. 2b-3). Verse 20b-d
responds to the concern about the enemies and the wicked, though it never
explicitly uses the words 'wicked' or 'enemy'. Put colloquially, its essential
message is that God is eternal and in control, and will requite those who
neither obey him nor recognize his majesty. Although coming right on the
heels of yet another discussion of the enemy, the final didactic interjection
(v. 23) is not concerned with the issue of the enemy per se. Rather, it is the
rhetorical flip side of the previous instructional discourses. In other words, it
focuses on the just rather than the godless.
Cast your burden upon YHWH,
and He will sustain you.
He will never let the just one stumble.
86. This is contra Westermann [Praise, p. 193], who seems to consider Ps. 55 a
lament of the individual, but also says that in individual laments, the enemies only
threaten the supplicant.
82
The voicing shift that occurs at this verse has been noted before. Gunkel
commented that the vestiges of a priestly oracle are still discernible,
although it was his opinion that in its present form it should be understood
as a self-admonition.87 While it is not beyond the realm of possibility that
the supplicant was talking to herself, it seems an explanation that goes to
unnecessary lengths to maintain a monologic reading. Hayes believes
v. 23 should be attributed to a priest who, speaking to the worshipper,
offers words of encouragement and direction.88
While the former didactic discourses deal with one of the two primary
issues addressed by the supplicant, v. 23 focuses on the supplicant herself
and reassures her that she has nothing to fear, that YHWH will 'sustain'
her. Furthermore, in response to the supplicant's hidden complaint (vv. 2b3), the didactic discourse assures her that YHWH takes care of the just, in
general. Taken together, then, the three didactic interjections cover the
gamut of issues addressed in this psalmYHWH's faithfulness and the
justice of his actions toward both the enemies and the supplicant. In short,
the message is one we have heard numerous times in the didactic portions
of other dialogic psalms: YHWH is holding the moral reins of the universe.
The world is under the control of a judicious deity. The didactic interjections are spare; they make very basic claims about YHWH's actions vis-avis the just and impious. The simplicity of the assurance balances the complexity and disorderliness of the supplicant's discourse. The dissonance
between the tone of the supplicant's discourse and the DV is striking and
represents a dialogue in which basic issues of theologyYHWH's power,
human versus divine responsibility, YHWH's role in the ethical structure of
society, etc.are presented and argued, but never fully resolved.
In v. 24 there is no evidence that the prayer has been answered, only
promises toward that end in w. 16,20 and 23. Still, the supplicant's final
discourse mirrors the faith in YHWH expressed in the didactic discourses.
Throughout the psalm it is clear that the fate of the supplicant depends on
the destruction of the enemy, and in the final verse, confidence in such an
outcome replaces doubt. It seems the lesson of v. 16, in particular, has
been internalized.
Psalm 102
v. 1 A prayer of the afflicted, when he is faint and pours out his lament before
YHWH.
87. Gunkel, Die Psalmen, p. 238.
88. Hayes, Understanding, p. 63.
83
84
nature of discourse
speaker
addressee
2-3
4-13
14-16
invocation
complaint
affirmation of
confidence
description of
YHWH's saving action
complaint
petition (vv. 25, 29)
motivation/praise
(vv. 26-28)
petitioner (Ics)
petitioner (Ics)
petitioner
didactic voice
human
(3ms refto deity)
deity (2ms)
deity (2ms)
17-23
24
25-29
petitioner (Ics)
petitioner (Ics)
85
86
87
88
89
nature of discourse
speaker
addressee
lb-2
invocation
petitioner (Ics)
deity
(2ms and imv)
3-4
complaint/petition
petitioner
deity (2ms)
5-6
affirmation of confidence
petitioner (Ics)
7-8
exhortation/description
of YHWH
didactic voice
90
91
92
93
nature of discourse
speaker
addressee
thanksgiving
report of deliverance
petitioner (Ics)
petitioner (Ics)
call to praise
description of
YHWH's attributes
account of
former complaint
report of deliverance
vow to offer praise
didactic voice
didactic voice
petitioner (Ics)
deity (2ms)
deity (2ms)
human (mp imv)
human
(3ms refto deity)
deity (2ms)
petitioner (Ics)
petitioner (Ics)
deity (2ms)
deity (2ms)
3-4
5
6
7-11
12
13
94
a reason for the injunction of v. 5, beginning with the word ""3. YHWH's
attributes are then describedYHWH's anger is short lived, but his goodwill is abundant. This interjection, while resonating with the theme of the
petitioner's narrative (the abatement of YHWH's disfavor), does not make
any direct reference to the supplicant's situation. The level of abstraction
makes it particularly apt for a general audience. On the other hand, it is
possible to read ]" *T (v. 6b) as referring to the supplicant and her specific
situation: 'In the evening, he lies down weeping, but in the morning,
rejoicing.' This is problematic in that the most immediate referent for 'he'
is the mention of YHWH in v. 5. Of course, even in the abstract, the
discourse can still be read in terms of the supplicant's experience, the level
of abstraction serving to make what was personal more universally
accessible.
Verse 7 moves back to direct discourse. The supplicant recounts for
YHWH (and the audience) the history of what led her to this act of praise.
Verses 7-8 echo the theme of v. 6 and personalize it. YHWH's temperament is the subject in both cases. Worth noting, though, is the fact that the
supplicant's experience of YHWH's temper as expressed in w. 7-8 relates
inversely to that described in the second half of didactic interjection (v. 6).
Whereas the didactic discourse explained that YHWH's anger is soon
displaced by his favor ('For his anger is finite; his goodwill is limitless. ..'), the supplicant's discourse describes an opposite experience, one
in which YHWH's favor is finite ('When at ease I said, "I shall never be
shaken". YHWH, by your favor, you caused my mountain to stand strong;
you hid your face, I became frightened').
Although v. 9 is part of the recollection of the supplicant, the use of
imperfect verbs makes the complaint seem more immediate. Most translations do not have the supplicant quoting herself until v. 10. In fact, after
v. 8 we are audience to, ostensibly, the exact words of the complaint ('I
call to you, YHWH...' [invocation]), 109 rather than a recitation of the
activity of lamentation by the supplicant ('I called to you, YHWH..,').
Furthermore, it would not be inappropriate to include v. 12 within the
quote as well. It is common for lament psalms to include a movement
from petition to praise. The close relationship between laments and
thanksgiving psalms is evident in the double rolean ending to a
thanksgiving psalm as well as to the psalm of complaint embedded within
itplayed by vv. 12-13.
109. Many individual laments start in just such a manner. See, for example, Ps. 28.1.
95
96
97
He said:
Though the servant was disposed to do evil,
Yet is the Lord disposed to be merciful.
114. I was unable to find any Mesopotamian prayers that fit the profile under
consideration in this study.
98
and
For He is angry but a moment,
and when He is pleased there is life.
Weeping may linger for the night,
but at dawn there are shouts of joy (30.6).
Not only does the voice in the Egyptian hymn seem to be other than that
of the petitioner, who was readily recognizable in the previous stanzas, but
the moral and ethical tone of the interjection provides a crucial point of
comparison with Psalm 30. The Hymn of Nebre contains explicit allusions
to sin: 'Who was (under) the might of Amun, through his sin.' And 'though
the servant was disposed to do evil...'. Amun is praised for showing
mercy to a sinful subject. In Psalm 30, the inclusion of the supplicant's
previous complaint mitigates any possible sense of penitential reflection.
YHWH is praised in Psalm 30 because the supplicant promised such if
YHWH would cease to be angry. In fact, the overall tone of most Mesopotamian and Egyptian prayer seems to be more penitential than biblical
115. A. Erman, Ancient Egyptian Literature (LAE; New York: Benjamin Blom,
1971), pp. 310-11.
99
sela.
100
verse
nature of discourse
speaker
addressee
lb-2
proverbial prologue
didactic voice
human (ms)
3-5
account of complaint,
repentance, and deliverance
petitioner (Ics)
deity (2ms)
6-7
thanksgiving
petitioner (Ics)
deity (2ms)
8-10
instruction/proverb
didactic voice
11
exhortation
didactic/choral
voice
human
(masc. sg and pi),
human (mp imv)
101
indicate a particular speaker or addressee. The petitioner's voice is recognizable in the discourse addressed directly to YHWH (vv. 3-7). This
discourse is surrounded by instructional discourse in vv. 1 -2 and 8-11. As
in Psalm 30, there is an account of the time of trouble and its resolution
(vv. 3-5). The petitioner confesses her transgression and then testifies to
YHWH's goodness in forgiving her. The psalm begins with an 'ashre
clause that leads many to draw links between this psalm and wisdom
literature. As Perdue shows, 'ashre is indeed reminiscent of wisdom
materials, but, as he goes on to point out, it is possible this term and the
style of pronouncement had its origin in the cultic practice of curses and
blessings.120 The proverbial-style discussion of teaching found in the latter
half of the psalm (v. 8) fits another criterion of those wishing to establish
the existence of wisdom influences in the psalms. It is generally understood that the wisdom influence in the Psalter is late, but as the Egyptian
stela of Nebre demonstrates, sapiential language may have been a component of cultic activity from the beginning.
Either v. 8 serves to introduce the upcoming instruction and vv. 9-10
comprise the actual teaching, or vv. 8 and 9 together are setting up the
instruction that only occurs in v. 10. In any case, in v. 9 a mp audience is
exhorted not to be stubborn, and what follows in v. 10 is purely didactic in
style and content: 'Many are the torments of the wicked, but the one who
trusts in YHWH is surrounded by faithfulness.' Verse 11 may be considered part of the instructional section, but it is more likely a standard
choral exhortation, not exclusively linked to this particular context.
The voicing shift in v. 8 is not discernible grammatically, leading most
scholars to identify no shift in discourse. Indeed, the pronouns used to
mark the speaker and addressee remain the same in v. 8. Gerstenberger
acknowledges that the text probably was used in congregational settings
'as lecture or prayer, with various reciters', but he makes no attempt to
identify different speaking parts.121 We must turn to content to determine
whether it is legitimate to recognize a new discourse here.
Notes on Content. Based solely on content no one supposes that the
addressee in v. 8 remains the same, that is to say, is still YHWH. While
YHWH is sometimes the recipient of a direct command to make himself
120. Perdue, Wisdom and Cult, p. 361. Such reasoning makes it difficult to
understand exactly how he can be sure that Ps. 32 emanates from wisdom circles, and
not cultic.
121. Gerstenberger, Psalms, p. 143.
102
In this case, the extreme divergence in style between the two halves of the
psalm is wholly acknowledged, and yet there is no suggestion that two
different discourses might be operating. If the stylistic discrepancy is not
enough evidence, three other factors mitigate against reading the two parts
as a unified speech unit: first, the 2ms object pronominal suffix in v. 8
suggests the intended target of instruction is an individual ("|IT32?K); and,
secondly, although less persuasive, it seems unlikely that the one who was
just forgiven for wrongdoing could embody enough authority to presume
to teach anyone else.123 A third option assigns YHWH to the role of
instructor,124 but the mention of YHWH in the third person in v. 10 would
make this awkward. Furthermore, it is clearly not an oracle, the form that
we expect YHWH's word to take in psalms and prophets. Still, this option
has the benefit of at least offering an explanation for the radical shift in
style at v. 8.
In v. 9 a 2mp audience (-"mPT^N) is addressed, but the object at the end
of the verse lapses back into singular address ("p ^N). What are we to make
of a plural addressee bounded front and back by singular addressees?
Perhaps this rhetorical strategy indicates the teaching is to be understood
as directed toward the individual penitent primarily, but meant also to
have an impact on the congregation witnessing the ritual. Determining the
referent for the 2ms pronouns proves a significant dilemma if it is not to be
122. Weiser, The Psalms, p. 286. Mowinckel, Israel's Worship, II, p. 137, also reads
v. 8 as the petitioner.
123. Perdue, Wisdom and Cult, p. 300, translates v. 8, 'I shall give counsel
concerning my iniquity.' There is little support for this emendation except the desire to
flatten the dialogic tenor of this psalm so that it meets Perdue's need to read only one
voice in a psalm written by a member of the wisdom elite for the purpose of educating
students.
124. So Kraus, Psalmen, I, pp. 405-406; Delekat, Asylie, p. 74.
103
125. As Gerstenberger, Psalms, p. 143, points out, this theology follows the myopic
line of Job's friends in their understanding of Job's situation.
Chapter 4
STYLISTIC AND THEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
OF DIALOGIC PSALMS
It has now been demonstrated that a voicing shift does indeed take
place in a number of lament psalms, and furthermore that this grammatical
phenomenon is accompanied by a rhetorical shift toward a didactic
emphasis, whether in the form of imperative instruction or indicative
instruction. While these two elements are observable in every one of these
psalms, there is little else of obvious similarity among the group. Before
moving on to more theoretical matters it might prove useful to organize
the findings to this point.
To begin this analysis charts will provide the opportunity to see the data
accumulated thus far laid out in a systematic fashion. The first chart will
deal only with grammatical data. Data concerning content will be documented in a later chart. The main goal of the first chart is primarily to
present the grammatical and stylistic characteristics of the distinction
between imperative and indicative interjections such categories as 'Person,
Number, Gender', 'Mood' and 'Position' will be instructive later when it
becomes important to make whatever conclusions possible about setting.
For example, an interjection that is addressed to a masculine plural audience will be one piece of evidence toward reading even individual laments
in a public cultic context. Contiguous verses that make up a didactic
interjection will be treated as a whole even when individual verses within
the interjection contain different stylistic elements. The differences will be
accounted for in the chart by listing all the characteristics contained in the
interjection in the order in which they occur without indicating to which
verse they belong precisely (e.g. 32.8-10). The parenthetical information
in the charts does indicate some level of interpretation regarding content,
but this is the most useful place to make these comments and they do bear
on structural issues. Psalms 30 and 32 are psalms of thanksgiving rather
than lament, but are included here because they will occasionally be
105
Mood
Position
Style
4a
mp
imv
mid
exhortative
(descriptive)
5-6
mp
imv
mid
exhortative
9a
3ms
ind
mid
descriptive
(responsorial)
lOb
ind
mid
descriptive
(responsorial)
12-14
ind
mid
descriptive
ind
latter
descriptive
Psalm Vv.
12
25
8-10
ind
mid
descriptive
(responsorial)
12-13
mp
imv
mid
exhortative
(descriptive)
16-19
ind
latter
descriptive
4-5
ind
mid
descriptive
(responsorial)
ind
mid
descriptive
(responsorial)
8-10
ind
mid
descriptive
(responsorial)
12-14
3ms (ref to
deity and pious)
ind
mid
descriptive
27
14
ms
imv
end
exhortative
(refrain)
28
ind
mid
descriptive
(responsorial)
ind
latter
descriptive
(responsorial)
106
31
55
24
mp
imv
latter
exhortative
(descriptive)
25
mp
imv
end
exhortative
(refrain)
16
ind
mid
descriptive
20
ind
mid
descriptive
23
ms
imv
latter
ind
mid
exhortative
(descriptive)
descriptive
102
17-23
130
7-8
ms
imv
end
exhortative
(descriptive)
30
5-6
mp
imv
mid
exhortative
(descriptive)
32
lb-2
3ms
ind
begin
descriptive
(proverbial)
2ms
ind
imv
ind
latter
exhortative and
descriptive
8-10
mp(s)
3ms (ref to pious)
a. P/N/G = Person, Number, Gender
b. ind = indicative;
c. imv = imperative
107
example, at the end of Psalm 31, the 'loyal ones' are exhorted to 'Love
YHWH' because he guards the faithful and punishes the proud. Interjections of this sort will, when necessary to the analysis be referred to
as 'direct instruction', insofar as they are requests explicitly directed to
a particular audience. Didactic interjections that are expressed in the
indicative mood, although implicitly directed at a particular audience, are
usually more generalized descriptive statements and are meant to edify
without requiring any specific action on the part of the audience other than
acceptance of the message, and thus will occasionally be referred to as
'indirect instruction'.
1. Indicative Interjections in Psalms of Lament
Of the 23 didactic interjections found in lament psalms, 15 occur in the
indicative mood. They are found in Pss. 7; 9; 12; 25; 28; 55; and 102. All
of these interjections are found in the body of the psalm, unlike the
imperative interjections that are frequently found at the end of the psalm
(and at the beginning in the case of the thanksgiving Psalm 32). Nearly all
of the indicative interjections contain third person references to the deity.
For example:
God is a just judge... (7.12).
YHWH abides forever... (9.8).
Good and upright is YHWH... (25.8).
The reason so few of these didactic interjections refer to the enemies or the
pious has to do with the fact that comments regarding these figures are
usually found within the supplicant's discourse.
Within this category, there are two subdivisions: (1) interjections that
appear to be closely connected to their context, to the point of sometimes
seeming to be a response to the preceding discourse of the supplicant; (2)
those whose connection is less explicit. The former have been indicated
under the heading 'Style' with the word 'responsorial' in parentheses.
Stylistically, this phenomenon has some similarities with the poetic con-
108
vention of parallelism, with the difference being that each half of the
parallel unit is expressed in a different voice, creating a sense of dialogue.
In terms of multi-voiced religious literature, meant to be performed
liturgically, antiphony may be a more apt description of this stylistic
feature. But for the time being, the use of'responsorial', with its liturgical
overtones, but its lack of a precise form, probably best captures the
essence of the relationship between the supplicant and the DV in these
examples. As the lack of previous scholarly attention attests, this relationship is not obvious unless one is sensitive to the notion of multiple voicing
in these psalms. One of the more clear-cut examples, however, can be
found in Psalm 25, in an interchange regarding the teaching of YHWH and
its attainment:
v. 4 Make known to me your way, YHWH,
teach me your paths,
v. 5 Lead me in your truth and teach me;
for you are the god of my salvation.
I wait for you all day.
v. 7 ...
as befits your goodness, YHWH.
v. 8 Good and upright is YHWH,
therefore He guides sinners in the way.
v. 9 He leads the humble in judgment;
He teaches the humble his way.
v. 10 AH the paths of YHWH are steadfast truthfulness
for those who keep the decrees of his covenant.
The concerns of the supplicant are expressed in the form of a request. The
DV expresses the same concerns, but in the form of a statement, or
response, no longer directed prayerfully toward YHWH, but toward a
human audience. YHWH's goodness, path, teachings, truth, and way are
the concern of both discourses.
The second subdivision lacks this direct connection to the supplicant's
discourse. It is not the case, however, that the interjections that have not
been labeled as 'responsorial' have no connection with their context, only
that there is less sense that the two discourses are in direct dialogue. In
Psalm 55, for example, the various parts of which seem quite disconnected, the didactic interjections seem to have little or no connection to the
discourses that precede them. Although the angry tone of the interjections
do match in intensity the frustrated and fearful tone of the supplicant, and
they do seem to share a basic themea concern with the fate of the
wickedlittle else connects them.
109
When set side by side, the similarities between these two passages become
obvious, as does a sense of dialogue or response. In this arrangement, vv.
13-15 might be understood as an insertion, interrupting the dialogical flow.
Being sensitive to the presence of more than one voice in this case helps
makes sense of what has often been perceived by scholars as a lack of
orderly structure in this psalm.
As can be seen in these brief examples, the difference between those interjections that might be considered 'responsorial' and those that might not
is subtle. The stylistic element of repetition, in conjunction with the concomitant voicing shift, observable in all of these psalms allows for the
possibility of hearing a dialogue in most psalms containing didactic
interjections.1
1.
110
111
Other than incidentals, the only difference between these two imperative
didactic interjections is in the number of the imperative, the former being
voiced in the singular and the latter in the plural. It is highly unlikely that
two such similar exhortations were composed as original endings for these
psalms, but rather bear witness to the stylization psalms underwent in their
long history of transmission. They are probably an example of one of
several refrains that were popular at some point in Israel's cultic history.
Still, the fact that they are distinguished at all, if only in the particular of
'number', suggests that there was some intentionality behind the assignment of refrain in these cases. Both are affixed to primarily first person
discourses, which is assumed to belong to the supplicant. This observation
provides parameters for the conclusions we can draw regarding social
context as well as rhetorical intent. In either case the speaker of the refrain
could arguably be the supplicant herself, or as is suggested in this study,
some other speaker, but the addressees clearly differ. In the case of Psalm
112
27, the use of masculine singular imperatives allows for the possibility that
the DV is responding directly to the supplicant. In fact, this seems the
most likely scenario, since it would be hard to envision a situation in
which a supplicant would offer encouraging words to a specific spectator.
If we were to take v. 14 as emanating from the supplicant herself, to whom
could we suppose she is speaking? An audience of one seems improbable,
and in any case, why would the supplicant address this person in exhortative tones? This is a minor but clear-cut example of how monologic
readings of many psalms just do not satisfy. Psalm 27 may provide the
clearest example of the remnant of an actual dialogue, stylized as it may
have become over time and repeated liturgical usage. In the case of Psalm
31, however, the possibility that the supplicant herself is responsible for
the final exhortation is increased. The fact that a plural exhortation is
appended to an individual psalm can only be explained by the presence of
an audience greater than the supplicant alone, which suggests that even
individual laments were conducted in a larger communal context.3
Whether it is the supplicant or someone else with didactic intentions that
addresses this audience cannot be known with certainty, but the change in
not only voice, but in overall tone suggests a different rhetorical impulse at
work, at the very least. Gunkel recognizes this when he allows for the
possibility that 27.14 and 31.25 are remnants of priestly admonitions and
words of comfort that were once a part of the cultic system to which
individual laments belonged.4 Furthermore, the content suggests we are
dealing with a different persona than the one supplicating. But discussion
of audience and content lead into issues of life setting that are better left to
a later section.
3. Content Data for Didactic Interjections
The chart below extracts the interjections in full from their context so as
not to complicate the analysis by allowing the supplicants' discourses to
3. Although they offer no systematic treatment of voicing shifts, Gunkel and
Begrich, Introduction to the Psalms, pp. 45-47, make mention of the issue of refrains
in their discussion of Hymns. In Ps. 8 for example, they recognize the phenomenon of
alternating voices, that of the individual pray-er (vv. 4-9), and a choir (w. 1-3; 10),
which is responsible for what they understand as the refrain portion of the psalm.
Gunkel and Begrich offer no grammatical argument for their conclusions, but seem to
take them as self-evident.
4. Gunkel and Begrich, An Introduction to the Psalms, p. 126.
113
confuse the material under examination. Following the didactic interjection^) of each psalm is a summary of their teaching. The summary
focuses on what the interjection teaches about YHWH, in other words, the
theology and/or worldview of the DV.
Psalm 4
v. 4a
vv. 5-6
Theology. YHWH's faithful who perform the appropriate cultic acts can
depend on a positive outcome to their situation.
Psalm 7
v. 9
v. 1 Ob
114
v. 7
115
Psalm 25
vv. 8-10 Good and upright is YHWH,
therefore He guides sinners in the way.
He leads the humble in judgment;
He teaches the humble his way.
All the paths of YHWH are steadfast
truthfulness for those who keep
the decrees of his covenant.
vv. 12-14 Who is it who fears YHWH?
That one will be shown
which path to choose.
His soul will lodge in goodness;
His progeny will inherit the land.
The counsel of YHWH is for
those that fear Him; and His
covenant mil be made know to them.
Theology. YHWH gives guidance to sinners who fear him and keep his
covenant.
Psalm 27
v. 14
v. 8
116
v. 25
v. 20
v. 23
117
118
119
In terms of content, though, it is the fact that clearly a particular person (or
persons) is being addressed. The possessive use of the pronoun 'you' is
one indicator of this:
Speak in your heart, upon your bed, and be silent (4.5b).
But since grammar and content both point in the same direction, the
distinction is not especially helpful in this case. It is the same case with the
indirect interjections. Grammatically, 'indirect' is determined by the indicative mood. Many of the psalms considered indirect in terms of content
also happen to occur in the indicative mood. For example, Ps. 7.9, 12 are
indirect in the sense that they simply 'indicate' aspects of YHWH, and no
particular audience can be discerned (except within the context of the
entire psalm where it was earlier suggested that the supplicant may be
being addressed).
YHWH arbitrates between the peoples (7.9).
God is a just judge, but a god who is indignant everyday(7.12).
120
Verses 8-9 contain only indicative verbs, but the use of second person
pronouns leaves no doubt that it is conveying a particular communication,
intended for a specific audience. What follows in v. 10 is very similar in
form and content to the indirect interjections found in other psalms (see,
for example, Pss. 25.12-13; 31.24b):
Many are the torments of the wicked,
but the one who trusts in YHWH
is surrounded by faithfulness (32.10).
The message is generalized, and taken out of context it would be impossible to determine whether or not a specific audience is intended. The
proposition that these verses should be assigned to a voice separate from
the rest of the psalm has already been made in Chapter 3. The fact that vv.
8-9 make it clear that a particular audience is being addressed, and that
apparently the lesson being alluded to therein follows in v. 10, may
perhaps help make the point for the rest of the dialogic psalms that
instruction is indeed one of the primary aims of these pieces of poetry,
even in those cases where second person discourse (as in 32.8-9) is not
juxtaposed to the didactic element (v. 10). Reading such didactic interjections monologically creates the odd situation in which ostensibly the
supplicant, in the midst of supplication, either switches into a pedagogical
role, or as many form-critical scholars have suggested, suddenly expresses
confidence in YHWH. This paradoxical juxtaposition is exemplified in
Psalm 7:
Let the wickedness of the evil ones cease, and establish the just.
God is a just judge, but a god who is indignant everyday(7.10a, 12).
121
122
123
9. Murphy, 'Classification', pp. 162-63, argues that Ps. 32 does indeed qualify as
a wisdom psalm, but his entire explanation is an exercise in how difficult it is to make
such a distinction.
10. Corvin, 'Stylistic', pp. 100-105. Mowinckel notes this same dynamic in his
study of thanksgiving psalms (Israel's Worship, II, p. 32).
11. Perdue, Wisdom and Cult, pp. 299-300. Murphy, 'Classification', pp. 159-60,
also lists these as indicators of a wisdom psalm. But Murphy notes that there is no
reason to disconnect psalms evincing these traits from cultic venues.
12. E. S. Gerstenberger suggests j ust such a situation when he points out that there
are psalms (not considered wisdom) in which we find homiletical texts containing
torah instruction. Gerstenberger suggests that the shift toward instructional elements in
the Psalms became especially noticeable in the exilic-postexilic period (although he
recognizes that didactic elements could already be observed in the family thanksgiving
psalms of the pre-exilic period) when family religion 'gave way' to congregational
organization (note Ps. 50). The exilic community, being an exclusively religious
community organized around YAHWEH and his torah, had a much greater need for
divine guidance ('The Book of Psalms: Composition or Collection?', public lecture at
Princeton Theological Seminary, 12 November 1998). Engnell, 'Book of Psalms', p.
99, seems to be on the right track in denying altogether the existence of a category of
wisdom psalms, though some of his reasons for doing so might not have been sound.
124
may have always been explicitly involved in the education of Israel might
render a distinction between wisdom and non-wisdom prayers unnecessary. Perhaps it would be useful to adopt Brueggemann's synthesis
that psalms be understood as wisdom 'performed'.13
This analysis may suggest that even indicative interjections were
actually intended (at least originally) as instruction for a particular audience (either the supplicant or a wider audience, or both). Perhaps this was
only the case during an oral stage of this literature, and when laments
came to be written down they lost clear signs of alternating voices, and
thus their instructional thrust was lost, to a large extent, as almost all
aspects of the psalm came to be read as emanating from one, primarily
supplicatory, voice. Even if we cannot posit an oral stage, the rhetorical
significance of recognizing and highlighting the dialogic quality of this
literature leads to some interesting and overlooked theological and
sociological conclusions.
Subject of Instruction
While the previous discussion touched on audience as a locus for better
understanding the dialogic nature of these psalms, 'subject of instruction'
is concerned with content, more properly. Here we ask, Who is being
described by the DVs? In most cases YHWH is the explicit focus of the
instruction. In some, however, the lesson focuses on the pious or wicked.14
Psalms that witness directly to an aspect of YHWH include 4.4a; 7.9,1 Ob,
12-14; 9.8-10, 12-13; 12.4-5, 7; 25.8-10; 28.5, 8; 31.24; 55.16, 20, 23;
102.17-23; 130.7-8; 30.5-6. In these cases, the DV uses mostly active
verbs and adjectival constructions to produce imagery and metaphors
typical of Israel's dominant speech about God.
YHWH abides forever,
establishing his throne for judgment (9.8).
YHWH arbitrates between the peoples... (7.9).
As pointed out in the exegesis of Ps. 30, the Nebre stela offers evidence that laments
contained didactic elements early on.
13. Brueggemann, Theology of the Old Testament, p. 688.
14. Many different terms are used for these characters: pious, anointed, faithful,
loyal, one who fears YHWH, etc.; or wicked, nations, one who does not fear God, and
many other more drawn-out descriptions of those who cannot be counted on YHWH's
side. Among those counted with the pious should also be included the oppressed,
afflicted, needy, et al.
125
These discourses focus on YHWH, but in the last example we see that
YHWH is described in terms of the impact his character has on others.
There are psalms where these 'others' are the focus of the instruction
rather than YHWH. In Pss. 25.12-14 and 32.10, the one who fears YHWH
is characterized:
Who is it who fears YHWH?
That one will be shown
which path to choose.
His soul will lodge in goodness;
his progeny will inherit the land.
The counsel of YHWH is for
those that fear him;
and his covenant will be made known to them (25.12-14).
Many are the torments of the wicked,
but the one who trusts in YHWH
is surrounded by faithfulness (32.10).
126
information about the party or parties not included in the main thrust of the
discourse can be inferred. In 9.8-9, for example, no mention is made of the
wicked or pious, but knowledge of their fate is easily retrievable:
But YHWH abides forever,
establishing his throne for judgment.
He judges the world in justice;
He adjudicates between the peoples with fairness.
127
with both wisdom and 'typical' psalmic poetry. By the measure of the
'subject of instruction', Pss. 7.15-17 and 9.16-19, quoted above, might be
likened to wisdom poetry, but as far as I know, never have been. The only
real difference between Psalms 7 and 9, and 25 occurs in the tense. Psalm
25.12-13 employs almost exclusively the future tense, whereas 7 and 9
employ a diversity of tenses, including the future. The criteria for making
distinctions between wisdom and more traditional liturgical psalms seems
rather arbitrary, but there is no reason to insist that borrowing did not take
place, probably proceeding in both directions. In any case, even insofar as
there are distinct stylistic differences between dialogic psalms and wisdom
poetry, they both share didactic rhetorical goals. And it is significant that
at least one of the psalms almost universally considered to have emanated
from wisdom circles, Psalm 32, is still characterized by a shift in voicing,
something not shared by wisdom literature, and an element which suggests
a performative or liturgical setting. In the case of these psalms, an affinity
with wisdom literature does not preclude the probability that they were
well integrated into cultic worship from the start. The next step would then
be to suggest that one of the primary social functions of cult was to
provide a didactic service to the community, and not only in the general
sense that psalms tend to contain information from which theological
lessons can be gleaned, but in the case of dialogic lament psalms, we may
be talking about a much more explicit function.
In sum, didactic interjections can have as their main subject of contemplation either YHWH or one or both of a category of humans differentiated
by moral qualities into 'good' and 'bad'. When humans are the primary
subjects, the psalm may assume a wisdom tenor. In either case, theological
edification is the objective, and the presence of more than one voice
suggests a performative setting such as cultic venues would have provided.
Description of YHWH
Regardless of the primary focus of the DV, the intent is to transmit
information about Israel's deity to Israel. Descriptions of YHWH divide
into two types: (1) those that concentrate on YHWH's attributes (being,
essence); and (2) those that concentrate on actions. The former is accomplished by the use of adjectives and nominal sentences, the latter by the
use of verbs, usually quite robust verbs. In these psalms, and indeed
throughout the Hebrew Bible, the predominant means by which YHWH is
128
Brueggemann discusses the way in which Israel uses 'verbs of transformation' as its primary mode for talking about YHWH. He demonstrates
that the fundamental rubrics under which the verbal utterances can be
catalogued describe YHWH as one who 'creates', 'makes promises', 'delivers', 'commands' and 'leads'.21 This emphasis on verbs of positive
transformation belies the evidence of dialogic lament psalms. In these, the
instructional discourses include a significant number of verbs having to do
with the punitive elements of YHWH's activity. In his sub-delineations of
YHWH as the god who commands, Brueggemann does touch on the issues
of justice and order, and by implication suggests that YHWH requites
according to a universal system of ethics, thus punishing and rewarding
accordingly.22 In multi-voiced laments this characterization is sometimes
expressed explicitly:
19. Brueggemann, Theology of the Old Testament, pp. xv-xviii, 145. Brueggemann
puts the stress on a theology of utterance (and response). In other words, YHWH is
only known through what is said about YHWH. Insofar as a theological reality exists
its measure can only be taken discursively.
20. Despite its drawbacks for doing current theology, von Rad's work on YHWH
as a god who acts ('The Form-Critical Problem of the Hexateuch' in The Problem of
the Hoyateuch and Other Essays [New York: McGraw-Hill, 1966]) is still one of the
seminal statements on this issue, and his basic articulation of YHWH as a god of
action, even with its outdated emphasis on history, remains valid.
21. Brueggemann, Theology of the Old Testament, Ch. 4.
22. Brueggemann, Theology of the Old Testament, p. 181. In Chapter 11 of
129
The message is that YHWH will act for the supplicant, but it is taken for
granted that sometimes that activity will, and should, involve violence
against those perceived by the supplicant (and community) as a personal
or public threat. These verses do indeed employ 'transformative' verbs,
but to assess them positively requires seeing only from the perspective of
the supplicant. (But since we don't possess a record of the 'enemy's' discourse, this is, of course, the only perspective available to us.)
Nominal sentences are less often used to describe YHWH. But when
they do occur, they seem to reflect an attempt to draw abstractions from
the verbal narration.23 That is not to say that verbal descriptions precede,
in any actual chronological manner, the nominal or adjectival portrayals,
but rather indicate a rhetorical supremacy. Biblical literature witnesses to
Israel's preference for portraying YHWH's historical involvement. In the
interjections themselves, though, it is interesting to note that specific
expressions of YHWH's deeds are sometimes preceded by a generalized
statement of YHWH's qualities:
God is a just judge,
but a god who is indignant everyday.
If one does not turn back,
then He whets his sword (7.12-13a).
Good and uprisht is YHWH,
therefore He guides sinners in the way (25.8).
for with YHWH there is loyalty,
and with him is great redemption
He will redeem (or redeems) Israel
from all its iniquities (130.7b-8).
Theology of the Old Testament, Brueggemann discusses Israel's testimony regarding
the way in which YHWH interacts negatively with YHWH's people; how, for instance,
YHWH abrogates, or at least neglects the covenant. This does not, however include a
discussion of necessary negativity, that is, punitive actions that must be taken to
maintain world order.
23. In Brueggemann's (Theology of the Old Testament, p. 123) discussion on an
aspect of Foucault's linguistic observations, it is noted that even in nominal sentences
there can be discerned a hidden verb. In our case, the only verbs that are hidden in
Israel's nominal testimony are those describing YHWH's positive traits.
130
131
132
133
matter what the source of the discourse, deeds and essence as ascribed to
the deity are not always compatible within a given text. While Israel's
recital of YHWH's deeds can run the gamut, what gets distilled out of that
recitation does not always coincide with experience. The result is a
disputatious discourse, to some degree, but a sense of dissonance can be
kept to a minimum by reading dialogically, in contrast to a monologic
reading, which would demand that the experience and subsequent
description of YHWH by one and the same source would be at odds. Still,
disputation is the hallmark of lament theology. Testimony and countertestimony work together to produce a dynamic, complex and unfinalized
portrayal of the god of Israel.
7. Theology
Brueggemann has centralized Israel's lyric tradition for doing theology.
This is apparently a result of his contention that 'much of Israel's sense of
who Yahweh is arises from and is generated by worship of a regularized,
stylized kind, and not by history'.26 It is in worship that Israel performed
Torah, which provides the basis of their covenantal union. The psalms, in
particular were the location of this praxis: 'Thus we may propose, with
particular reference to the Psalms, that the Jerusalem temple was the locus
of dramatic activity whereby all of lifecosmic, political, personalwas
brought under the rule of Yahweh.'27 As will be suggested, it is especially
that aspect of the covenant that addresses the issues of obedience and
retribution, as articulated most definitively in the Deuteronomistic portion
of Torah, which are reflected and disputed in the dialogic psalms of
lament.
Brueggemann's processual theology provides a convenient template by
which to assess the theological components of multi-voiced psalms.
Brueggemann's sensitivity to the dialogic quality of the Hebrew Bible's
talk about God allows for truer, if more inconclusive, statements regarding
Israel's experience of its god than do thematic theologies.
[The] focus on the processive, interactionist modes of assertion and
counterassertion not only allows for a plurality of voices that together
constitute and construe the theological substance of Old Testament
theology. It also allows for profound conflict and disputation through which
Israel arrives at its truth-claims.28
26. Brueggemann, Theology of the Old Testament, p. 650.
27. Brueggemann, Theology of the Old Testament, p. 661.
28. Brueggemann, Theology of the Old Testament, p. xvi.
134
135
In each case the root CDSCJ is used, first as a noun and then as a verb.
Integral to the definition of judge is the notion of justice, and accordingly a
form of the root pliJ qualifies the designation of judge in both of these
examples. Psalm 4 alludes to YHWH as one who does p"TiJ:
Offer offerings for justice (a just outcome) (4.6).
In this case, YHWH is not the focus of the discourse, and the supplicant
seems to have an active role in procuring justice, but still the implied
expectation is that YHWH will rule on the matter at hand in accordance
with justice. The testimony of all three of these didactic discourses is that
YHWH is in charge of an ethical universe. In both Psalms 7 and 9
YHWH's judgeship translates to a well-ordered creation in which the
wicked ones' punishments grow organically from their deeds:
Observe! He pledges iniquity,
and conceives trouble,
and gives birth to falsehood.
He has dug a ditch and hollowed it out,
and fallen into the pit he made.
His trouble will return on his own head
and upon his scalp his violence will descend (7.15-17).
root "?"?2, 'to adjudicate'. In other words, YHWH is both defendant and judge in the
lawsuit language of biblical laments.
136
137
What strikes one immediately in these verses is the profusion of aggressive verbs: God 'cuts off, 'tears down', 'requites', 'sets death' and
'afflicts'. What does not appear here is vocabulary based on the roots DSt2
and plU. But insofar as YHWH's chief duty as judge is to ensure that
goodness is rewarded and wickedness punished, YHWH the executioner,
as depicted in these interjections, is still YHWH the judge. The theology
in which YHWH is a judge who executes justice has been described as the
'doctrine of retribution' by many, particularly in connection to Deuteronomistic thought and late wisdom piety. In this case the testimony regarding
retribution concentrates on YHWH's punitive actions (except in Psalm 12,
which extols YHWH's protection of the faithful as well), and in the lament
138
psalms this is indeed one of the principal roles assigned to YHWH; but
even so, the converse can be assumedthe deity who punishes wrongdoers also protects the lowly and pious. Still, it just so happens that
protection seems often to take the form of crushing the one(s) who is
perceived as a threat to the pious. Expressions that concentrate on YHWH
as the one who lifts up rather than tears down are, as would be expected,
given fuller articulation in the thanksgiving psalms.
All in all, a retributive theology permeates the didactic elements of these
psalms.37 This doctrine expounds the same lesson expressed in much of
proverbial literature, that is, it proclaims a blessing for those who live
righteously, and a curse for those who do otherwise. Gunkel sees this
element cropping up in only a few psalms, most plainly in Psalms 1,91,
112 and 128, which he describes as wisdom poems.38 Psalms 1,112 and
128 all begin with an 'ashre-clause and speak in fairly practical terms
about the benefits bestowed on the one who walks in the way of the Lord:
that one will have wealth (Ps. 112), a good wife (Ps. 128) and bring forth
fruit (Ps. 1). These do indeed sound quite proverbial. Psalm 91, by contrast, has a loftier and more reassuring tone, similar to what we have
witnessed in the didactic interjections of multi-voiced lament psalms. It
speaks of deliverance from enemies and of YHWH as a refuge: 'He will
deliver you from the snare of the fowler, and from the noisome pestilence'
(v. 3). If this psalm counts for Gunkel as a wisdom poem, it is hard to see
why the psalms dealt with in this study would not fall into the same
category. The didactic goals, expressed largely against a backdrop of
retribution, of Gunkel's wisdom poems are obvious, but as has been
demonstrated in this study, many lament psalms share the same aim. The
absence of 'ashre clauses and rhetorical questions in many of these psalms
does not mitigate the basic similitude.39
By claiming that the thoughts and forms of wisdom literature did also
139
penetrate the lyric genres (those psalms that he does not consider strictly
wisdom) as well, Gunkel himself softens his distinctions.40 He notes that
even individual lament psalms, such as 25 and 31, parallel wisdom's
interest in the doctrine of retribution. In Psalm 25 this influence can be
perceived in the portion of the psalm Gunkel describes as 'thoughts of
comfort', otherwise known for the purposes of this study as the didactic
interjection (w. 12-14):41
Who is it who fears YHWH?
That one will be shown which path to choose.
His soul will lodge in goodness;
His progeny will inherit the land.
The counsel of YHWH is for those that fear Him;
and His covenant will be made known to them.42
140
theodicy, 'Man and his God', although most would agree that its generic
designation is 'lament' or 'complaint'.45 One difference between the
psalms under consideration and their proverbial counterparts is that much
of the book of Proverbs presents the doctrine of retribution unimpeded by
a countervoice. The doctrine is expounded monologically and dominates
the discourse in every way:
Observe, the just man will be recompensed on earth,
how much more the wicked and the sinner (Prov. 11.31).
The reward of humility and the fear of YHWH
are riches, honor, and life.
Thorns and snares are in the way of the crooked man;
he that guards his soul shall be far from them (Prov. 22.4-5).
141
as the importance of providing an arena for the working out of disillusionment that arose from such experiences.47 If the orderly functioning of
society (and by extension, the cosmos) depended on universal assent to
standard doctrine, it was necessary for the powers-that-be, as represented
by official institutions, to acknowledge at least tacitly that the doctrine
sometimes failed to explain adequately everyday injustices. Dogged
defense of a monolithic theology would result in a deteriorating legitimacy. Israel's acknowledgment of this process has probably contributed to
the Bible's longevity as an authoritative text.
The fact that the doctrine of retribution can be seen in a number of
laments and not only in the so-called wisdom psalms suggests a broader
generic provenance for this doctrine than Gunkel (and others) assume.48 R.
Albertz argues that this doctrine gained dominance in pious upper class
circles and was expressed in godly wisdom literature.49 In this way of
thinking, the book of Job represents the eventual disillusionment of this
class and their attempts to work through their suffering. As Brueggemann
notes, 'the Book of Job seems to protest against the theodic settlement of
either Deuteronomy or proverbs or the world that both literatures reflect
and advocate'.50 According to Albertz this crisis occurred late, sometime
in the fifth century, and was the outgrowth of tensions between pious
upper classes who returned from exile and those who did not keep to a
strict YHWHistic faith. The literature they produced to deal with this
crisis, which manifested itself as a crisis of faith, included not only
proverbs, but also wisdom psalms that involved the cult in the attempt to
win converts over to their theological viewpoint. The psalms explicitly
employed for this purpose were 37; 49; 52; 62; 73; 94; 112. In these
psalms the composers 'conceded the seductive fascination' that the position
of the wicked exercised.51 These psalms give voice to and then counter the
doubt that was creeping into the hearts of the pious. While these psalms do
indeed seem to be addressing some sort of crisis of faith, and do as well
voice their doctrine in language reminiscent of proverbial literature, it is
47. In like manner, Mattingly, 'Pious Sufferer', p. 310, says that the Babylonian
poem 'The Pious Sufferer' was written to forestall resentment and ward off potential
disillusionment with the divine order.
48. Gunkel and Begrich, An Introduction to the Psalms, pp. 293-94.
49. R. Albertz, A History of Israelite Religion, II (OIL; Louisville, KY: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1994), pp. 501-502. Albertz calls the rather late inclusion of
the doctrine of retribution into wisdom literature 'theologized wisdom' (p. 513).
50. Brueggemann, Theology of the Old Testament, p. 386.
51. Brueggemann, Theology of the Old Testament, p. 502.
142
not the case that this tension cannot be perceived in many psalms of
lament that are never identified as being of a wisdom sort. Based on the
evidence presented in the exegesis section, it seems reasonable to suggest
that this tension was an ongoing issue for ancient Israel. Rather than
arising during a particular postexilic crisis, it seems better explained as an
integral and longstanding part of the community's self-reflection, although
it may have become a more self-conscious reflection over time. It may be
the case that the particular psalms that Albert/ alludes to are late productions, but if so, they are only building on a foundation of testimony and
countertestimony that seems to have been a part of Israel's earliest cultic
life.52 The psalms that Albertz cites expect YHWH to act the part of just
judge and executioner, even in the midst of evidence to the contrary.
Dialogic didactic laments that show no obvious signs of late wisdom
influence expect the same.
The Deuteronomistic theology of retribution that became dominant and
exercised such sway over much of biblical literature, and apparently the
worldview of Israelites, sets people up for disappointment, while at the
same time, so long as it can maintain leverage, is a useful tool for controlling social chaos. As P.D. Miller has noted, Deuteronomy uses motivation
clauses to get the people to do what is right, 'for I the Lord your God am a
jealous God'; 'and the Lord will not acquit anyone who misuses his
name'; 'that your days may be long in the land'. For YHWH's part he will
be available when called upon: 'For what other great nation has a god so
near to it as the Lord our God is whenever we call to him?' (Deut. 4.7).53
Lament psalms also rely on a rhetoric of persuasion, but the primary goal
52. Perhaps we are witnessing a development that Albertz himself alludes to. He
posits that originally God's protection was rooted in creation theology, not conditioned
on obedience per se. But with the advent of the Deuteronomistic agenda in biblical
literature, God's blessing becomes dependent on observance of the laws. Perhaps the
tension existing in complaint psalms between the supplicant and the DV, in which the
supplicant assumes no blame and requests justice, reflects this earlier dynamic. As this
Deuteronomistic influence increased, in what was probably a move to maintain a
logical theological system, penitential psalms begin to take precedence over complaint.
Psalm 1 sets this tone, which only adds to the overall tension of the Psalter, wherein
the psalms that don't accept the retribution notion seem more strident in their
complaintthe DVs seem to reflect the move to maintain coherence between these
complaint psalms and the overall Deuteronomistic shift. H.G. Reventlow, Gebet im
Alien Testament (Stuttgart: W. Kolhammer, 1986), pp. 256-86, notes the chronological
movement the lament psalms made away from complaint.
53. P.D. Miller, 'Deuteronomy and Psalms: Evoking a Biblical Conversation', JBL
118 (1999), pp. 3-18, esp. pp. 8-9.
143
54. Brueggemann, Theology of the Old Testament, p. 473, contends that although
YHWH is completely capable of acting in transformative ways, his doing so often
depends on the 'triggering power' of the human agent.
55. Brueggemann, Theology of the Old Testament, p. 5.
56. What Brueggemann calls 'counter-testimony' Miller calls a 'counter-voice'.
57. Miller, 'Deuteronomy and Psalms', p. 8.
58. The next chapter will discuss the basic mechanics of this operation in terms of
ritual theory.
144
present, and just deity'YHWH guards'; 'God hears'; 'with YHWH there
is loyalty'overseeing human affairs. Conversely, in many psalms of
lament we confront a countervoice that casts doubt on the authoritative
position'When I call answer me, God'; 'Help, YHWH!'; 'Lord, hear my
voice'making it clear that YHWH's presence is not a given. In the
course of these psalms, the tension is either resolved, as when the supplicant turns to thanksgiving or praise (e.g. Pss. 4; 7; 28), or it is left hanging
as when the supplicant closes her prayer by reiterating her petition or
complaint (e.g. Pss. 9; 25).59 Given the fact that so many of the psalms fall
somewhere between complete resolution and ambiguous irresolution, it is
unclear whether these two poles signify any meaningful difference. The
fact that the two voices are brought together in dialogue at all seems most
significant. The enduring power of lament psalms in Israel's theological
discourse surely has to do with the people's impulse to let these two
worldviews stand side by side. Providing a venue in which to vent frustration and fear, but making sure it is heard in connection with standard
theological testimony, is an ingenious way of maintaining a society's
theological balance through the tricky tight-rope walks one is forced to
make in a naturally and politically volatile atmosphere. Cynicism (such as
is heard in Ecclesiastes) untempered by such stabilizing notions as the
doctrine of retribution leads to despair which in turn leads to social chaos.
Likewise, the belief in simple causality blindly accepted can eventually
result in a complete breakdown of faith, also finally leading to despair.
The psalmists have provided a psychologically astute, emotionally
sensitive, theological discourse that has resonated through centuries of
individual experience.
A doctrine of retribution is largely absent from the interjections in
Psalms 25,27,102 and 130. These depart significantly in their metaphoric
declaration from those that utilize 'images of governance'. The DVs in
these psalms lack metaphoric specificity. (Nor do the images assigned to
the supplicant's voice suggest a specific metaphor that would fit under
governing images.) Only the interjection in Psalm 25 uses terminology
that suggests any type of particularity.
The interjections in Psalms 27, 102 and 130 do not fit well into any
precise theological categories. YHWH as 'savior', in a general sense, best
reflects the content. The refrain in Psalm 27.14 in particular gives us very
little to go on. The assumption is that of YHWH as a generic savior figure.
59. In many of the psalms it is difficult to make this determination because they
end with the DV, and the last word heard from the supplicant is ambiguous.
145
The DV in Psalm 102 on the other hand, contains significantly more content, but provides little more that specifies the type of savior YHWH is.
YHWH rebuilds Zion, hears prayers, and releases prisoners, a rather
disconnected series of activities that are best captured by the basic terms
'savior' or 'redeemer'.60 Likewise Psalm 130:
Hope, Israel, for YHWH,
for with YHWH there is loyalty
and with Him is great redemption.
He will redeem Israel from all its iniquities (130.7-8).
Echoes of Deuteronomic notions of ethical cause and effect are in evidence here. Still, what separates this psalm from the psalms that were
treated under 'images of governance' is the picture of YHWH that is
evoked as well as the nature of the retribution depicted. Because the requital is expressed in positive terms only, YHWH's judge- or executioner60. These reflections may fit under Brueggemann's category of YHWH as the god
who 'delivers', except that Brueggemann seems mostly to be referring to Israel's
deliverance out of Egypt as remembered in Exodus and Deuteronomy (Brueggemann,
Theology of the Old Testament, pp. 173-76). The difficulty is that he seems only
interested in YHWH's saving activity as exerted for Israel as a community. No
mention is made of delivering or redeeming from individual sin, for example, the
desire for which is expressed in Ps. 130. Still, a few of the verbs he discusses in this
section are in use in Pss. 27 (BET), and 130 (THS).
146
like qualities are mitigated. Goodness will earn its reward, but no mention
is made of the fate of the wicked. This metaphoric testimony is similar to
Brueggemann's depiction of Israel's verbal discourse, which recounts
stories of YHWH's activity as 'one who leads'.61 While this notion of
leading often leans in the direction of bold, high-risk leadership, as when
YHWH led Israel out of Egypt, often 'the imagery bespeaks tenderness,
gentleness, and attentiveness', as it does here:
Good and upright is YHWH,
therefore He guides sinners in the way.
He leads the humble in judgment;
He teaches the humble His way.
All the paths of YHWH are steadfast truthfulness
for those who keep the decrees of His covenant (25.8-10).
147
The remaining psalms, 27, 102 and 130 fall outside of the retribution
model entirely, although there are basic similarities. As with the other
psalms, there is some expectation of response on the part of the deity, but
it does not seem to be predicated on contractual expectations per se. In
other words, as with Psalm 25, YHWH's mercy, rather than justice, is
evoked by the supplicant and promised by the DV:
Surely you will arise and take pity on Zion,
for it is time to show her compassion.
YHWH will rebuild Zion (102.14a, 17a).
Hear my voice, YHWH, when I cry;
show me compassion and answer me.
Wait for YHWH;
Be courageous and let your heart be strong;
Wait for YHWH(27..7,14).
If you keep account of sins, Yah,
my lord, who could stand?
Hope, Israel, for YHWH,
for with YHWH there is loyalty,
and with Him is great redemption (130.3, 7).
Although Psalm 102 may be alluding to the fall of Jerusalem and subsequent exile, which came to be interpreted in the light of the doctrine of
retribution, within the boundaries of the psalm itself, such language is
lacking. In fact, these psalms seem to have little interest in the issue of
retribution. Accordingly, the psalmist in Psalm 130 contradicts the basic
tenets of retributionshe asks YHWH to ignore wrongdoing and forgive.
Mercy, not justice; clemency, not requital are the divine qualities being
invoked in these examples. In Psalms 27 and 102, compassion (Dm) and
graciousness (pU) are expressly requested.
Overall, dialogic lament psalms posit an ethical worldview in which a
just deity presides over the universe as judge, and sometimes as enforcer
of those judgments. While this basic assumption lies at the heart of both
the supplicant's discourse and the DV, both attest to different experiences
of this metaphoric representation of YHWH. Brueggemann's delineations
of Israel's theology into the categories of testimony and countertestimony
serve as a useful heuristic blueprint for understanding the function of the
differing voices within these psalms. Israel's normative testimony asserts
148
64. Brueggemann, Theology of the Old Testament, pp. 376, 471. Brueggemann
rightly notes that Israel's tradition of complaint as rehearsed in complaint psalms is not
an act of unfaith, but an act that demands justice on account of faith.
65. Brueggemann, Theology of the Old Testament, p. 74.
Chapters
SOCIO-RITETORICAL CONTEXT
150
Gunkel seemed to hold the same view of cult, but since it seemed
unlikely to him that the individual laments (or thanksgivings), with their
personal, emotive language, could have anything at all to do, in their
extant form, with the temple and the sacrificial cult, he chose to read them
as non-cultic.5 Instead, he believed they emanated from private pious
2. I was greatly assisted in hammering out these parameters through conversations
with Erhard Gerstenberger and Martin Buss. Although, in the end, I disagree with them
on a few minor matters, they have largely shaped my thinking in this area.
3. Mowinckel, Israel's Worship, II, p. 11.
4. Mowinckel, Israel's Worship, II, p. 19.
5. Gunkel and Begrich, An Introduction to the Psalms, p. 125. Though the connection between individual laments and sacrifice has been severed in extant examples,
Gunkel believed, like Mowinckel, that in their original form this connection existed.
5. Socio-rhetorical Context
151
152
allows Buss to loosen the traditional connection made between cult and
temple, or state, ritual. Cultic 'ritual goes on not merely at the great festivals but throughout the year (perhaps every day) at the sanctuaries'.9 Ceremonies that could be considered cultic might also take place at home,
regularly or at times of crisis. Furthermore, cult carried out on a family
level doesn't prevent the possible involvement of religious functionaries.
A sharp dividing line simply cannot be drawn between private and public
cult, as Van der Toorn has recently confirmed for Mesopotamian religious
practice.10 Even private cultic activity draws on the symbolic universe of
the society in question. Many events that are experienced on an individual
level are significant for the community as a whole. In this vein, Buss mentions the corporate significance of an act as private as circumcision. A
more apt example in terms of this study is the connection he draws
between lament psalms and private cult. Those too sick to come to the
temple to make their plea to YHWH would still have drawn from the
corpus of existing laments as part of a healing ritual. In this way the
psalms 'are neither tied to the great festivals nor free from the poetic
process of the professional singer or composer'.11
It seems that, for Gunkel and Mowinckel, the real distinction is between
'official' religion (i.e. national and temple-centered) and unofficial religion
(i.e. a type of 'folk' religion). They probably should not have used the
term 'cult' at all. If we accept a broader definition of cult, we can allow
that many psalms truly dealt with individual concerns and at the same time
involved cultic rituals.
Using traditional form-critical tools, in addition to sociological understandings of ancient societies, Gerstenberger is a firm proponent of cultic
interpretations of the Psalter, but is free from Gunkel's and Mowinckel's
myopic notion of cult.12 Although he recognizes that the psalms have
undergone many mutations for use in ever-changing contexts, understanding their cultic use should be the primary hermeneutical task of interpreters.
According to Gerstenberger, the very reason the psalms were collected in
the first place was liturgical. As the population was mostly illiterate, the
most logical reason for putting together a written collection would have
9. Buss, 'Meaning', p. 319.
10. Van der Toorn, Family Religion, pp. 94-95.
11. Buss,'Meaning", p. 321.
12. The following review is drawn mostly from Gerstenberger, Psalms, introduction and 1. See also his Der bittende Mensch (WMANT, 51; Neukirchen-Vluyn:
Neukirchener Verlag, 1980).
5. Socio-rhetorical Context
153
154
Thus, family religion is not dependent on the temple cultus. In Gerstenberger's view, the official cult is actually derivative, having borrowed its
rites from the practices of the people who eventually came together to
create a state.15 Gerstenberger applies this understanding of small-scale
ritual to individual psalms and concludes that many have their origin in
family services, usually conducted ad hoc, but employing traditional rites
and prayers. For instance, when a person fell ill, the family members
would perform a ritual, probably in the home or a small, local sanctuary,
and facilitated most likely by a lesser cultic functionary. If the sick family
member recovered, the family arranged a thanksgiving ceremony (zebah
hattoda).16 After the establishment of an official religion, the prayers that
accompanied these rituals would have made their way into the temple cult
and eventually would have been written down.
While I concur with Buss's and Gerstenberger's more inclusive understanding of cult, I do not agree that cult includes private home rituals that
had no concrete connection (e.g. the use of an officially produced or
sanctioned genre to structure the event) to official or 'state' ritual practice.17 In the same way that I cannot designate private prayer (which is too
susceptible to innovation and ritual fluidity) as a cultic activity per se, I
cannot so designate other mostly private religious practices. I am drawing
a distinction between 'pre-state' family religion and 'cult' (which includes
family and state rituals evincing some kind of symbolic and pragmatic
connection to one another). Private rituals, on the other hand, which
utilized sanctioned forms and rituals (e.g. lament genres and their
accompanying rituals), involved a community of some sort, and perhaps
14. Albertz, History, p. 95.
15. But he acknowledges that personal religion probably does show signs of state
influence later when the two realms were regularly impacting one another.
16. Gerstenberger, Psalms, p. 101. H. Avalos, Illness and Health Care in the
Ancient Near East: The Role of the Temple in Greece, Mesopotamia and Israel (HSM;
Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1995), concludes that eventually the temple came to serve only
a thanksgiving purpose.
17. See Buss, Biblical Form Criticism, pp. 383-86, for a useful and concise
construal of this complex issue.
5. Socio-rhetorical Context
155
18. Brueggemann, Theology of the Old Testament, p. 661, also takes this position,
believing that even the most private ritual activity probably involved officially
sanctioned rituals and genres.
19. Van der Toorn, Family Religion, p. 94, states, 'Although it can be plausibly
argued that personal religion in the modern sense of the word did not exist in early
Mesopotamia, individuals were personally involved in the religion of the community.
They constructed their personal identity in large measure upon the beliefs and values of
that religion. Family religion provided, in addition to a corporate identity, the elements
of an individual identity by offering the Babylonian a religious interpretation of
biographical data and by holding out a certain code of behaviour. One might refer to
these facets of family religion in traditional terms as its theology and its ethics:
Babylonian family religion was indeed sustained by certain beliefs and supposed to
validate certain moral values. Rooted in the milieu of the family, these beliefs and
values provided meaning and orientation for the individual and allowed him to
conceptualize a personal identity'.
156
5. Socio-rhetorical Context
157
158
from authorial heights. Such characters are rich with potential, and their
beingness never seems predetermined.
Heteroglottic languages may be characterized by dialect, economic
position, ideology, profession, etc.27 This can also include different genres,
such as a newspaper, letter, song, etc. Or, heteroglossia can include
different national languages within the same culture.28 When these categories interact in a text the result is dialogism: 'They all know of each
other's existence, are changed by and react to each other.'29 This notion of
'alterity' is key to Bakhtin's usage of the term dialogic. For example,
dialogue itself, as rendered in a novel, is not necessarily dialogic unless
the way the utterances interact causes a transformation in the discourses.
The two must anticipate and respond to one another's speech, not merely
transmit. On the meta-level, dialogue must not merely represent the
author's singular point of view on a subject, but must be open to influence
and change. Hermeneutically, meaning must be sought for not in the
words of each discourse, but in the place where the two clash and transfigure one another. It is analysis of exactly this disordered linguistic
territory that formalists have tended to shy away from. Where formalists
sought to restore order in places where chaos had impinged, Bakhtin
understood chaos as a natural state and systematization as an imposition.
In terms of genre, for example, Holquist articulates a frequent jab Bakhtin
aimed at the formalist agenda, while conceding the organizational necessity
of form:
The fixative power of such centripetal forces is what enables sense to be
made out of the flux of experience. But the authority that enables such fixity
is not real, or at least not real in the same way that variety, change, all those
heteronomous effects which Bakhtin labels centrifugal forces, are real.
They are given, whereas systematic claims to stability never exist as a
given; their existence must always be made up, conceived.30
27. Feminist scholars have pointed out Bakhtin's omission of gender as a culturally
significant aspect of a heteroglottic society. On this, seeVice, Introducing Bakhtin, pp.
3-4, for a brief discussion of the issues. Vice herself tries to introduce gender into her
explication of Bakhtin's basic categories.
28. M.M. Bakhtin, 'Discourse in the Novel', in M. Holquist (ed.), The Dialogic
Imagination (UTPSS, 1; Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 1981), pp. 259-422,
esp. p. 275.
29. Vice, Introducing Bakhtin,pp. 19, 52. See also Bakhtin, 'Speech Genres', pp.
69, 95, and 'Discourse', p. 280.
30. Holquist, Dialogism, p. 147.
5. Socio-rhetorical Context
159
As we will see, the relationship between the DV and the supplicant can be
characterized in this way. When the DV is viewed as a 'prestige language'
(its theological normativity suggests such), the supplicant is placed in a
position of subverting and negotiating the DV's power. It is my contention
that there is an uneven distribution of power between the voices in
dialogic psalms, and the intention of the DV is at the controlling end of
that power differential. This understanding has been implicit in the work
of most scholars who offer theological interpretations of lament psalms
that favor the position represented in this study by the DV. One way of
looking at this (though not at all the way it has been construed by the
31. Of course, for Bakhtin, dialogic operations did more than merely chronicle a
given state, it was in them as well that one should seek to understand the metamorphoses that languages historically undergo. Synchronic analyses are inadequate
gauges of the way in which languages are constantly being modified in accord with
changing environments.
32. Bakhtin, 'Discourse', p. 300.
33. Vice, Introducing Bakhtin, p. 49. See also; Bakhtin, 'Discourse', pp. 273,293.
34. A. White, 'Bakhtin, Sociolinguistics, Deconstruction', in Carnival, Hysteria
and Writing: Collected Essays and an Autobiography (Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 1994), pp. 123-46, esp. p. 137.
160
scholars just referred to), is to note that, while the supplicant may give a
nod (at the least) to the DV's position (through praise, confidence, etc.),
the DV never acknowledges the validity of the supplicant's articulated
experience. The supplicant's alternative, marginalized viewpoint is given,
in the context of a lament genre, a chance to be heard, but to be heard
fully, its message must be brought into relief. Dialogic criticism, with its
attention to individual voices (and their interaction, of course), is helpful
in this pursuit. In the previous chapter, we discussed in some detail the
content of the DV's discourse in theological terms; this chapter is more
concerned with how that theology is deployed in ways that turn out to act
as controlling mechanisms on the utterance as a whole (i.e. the entire
psalm), and what generalizations might be derived about Israel's social
dynamics from those mechanisms.
At the other end of the dialogic spectrum we find monoglottic languages
(or what Bakhtin also called 'unitary language'), that is, languages in
which only one voice is present, or in which the 'weaker' languages are so
subsumed or oppressed they have no social significance.35 These may be
understood in terms of White's 'prestige languages', where the sheer
power of their social position silences other languages. They can also exist
in an ideologically isolated universe (which in a modern western context is
hard to imagine), perhaps as in the case of a cult group with no significant
external contact. Literarily speaking, this phenomenon is represented by
single-voiced authoritative texts. Although it is hard to tell from his scant
comments, it seems Bakhtin considered the Bible the authoritative text,
and as lacking any affinity with novelistic discourse.36 Although he accepted that biblical texts could be employed as one voice within a broader
dialogic discourse, he seemed to hear the Bible's voice as permitting no
challenge to its worldview.37 It was for him a closed, homogeneous discursive world (which is true insofar as the biblical message is filtered only
through the structures of orthodoxy). Bakhtin's views of the Bible
apparently developed from his Russian Orthodox backgroundtook shape
in a different paradigmatic universe from that in which twentieth and
twenty-first century (western) biblical scholars operate.38
35. Bakhtin, 'Discourse', p. 368.
36. Green, Mikhail Bakhtin, p. 15.
37. Green, Mikhail Bakhtin, p. 15. Against this, although it is uncertain to which
texts he is referring, Bakhtin commented that the New Testament is essentially dialogic.
38. Green is not the only biblical scholar who disagrees with Bakhtin in this regard;
it does not need to be said that many scholars over the past two decades have treated
5. Socio-rhetorical Context
161
That aside, his observation that some languages are single-voiced and
possess an unbreachable supremacy is useful in considering the characteristics of the contentious voices delineated in Chapter 3 of this study. It
suggests that the conflict manifested within dialogically inflected psalms
may be a result of a clash between more and less powerfulnot just
ideologically differentdiscourses, and that the more powerful may be so
dominant (i.e. authoritarian and unyieldingly rigid in their conceptual
proclamations) that the text supports a purely monologic reading. And
certainly, a truthful dialogic reading of lament psalms should reveal that
the worldview of the DV (in support of God's irrefutable justice) does set
the fundamental tone for the psalms in question. Even in a context that
permits challenging voices to air (as does the lament genre), monoglossia
will try to reassert itself;39 its very nature is to subsume and systematize
opposition and disorder, Bakhtin describes this impulse as 'centripetal',
whereas he calls the push toward linguistic diversity 'centrifugal'.40 In
spite of Bakhtin's somewhat myopic view of the Bible as espousing a
monoglottic discourse, lament psalms, more than most (any?) other biblical genres, should be celebrated for articulating theological paradoxes,
rather than a monolithic point of view. Still, one might wish, in terms of
modern democratic impulses, that the DV didn't overwhelm the supplicant's voice as much as it does. Many scholars have bought into the centripetal tendencies of lament psalms and interpreted them as theologically
monoglot. For example, in a recent commentary, K. Schaefer says the
following in his introduction: 'The connection between misfortune and
guilt is a constant in the psalms...'41 A close reading reveals very little
the Bible 'novelistically', employing methods largely developed in the field of literary
criticism. Among those specifically employing Bakhtim'an strategies are R. Polzin,
Moses and the Deuteronomist: A Literary Study of the Deuteronomic History (New
York: Seabury Press, 1980), and Samuel and the Deuteronomist (San Francisco:
Harper & Row, 1989); C. Newsom, 'Bakhtin, the Bible and Dialogic Truth', JR 76.2
(1996), pp. 290-306, and 'Response to N.K. Gottwald, Social Class and Ideology in
Isaiah 40-55', Semeia 59 (1992), pp. 73-78; K.M. Craig Jr, Reading Esther: A Casefor
the Literary Carnivalesque (LCB1; Louisville, KY: Westminster/John Knox Press,
1995), and A Poetics of Jonah: Art in the Service of Theology(Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1993); Green, Mikhail Bakhtin; W. Reed, Dialogues of
the Word: The Bible as Literature According to Bakhtin (Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 1993).
39. White,'Bakhtin', p. 150.
40. Bakhtin, 'Discourse', pp. 272-73.
41. Gerstenberger, Psalms, p. xxxvii. Otherwise, Schaefer shows quite a bit of
sensitivity to the rhetorical implications of voicing changes.
162
5. Socio-rhetorical Context
163
Bakhtin is careful not to draw a direct link between the way heteroglossia is represented in texts by a given author (in this case, Dostoevsky)
and that author's worldview in the general sense; it is his/her artistic
perception of reality. Still, Bakhtin believed that there is a link between
worldview as artistically represented and an author's abstract worldview.
In sociological terms, heteroglossia 'represents the co-existence of...
contradictions between.. .different socio-ideological groups',45 and as this
struggle gets artistically represented in dialogically alive texts, we can
infer its presence.46 This historical reality cannot of course be pinned down
with any detailed certainty, but a broad ideological map, as well as a
schematic of hierarchical relations, can be sketched.
Ritual theorists can serve to undergird this endeavor, especially those
associated with the functionalist school. The oft-noted limitations of this
viewpoint will be taken into consideration, but it is only their basic observations about ritual and its relationship to society that interest us, and these
continue to be employed in considerations of ritual practice.47 Beginning
with Durkheim, many anthropologists and religious studies specialists
developed theories that proposed that ritual activities sometimes reflect
social relationships and help reinforce social cohesion by reconstituting (or
reframing) hierarchical boundaries (e.g. van Gennep), and sometimes by
cathartically playing out conflicts only to resolve them (e.g. Gluckman).
As will be shown, the psalms in question appear to function in both ways.
Generically, they employ status quo forms through which to engage and
44. Holquist, Dialogism, p. 107; see also Vice, Introducing Bakhtin, p. 111.
45. Bakhtin, 'Discourse', p. 291.
46. Bakhtin, Problems, p. 29.
47. In general terms, one has to be cautious not to be overly reductionistic in the
way in which biblical discourse and social relations are correlated. The relationship is
extremely complex and the data scant; conclusions can be drawn in only the broadest
possible strokes.
164
The 'practice'49 of ritual, whether verbal or corporeal, the very embodiedness of it, constructs social relationships as well as the symbolic cultural
universe in which the participants live.50 C. Geertz was one of the first
anthropologists to call attention to this dynamic. As Bell summarizes his
position: 'The symbols of religious beliefs and the symbolic activities of
religious ritual constitute a system of values that acts as both "a model of
the way things actually are and "a model for" how they should be.'51
Along these lines, we may view the psalms as involved in constructive
not merely reflectiveendeavors, and in some way produced for such
constructive purposes, even if not entirely consciously:
In religious belief and practice a group's ethos is rendered intellectually
reasonable by being shown to represent a way of life ideally adapted to the
actual state of affairs the world view describes, while the world view is
rendered emotionally convincing by being presented as an image of an
actual state of affairs peculiarly well-arranged to accommodate such a way
48. E.B. Anderson, 'Practicing Ourselves: Liturgical Catechesis as a Practice of the
Theonomous Self (PhD dissertation, Emory University, 1997), p. 130.
49. 'A practice is a pattern of meaning and action that is both culturally constructed
and individually instantiated'. See R. Chopp, Saving Work (Louisville, KY: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1995), p. 15.
50. I am very indebted to C. Bell's work in this area. Ritual Theory, Ritual Practice
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992) lays out her theories as a practice theorist;
and Ritual: Perspectives and Dimensions (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997) is
an overview of the field of ritual studies.
51. Bell, Perspectives, pp. 66. Find C. Geertz's full discussion of this famous
formulation in The Interpretation of Cultures (New York: Basic Books, 1973), pp. 87125.
5. Socio-rhetorical Context
165
166
To what degree multi-voiced lament psalms should be read as authoritarian and dogmatic ('language of the gods') will be discussed shortly; for
the time being we need to reconcile Bakhtin's view of poetry as monologic and the assertion being made here that at least some psalms can be
interpreted in light of his assertions about dialogic literature.
To judge from the several studies that have been done on poetry
utilizing Bakthin's methods (perhaps 'approaches' is a more accurate
5. Socio-rhetorical Context
167
term), Bakhtin may simply have been wrong.57 Vice notes that Bakhtin
can in fact be very helpful when read in reference to poetry.58 In his
understanding of the one-to-one correspondence between the poet's language and self, she suggests that Bakhtin 'seems to be making the
common error of reading a poet's lyric persona biographically'.59 Or, in
T. Todorov's words, Bakhtin seems to suggest that 'the poem is an
uttering act, while the novel represents one'.60 Another explanation for
Bakhtin's hostility to lyric poetry proposes that his aversion arises not out
of the particulars of the genre itself, but rather in its reception as a superior
form by classical stylistics.61 This aside, Bakhtin himself sometimes cites
poetic works to make his points about dialogism,62 and furthermore
indicates that, once we start thinking in dialogic terms, 'we will discern
features of lyric poems previously overlooked', a truism to which this
study attests.63 Still, even where Bakhtin acquiesces to the notion that
heteroglossia can enter the lyric genres, it is not 'on the same level as the
"real language of the work" '.64 As Bakhtin explains:
This does not mean, of course, that heteroglossia or even a foreign language
is completely shut out of a poetic work... [Hleteroglossia (other socio-ideological languages) can be introduced into purely poetic genres, primarily in
the speeches of characters. But in such a context it is objective. It appears,
in essence, as a thing, it does not lie on the same plane with the real
language of the work: it is the depicted gesture of one of the characters and
does not appear as an aspect of the word doing the depicting.65
In other words, dialogism may be present in poems, but only in its most
basic form, such as the presence of a quoted voice in a single utterance.
The introduction of a second voice in this case is still in the service of
the poet's unitary language; it serves to express her and only her point
of view:
57. As was so bluntly stated to me by B. Green (email correspondence, 1999). See
Vice, Introducing Bakhtin, pp. 74-75, for allusions to some poetic studies utilizing
Bakhtinian insights.
58. Vice, Introducing Bakhtin, p. 74.
59. Vice, Introducing Bakhtin, p. 75.
60. T. Todorov, Mikhail Bakhtin: The Dialogical Principle (THL, 13; Minneapolis:
University of Minneapolis Press, 1984), p. 65.
61. Vice, Introducing Bakhtin, p. 76.
62. Vice, Introducing Bakhtin, p. 76.
63. Morson and Emerson, Creation of a Prosaics, p. 20.
64. Vice, Introducing Bakhtin, p. 77.
65. Bakhtin, 'Discourse', pp. 286-87.
168
Many psalms function in exactly this way. For example, many laments
quote the enemy, but only in the service of making their own theological
claim. For many reasons, multi-voiced lament psalms should probably be
understood as a crude form of dialogic discourse, but Bakhtin's argument
may or may not be one of the reasons. On the one hand, if the laments are
read as two distinct voices, placed side by side, as in dramatic presentations or as the assimilation of a direct quote into one person's speech (such
as we see in Psalms in which the enemies words are presented as direct
quotes: 40.15; 41.5, 8; 71.11, etc.), then there does seem to be some
justification for assigning them a low position on the dialogic yardstick.67
But they just as easily can be read as the unmarked incorporation of one
voice into the discourse of another, fully integrated, but wholly individual
from an ideological standpoint. In one instance, a psalm might be read as
the discourse of the supplicant into which the discourse of the DV (or
official discourse) is interjected, alien but integral. In another instance, a
psalm might be understood as official discourse (in terms of its manifestation as an official genre) into which a supplicatory element is introduced,
again alien but integral to the integrity of the utterance. As a matter of fact,
Bakhtin's technique of reading dialogically helps to resolve a quandary
intrinsic to this study: whether to read the 'voices' in the given psalms as
actual or rhetorical. In Bakhtinian terms, these categories rather miss the
mark. What matters is the 'representation' of the other within a single
utterance (which in this case is a complete psalm). Whether we read the
psalm as one voice inserted into another's (e.g. the DV incorporated into
the supplicant's primary discourse), or two voices inserted into the generic
5. Socio-rhetorical Context
169
utterance of a lament psalm may not be important. In either case, there are
psalms that are not immune to 'the presence of two voices within an
utterance, without compositional markings', as Bakhtin implies for poetry
in general.68 Present in these psalms are multiple languages, even if not
multiple speakers. The extent to which actual speakers were at one time
responsible for the different voices will be explored briefly in the last
chapter. Whatever the degree of dialogic interaction assigned to these
psalms, there is little doubt that, in spite of their lyric form, they are
genuinely dialogical, in fact the very existence of 'complaint' alongside
'words of confidence' or 'recitation of saving deeds' in the lament genre
predetermines to some extent a dialogic reading.
Another argument against reading the psalms as a sophisticated example
of Bakhtinian dialogism is exemplified in the history of scholarship on the
Psalter. Even on the most basic level, dialogism as dialogue, the presence
of more than one voice in any psalm has rarely been acknowledged. Even
W. Reed, who imposes a Bakhtinian reading of genre onto the Bible, and
who furthermore describes wisdom literature as the most dialogic of all
biblical genres, broadly speaking, makes a telling statement in this regard.
For him, all psalms 'express the first-person view of a human individual'
addressing God.69 And furthermore, this 'single human speaker carries the
discourse through to the end, even though his stance and mood may
change considerably in the course of the utterance.' What Reed and many
other scholars seem to be succumbing to is the broad similarity of discursive style that is shared by supplicant and 'other', that and the fact that
as readers we are unaccustomed to hearing multiple voices in a single
utterance, unless grammatically marked somehow.70 In addition, the differing viewpoint of the supplicant is often framed in a hidden, rather than
explicit complaint. Bakhtin's auditory sensitivity is helpful here. The shift,
sometimes radical, in 'stance' and 'mood' does not naturally signify to us
a shift in voice, but Bakhtin's idea that discourse, even a single utterance,
is inherently made up of numerous social voices widens our perspective.
Having said that, there is no question that it is hard to distinguish between
voices in dialogic psalms because of their comparable style (marked by
similarities in vocabulary and grammatical structure). There is no sign
68. Vice, Introducing Bakhtin, p. 77.
69. Reed, Dialogues, p. 63.
70. In actuality, the lack of grammatical markers indicating some kind of inserted
discourse enhances the sense of dialogicalitythese discourses are then to be read
wholly in relation to one another rather than as merely juxtaposed.
170
5. Socio-rhetorical Context
171
It is, however, still the case that genre practices a certain degree of
hegemony over an utterance. Most genres are, by definition, authoritarian
(even when not monologic) linguistic entities, particularly literary and
religious genres.78 In fact, it is the genres of ritual that create and maintain
a type of religious and socio-political authority known as 'traditional
authority', according to Bloch.79 There are greater and lesser degrees of
authoritarianismthe dialogic novel being less tyrannical than the lyric
poem, for examplebut all in all the very notion of genre indicates structure, systemization and boundaries. In this sense, the fact that psalmic
prayer is formulated in terms of a cultic (read 'officially sanctioned') and
76. Morson and Emerson, Creation of a Prosaics, p. 273.
77. Holquist, Dialogism, pp. 65-66.
78. As Professor Buss pointed out to me, not all genres are intrinsically authoritarian, such as the universal genres of 'greeting', 'request', etc.
79. Bloch, 'Symbols', p. 71.
172
poetic genre limits the freedom its description as dialogic might otherwise
suggest. There are two voices operating, but they are confined by their
genre in terms of how freely they can behave. As will be shown, the
lament genre has a specific ideological agenda, and all voices contained
within it are compelled, more or less successfully to be at its service. It is
this formal imposition in combination with the shared discursive style of
the two voices that, in my estimation, lures commentators to hear only one
stance, that (ironically enough) of the DV. The primary voice may be
identified as the supplicant, but the overall theological viewpoint is dictated by the DV. Hence, you never hear from scholars a focus on that
aspect of the lament psalm that suggests that YHWH is unreliable, or unfair. Not that a focus on that aspect to the exclusion of the other is preferable, but the viewpoint of the supplicant can certainly be heard better than
has often been practiced in modern theology.
In other words, even though these psalms are designated by the term
'lament' or 'complaint', they are however generally interpreted in terms of
their positive theological position (hope, faith, trust, etc.), which overwhelms and subsumes the voice of protest. This has much to do with the
form itselfthe way in which the protests are generally presented grammatically in the first and second person makes the supplicant's speech
more personal, subjective, less authoritative. Conversely, the DV's viewpoint is expressed almost exclusively in the third person, lending it an air
of objectivity and prestige. As Morson and Emerson report about highly
authoritative utterances (of which they cite Scripture as an example),
'There [is] a tendency to 'depersonalize' and 'disembody' the authoritative
figure's speech, so that it is not perceived as merely one person's opinion.'80
Applying a Bakhtinian reading to these psalms can help mitigate the
effects of the generic straitjacket. Concentrating on individual voices
teases out the presence of an ideological countertradition as the weaker
voice is allowed a better hearing. This accords with the work of ritual
scholars who focus on 'performance' rather than function. Their emphasis
is on ritual as a medium for social change rather than merely static reflection.81 Construing of rituals as too highly structured and rigid (monologic)
necessarily overlooks the dialogic, and hence creative, dynamic that might
be involved in ritualized activity. As Brueggemann notes, along with the
likes of Victor Turner and other ritual specialists, ritualized public presentation (in the form of testimony for Brueggemann) shapes and constitutes
80. Morson and Emerson, Creation of a Prosaics, p. 164.
81. Bell, Perspectives, p. 73.
5. Socio-rhetorical Context
173
174
5. Socio-rhetorical Context
175
lends that faith an air of integrity.87 Just as YHWH does not need a house
in which to rest his head, he does not need rigid dogma to secure his
divinity. Israel's god is holy, 'other', an essence that is diminished when
theological speculation turned reified threatens to 'bring Him down to
earth'. Only in texts with polyphonic tendencies can we catch of glimpse
of the kind of truth Bakhtin saw as inherent in social reality, a messy and
open-ended kind of truth. To the extent that lament psalms are polyphonic,
each voice presents a viewpoint; orchestrated together they offer a verbal
image of the contentious social dialogue taking place outside the text.88
4. Psalms and their Socio-ideological Context
Bakhtin argued that only novelistic genres were capable of revealing the
'concrete social context of discourse'.89 But in his next breath he qualifies
this position:
Of course, even the poetic word is social, but poetic forms reflect lengthier
social processes, i.e., those tendencies in social life requiring centuries to
unfold. The novelistic word, however, registers with extreme subtlety the
tiniest shifts and oscillations of the social atmosphere...90
This provides a caveat to our study that is well worth heeding. Dialogic
psalms reflect in an aesthetic fashion only the broadest sociological contours. We can sift them for the tensions present in the fundamental ethos
and theology of ancient Israelite culture, but not for minute ideological
shifts in the social atmosphere. But then again matters of belief (theological impulses) are notoriously slow to change. After all, the tensions
(theodicy, doctrine of retribution, etc.) I have foregrounded in this study
remain to this day a part of theological discourse. Thus the sociological
observations made in this study will naturally echo the essential, rather
than particularized ideological categories that operated as a psycho-social
backdrop for many biblical texts, over a broad period of time.
To organize some of the more important points touched upon thus far,
there are three distinct possibilities for reading multi-voiced lament psalms
dialogically: (1) they may be read as two distinct voices within one utter87. A somewhat more negative corollary is the restriction placed by generic boundaries on the recital of experienceit doesn't take much pressing for experience to be
assessed as blasphemous.
88. Vice, Introducing Bakhtin, p. 113.
89. Bakhtin, 'Discourse', p. 300.
90. Bakhtin, 'Discourse', p. 300.
176
ance; (2) they may be read through the lens of the official genre in which
they are manifested; that, the supplicant's voice may be read as expressed
through the filter of the official point of view; and (3) the DV or 'official'
position may be read as refracted through the supplicant's experience and
expression. Any of these are workable as dialogic templates (and sometimes our discussion will of necessity blur the lines between them), but
number 3 is the most amenable to our purposes. Number 1 comes too close
to Bakhtin's understanding of drama, a discursive mode that to his mind
too much lacked the quality of representation, being rather simple
reportage, to qualify as dialogic. Besides, it assumes an equality between
the two voices that doesn't stand up to scrutiny. Number 2, while logically
possible, is too counter-intuitive given the typical understanding of prayer,
a category I wish to maintain in my reading. Number 3 has the advantage
over number 2 in upholding a common-sense reading of the supplicant as
the primary agent, and has the advantage over number 1 of encouraging a
reading that takes into account the power dynamics operating between the
two discourses. These distinctions have nothing to do with authoring or
'ownership'. They are simply made to set up my reading strategy. (Hence,
it does not follow that the supplicant has 'control' of the discourse, and thus
should be able to neutralize the DV's power.)
A primary criterion for reading voices as dialogicized is responsivity.
According to Bakhtin, in social discourse every utterance is shaped by the
answer it anticipates:
The word in living conversation is directly, blatantly, oriented toward a
future answer-word: it provokes an answer, anticipates it and structures
itself in the answer's direction. Forming itself in an atmosphere of the
already spoken, the word is at the same time determined by that which has
not yet been said but which is needed and in fact anticipated by the
answering word.91
91. Bakhtin, 'Discourse', p. 280, see also his Speech Genres, p. 95.
5. Socio~rhetorical Context
177
DV
The one who tests the thoughts and emotions is a just god (7.7-10).
But there is another, more significant, level of responsiveness that is suggested by Bakhtin's understanding of the concept, and that has to do with
the shaping influence utterances have on one another. In dialogic speech, a
speaker quite literally formulates her utterance according to the response
she expects, taking up a particular orientation toward the addressee. There
are two ways of conceiving of the dialogue partnership in the case of
dialogic lament psalms. As prayer, the line of communication ostensibly
flows from supplicant to God. In the rhetorical reality of the psalm,
though, we rarely hear God respond, rather a human voice, the DV, interjects. In fact, the intentions of God and the DV can be considered to be
largely in line (a unique exception to this notion would be the case of the
dialogue partners in the book of Job, where one of the main rhetorical
strategies was to align God with the voice of dissent, at least to some
extent, rather than the voices expressing normative testimony). Keeping in
mind throughout the following discussion that either addressee is possible
will help explicate the notion of responsivity.
Viewing the addressee as God leads to some interesting observations.
As has been mentioned previously, the rhetorical task of the supplicant is
to get God to hear and respond favorably to her request. Now we can
notice more specifically how the supplicant shapes her request in response
to God's response, and likewise the way in which the DV's discourse can
be understood as a function of the supplicant's request, rather than a
literally distinct voice. The supplicant incorporates the authoritarian voice
of the DV into her prayer as a way of anticipating God's response to her
complaint. The presence of the DV's discourse within the supplicant's
plea serves to temper the negative orientation of the supplicant and give
her 'case' a better chance of being attended to. (In this sense, the supplicant would hope to be spared the intimidating non-answer Job received to
his unmitigated complaint.)92
This is still different from reading the entire psalm (or utterance)
92. Job rebelled strongly against the monologic voice of authority (represented by
the friends), and in response was both rewarded and put in his place.
178
monologically. It rather pays attention to the way in which different discourses or ideologies interrelate to create meaning; and it better maintains
the integrity of the separate 'stances', especially that of the weaker, or
more subjective voice, the supplicant, which is threatened with being
consumed by the voice of objectivity.
In this reading the supplicant is ingesting and re-articulating the
normative theological testimony of her culture. She seems ever aware of
the DV's presence and its probable response to her protest. The backlash is
that the power of the DV's cultural status (which is reflected in the
pedagogical constitution of its discourse) cannot but diminish the passion
and intensity of the protest (consider how much more resounding the
protest of Psalm 88a psalm without any trace of the DV's point of
viewseems). But not to incorporate this voice would risk appearing
arrogant and the chance of going unheard. In these lament psalms, the
sufferer expresses her experience partly through the language of authority,93
one that does not really share her worldview, at least insofar as her
worldview is significantly shaped by the experiences of alienation and
discord she is expressing. While the presence of the DV mitigates the
force of complaint, in like manner the dialogic interaction of these two
voices has a tempering effect on the DV, although not to the extent the
more monolithic DV has on the supplicant's voice. These languages come
to 'interanimate' one another, and the expressions of both experience
(subjective) and dogma (objective) are altered in the process:
To the extent that this happens, it becomes more difficult to take for granted
the value system of a given language. Those values may still be felt to be
right and the language may still seem adequate to its topic, but not indisputably so, because they have been, however cautiously, disputed.94
5. Socio-rhetorical Context
179
theology.95 So, given the process of alterity and responsivity, who ultimately controls meaning in the complaint utterance? As the previous quote
from Morson and Emerson suggests, the DV's value system might still be
'felt to be right', but within a supplicatory utterance, it is no longer taken
for granted.
In the presence of the supplicant's discourse, the DV is unable to
articulate a monolithic position, try as it might, through the use of objective, hortatory language. Multi-voiced complaint psalms are particularly
apt biblical examples of Bakhtin's notion of 'unfinalizable' discourse
two voices (testimony and countertestimony) come together, interact, are
altered, but not merged; the 'dispute' is not resolved. Unfinalizability is
one of Bakhtin's key philosophical concepts:
Bakhtin advances the term unfinalizability as an all-purpose carrier of his
conviction that the world is not only a messy place, but is also an open
place... His paraphrase of one of Dostoevsky's ideas also expresses his
own: 'Nothing conclusive has yet taken place in the world, the ultimate
word of the world and about the world has not yet been spoken, the world is
open and free, everything is still in the future and will always be in the
future.'96
180
religious (and political) institutions? To start with, it would be a misrepresentation of the structure of Israelite society to treat the spheres of
religion and politics as completely separate entities. Given the information
available, it seems that, from the beginning of its history, the two shared
an intimate relationship. Perhaps even to characterize the connection as a
relationship puts more distance between them than actually existed. In preexilic times, the books of Samuel and Kings attest to religious leaders who
exercised considerable authority in the political arena, and kings who
presided at the temple in some capacity; and it appears to be the case that
at some point in the postexilic period religious leaders became the sole
native political authority.
It seems fairly clear that religious figures were responsible for preserving the biblical record that has been handed down to us. Logically then,
the record reflects their point of view. This is an oversimplification, of
course. We have no way of knowing who 'they' were with any precision,
and certainly 'they' were not a unified force who maintained a precise
ideological solidarity throughout several hundred years. On the one hand,
we can say what has often been said, that the biblical account reflects an
official or religiously elite point of view, a view, for example, that grants
no legitimacy to the practice of syncretism, which we are more and more
sure was an integral part of the lives of much of Israel's population.
'Official' in this case would constitute a compromise position between the
priestly and Deuteronomic traditions as hammered out in the formation of
the Hebrew Bible." Priestly in the intent of maintaining cosmic order as
conceived in the myth of creation recorded in Genesis (and alluded to in
many psalms, particularly hymns). The Deuteronomic agenda, on the other
hand, and its emphasis on Mosaic covenantal obedience have left its mark
throughout the Bible. The entire history from Deuteronomy to Kings is a
chronicle of disobedience and judgment. (Under this rubric, Brueggemann's observation that one of Israel's favorite metaphors for speaking
about YHWH is as judge makes sense.) As has been extensively discussed, the Deuteronomic agenda aligns with the dominant rhetoric of the
DV in a number of dialogic psalms. This is not to suggest a polar opposition in terms of power between the DV and the historical personage(s)
(which is indeterminable in any case) behind the supplicant's voice.
Rather it is to suggest a rhetorical dichotomy. While, it may be fairly safe
to say that the position espoused by the DV represents an 'elite' point of
99. See Brueggemann, Theology of the Old Testament, p. 590; also Albertz,
History, pp. 468, 481.
5. Socio-rhetorical Context
181
view, whether or not the supplicants in early Israel were in reality the poor
and afflicted (on a social level) is open to debate.
The Bible is better than most tendentious documents for chronicling at
least the echo of counter-traditions or testimonies (consider 1 Sam. 8's
invective against kingship). While it is open to registering complaints
against its human leadership, the Bible is less amenable to divergent
theological viewpoints (as the vast majority of prophetic denunciations
attests to). YHWH is Israel's supreme and sole ruler, just and powerful,
and even the kings themselves must toe the theological line or incur the
wrath of the guardians of the historical record. The belief in YHWH as
sole and just ruler clearly served the purposes of the power s-that-be. But to
the credit of the ancient redactors, the Bible refuses to shut out completely
a tradition of protest that was aimed at dogmatic portrayals of YHWH (as
attested to by the inclusion of such works as Ecclesiastes, Job and
Lamentations). With this in mind, a rather naive dichotomy can be set up
for heuristic purposes between the 'official', or dogmatic position, and a
tradition of 'countertestimony', harking back to Brueggemann's terminology. To conceive of 'counter' in this case as 'opposite' would be to
overstate the gap between it and the core testimony. Counter does not
include idolatrous proclamations, but simply statements about YHWH that
reject uncompromising attestations. The model that will be applied to the
lament psalms that is most helpful for understanding the dynamic between
these two positions is the one alluded to earlier (number 3) where a
countervoice expresses experience contrary to normative testimony, but
incorporated into this discourse is the official worldview.
It should help our analysis to have a peg on which to hang our
reflections about the nature of the official voice articulated in dialogic
psalms: it shares Deuteronomic concerns (content) and is cultic (form).
The broad connection between dialogic lament psalms and Deuteronomistic theology has already been remarked upon. And it needs to be
remembered that cultic does not pertain exclusively to temple activity, and
certainly not only to those events accompanied by sacrifice. In this case,
the highly formalized structure of the psalms in question (and all psalms)
points to their cultic connections. The DV therefore represents an official
discourse whereby deuteronomic concerns intersect with cultic practice.
The normative testimony of the DV holds power in dialogic lament
psalms by means of grammatical, generic, and thematic strategies: (1)
Grammatically, the shift from first and second person discourse to third
person has the effect of depersonalizing and objectifying the DV's
182
discourse. The result is an increase in rhetorical authority. These characteristics are hallmarks of what Bakhtin calls monologic languages, whose
uncompromising positions exert a powerful ideological influence over a
society. In the context of a lament psalm these characteristics exhibit a
pedagogical quality. The DV in this context acts as a corrective (often a
gentle, if firm, one) to the supplicant's experience of an unreliable deity.
The DV generally translates this experience into issues of mere doubt and
insecurities on the part of the supplicant, further subjectifying her
understanding of her experience.
SUP
DV
5. Socio-rhetorical Context
183
power relations among its constituent discourses, but the general poetic
style of the genre does so as well. As we have noted, Bakhtin held that
poetry does the job of cultural, national and political centralization of the
verbal-ideological world in the higher official socio-ideological levels'.101
This tendency toward centralization can be seen in the particular way the
lament psalms consistently structure their discourses. For example, any
suggestion of negative discourse about YHWH is always rendered in first
person speech:
Turn to me and show me compassion,
for I am desolate and afflicted (25.16).
Your face, YHWH, do I seek.
Do not hide your face from me;
do not thrust away your servant in anger (27.8b-9a).
To you, YHWH, I cry;
my rock, do not keep silence with me,
then I will become like those who go down to the pit (28.1).
184
complaint
DV (words of confidence)
praise or thanksgiving
separation
transition
incorporation
5. Socio-rhetorical Context
185
This study has focused primarily on the transition stage (what Turner later
called the 'liminal' stage), that stage represented in the psalm by the words
of encouragement and instruction offered by the DV, which can be
construed as the turning point in the psalms' 'mood' and 'stance'. From
complaint to thanksgiving, something transformational occurs. Scholars
have often posited a (usually) behind-the-scenes oracle for bringing the
supplicant out of 'the pit', but in its place might also be posited the
edifying words of the DV. For example, from Ps. 28.5-7:
DV
SUP
Blessed is YHWH,
for He has heard my request for mercy.
YHWH is my strength and my shield,
in him my heart trusted.
I was helped, and my heart will rejoice.
With my song, I will glorify him.
186
also be seen as providing pastoral comfort. At this point, the voice of the
supplicant and the voice of the DV merge, for all practical purposes. But
there is not always a clear transition from complaint to praise, as the final
verses of Psalm 27 attest:
SUP. Do not hand me over to the will of my adversaries
for false witnesses have arisen against me,
as have those who breathe out violence.
Were it not that I trusted to look upon
the goodness of YHWH in the land of the living...
DV.
The supplicant is clearly not out of the woods yet, and the only words of
comfort she receives from the DV instruct her to wait bravely. As a matter
of fact, it is only in the final verse that we hear the DV at all; no edifying
words are offered earlier to help effect a transition. Does this type of
unfinalized ending indicate a failed lament ritual? Perhaps, if we
understand 'effective' ritual as that which achieves transformation.l08 Less
pessimistically, this psalm and others like it (e.g. 102; 130) may just be 'in
progress', or perhaps the supplicant is not so easily brought over to the
dominant point of view. In any case, clearly not all hope is gone, resolution has simply not yet been achieved. The DV's stabilizing presence
can often be understood as the hinge between despair and joy. This
testifies to the strength of Israel's normative statements (and the way they
were actualized in ritual) about its god. Even if the DV's words effect a
change in perspective or attitude, rather than actual situation, the prestigious position of its testimony is confirmed all the more, and social
cohesion is gained (or regained), in accord with van Gennep's thinking.
The status quo hierarchical relations are finally affirmed, even if along the
way they are somewhat challenged and slightly destabilized.109
The notion that the declarations of the DV might only effect a change in
attitude accords with M. Gluckman's notion that life crisis rituals work
sometimes to achieve a cathartic affect on their participants. Gluckman is
useful for his nuance of Durkheim's social cohesion model, in which
108. Bell, Perspectives, p. 74.
109. J.C. McCann, A Theological Introduction to the Book of Psalms: The Psalms as
Torah (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1993), p. 86, notes that laments avoid a passivity
that would merely reinforce the status quo.
5. Socio-rhetorical Context
187
188
According to Brueggemann, these 'establishment accounts' deny, disregard, or simply do not recognize the hard issues of theodicy.114 Brueggemann is primarily speaking of the historical psalms (78; 105; 106; 136),
but his observations that they make two basic claimsGod is good, and
those who suffer must repent and they will be healedare on target for
most lament psalms. Furthermore, his observation that this worldview
presupposes a world of'moral symmetry which is.. .non-negotiable', and
that those who do not share this view are not given a voice,115 can be said
of many psalms with the exception of those laments that confer the largest
degree of autonomous agency on their supplicant's voice. At least in
dialogic lament psalms the supplicant represents some attempt to counter
the impulse toward defining social reality monolithically. This brings us to
the way in which dialogic lament psalms provide a register of a tradition
of countertestimony, or to put it more politically, (sanctioned) subversion.
We cannot even attempt to put a name to the social entity responsible for
this tradition; it is for our purposes, in any case, more of an ideological
abstraction than an actual manifestation.
One of the benefits of a dialogic reading is that it highlights voices that
might otherwise go unnoticed, or be subsumed into the discourse of an
other. Although we have seen the way in which the DV exercises control
over the entire complaint, it is also clear that the influence of the
supplicant is not negligible. Still, it may take a bit of super-human hearing
to grasp the full implications of the supplicant's contribution to the total
meaning. In terms of authority the supplicant's influence may seem rather
puny, but in fact it is the insertion of complaint, however tentative and
hidden, that opens up the otherwise monolithic message of the psalm, with
the result that a dialogic, rather than monologic truth emerges.
112. Brueggemann, Abiding Astonishment (LCBI; Louisville, KY: Westminster/
John Knox Press, 1991), p. 50.
113. Brueggemann, Abiding, p. 47.
114. Brueggemann, Abiding, p. 48.
115. Brueggemann, Abiding, pp. 48-49.
5. Socio-rhetorical Context
189
This aside, it seems clear that laments are framed so as not to appear as
true rebelliontheir poetic and otherwise generic markings make them
'safe' for public consumption. The record of the sufferer's experience in
Job and Ecclesiastes, on the other hand, has been described by
Brueggemann as 'non-canonical'.117 By this he seems to mean that these
texts lie outside any discernible normative Israelite tradition or genre,
besides the general category of Wisdom. These genres stand alone for the
most part, heightening the sense of rebellion they convey.118 Lament
psalms on the other hand are part of a tradition that seems to have roots
deep in established soil. So defiance is expressed in more subtle ways.
What is rarely explicitly recognized, though, is that in laments the worship
of God (by the supplicant) is subordinated to the worship of what God
stands for.119 The supplicant is holding God to a standard. The DV focuses
his emphasis on God as a fully realized embodiment of that standard (of
course, the DV would not see it this wayGod is God, he is not merely
living up to some standard). Implied in the supplicant's discourse, though,
is the notion that people have a right to rebel if God does not live up to this
standard, which in this case would mean God is not practicing covenantal
faithfulness. This constitutes an embryonic stage of the radical assertions
116. Brueggemann, Theology of the Old Testament, p. 380; see also pp. 374-49 on
psalms of complaint as models of countertestimony.
117. Brueggemann, Abiding, p. 51.
118. Outside the Bible, skeptical reflection is quite traditional among intellectual
elites (e.g. in Babylon and Greece), even if not in religious circles.
119. This is not unlike societies that practice rituals in which the king, reminded that
it is his office rather than his self that is sacred, is chastised in order to alleviate social
tensions. Through these rituals it is clear that even those who are experiencing tense
relations with the king still support the king. See Bell, Perspectives, p. 85.
190
that are more fully articulated in Job. These protestations voiced against
YHWH are not so radical as to suggest that he has failed his people in any
ultimate kind of way. The subversive outbursts of the supplicant are still
based on the conviction that God characteristically acts, but just has not
done so in this caseso Israel's fundamental credo is kept intact, but the
weight of culpability shifts. In most individual lament psalms it is God's
neglect that is responsible for the misfortune befalling the supplicant,
rather than the person's sinfulness (with the exceptions of penitential
psalms).12 Thus 'Israel manages to issue complaint and expectant hope in
the same utterance',121 but it is only Israel's vigorous countertestimony
120. Brueggemann, Abiding, p. 52.
121. Brueggemann, Theology of the Old Testament, p. 376. Sacrificial theory can
help us understand this peculiar orientation to YHWH. Insofar as lament psalms
accompanied some type of sacrificial ritual, they uniquely represent the kind of
paradoxical relationship the supplicant was sharing at a given moment with YHWH
one of expectation and disappointment at the same time. As Ps. 4 indicates, sacrifice
may have been a constituent part of the complaint ritual. Sacrifice is often broken down
into two different functions by scholarsdisjunctive and conjunctive; or in more
biblical terms, expiation and communion. In the former, the sacrificer is attempting to
rid him/herself of something that she/he sees as causing his/her hardship (an evil spirit,
sin, etc.). In the latter, the sacrificer is trying to unite with the divine in the hopes of
bringing or maintaining good fortune (thanksgiving or peace offering). Whatever
sacrifice accompanied lament rituals resists categorization in these terms. The
supplicant was clearly trying to rid himself of an unpleasant situation, but at the same
time, his plea is often that God hear him, or come closer, turn his face back toward
him. Israel's monotheistic tendencies set up a situation in which the supplicant must
choose to draw near to the one who is also often causing the problems. The supplicant
does not want the spirit of God to move away, but rather if God would only come near,
the suffering would cease. Along these lines, Brueggemann, Theology of the Old
Testament, p. 660, notes that its God's absence that causes hardship. Sometimes, it is
requested that God take away his anger or heavy hand, but this still entails drawing
near, turning his face toward the supplicant in a beneficial rather than harmful way.
God is not appeased in order that He relent, He is called on to uphold his end of a
contract. This covenant demands a closely integrated relationship between Israel and
its deity. Israel cannot disengage and wish or sacrifice away the cause of its problems,
it must communicate, protest, repent, etc. God's complete sovereignty means Israel has
nowhere else to go. We see this paradox at work most acutely in the Psalms and Job
the only hope of repair is to 'connect' with the source of suffering. Because they are
forced to draw near to this god, and they of course only want to draw near to a good
and just god, they are often forced to place the guilt on themselves, hence the
penitential psalms. But in those cases where no guilt is confessed, the implication (and
it is no more than that) is that the supplicant is YHWH's moral superior.
5. Socio-rhetorical Context
191
In the mouth of the prophet the final quote of this verse is unquestionably blasphemous. But could he not be inveighing against Job? Or
Qoheleth? Two heroes of the biblical corpus? And it does not take much
imagination to hear this as the question behind the veiled complaint of the
supplicant.127 But whereas the focus of Malachi's invective is in 'error',
the supplicant maintains her status as one of 'the pious'. Why does the one
testify to an absence of, and the other to an act of, faith? It may be because
122. Brueggemann, Theology of the Old Testament, p. 377.
123. Brueggemann, Abiding, p. 56.
124. Grid taken from Brueggemann, Abiding, p. 50.
125. Bakhtin, Problems, p. 81. But see also Morson and Emerson, Creation of a
Prosaics, p. 236, for a more thorough explication of this notion.
126. Brueggemann, Theology of the Old Testament, pp. 135-37.
127. Brueggemann, Theology of the Old Testament, p. 378.
192
5. Socio-rhetorical Context
193
voices anything but benign.132 In other words, within a dialogic lament the
supplicant's discourse was not allowed any power to alter significantly the
prevailing normative testimony. Just the oppositethe process was meant
to retain the theological status quo.133 However, the DV's control of the
lament genre is not uniform across the board. Psalms 44 and 88 witness
to the genre's fluidity, as well as to Israel's willingness to permit within
official discourse grievances against YHWH that push the limits of acceptable theological testimony. In these psalms the supplicant, rather than the
DV, has control of the discourse. Their inclusion within the Psalter, juxtaposed to those psalms dominated by the DV, offered Israelites a fairly
wide variety of expressive outlets, within cultic parameters.134 The comfort offered by the DV must sometimes have failed to persuade, and only
lament or complaint, undiluted, could have satisfied some petitioners'
deepest needs. Psalms 44 and 88 are exceptional within the Psalter, but
they testify to the integrity with which Israel approached experiences that
ran counter to its more 'comfortable' theological utterances. It is precisely
psalms like 44 and 88 that open the way toward foregrounding the voice of
dissent in dialogic psalms.135
5. Socio-rhetorical Conclusions
Based on the discussion thus far, there are three possibilities for the social
dynamics dialogic lament psalms might be reflecting. In terms of hierarchical relationships, the psalms could be a representation of (1) a society
in which social institutions are somewhat fluid and open to divergent
points of view, perhaps non-hierarchical; (2) a society in which rather
monolithic authoritative structures are compelled to provide some official,
structured space to alternative realities in order to retain their legitimacy;
132. Green, Mikhail Bakhtin, p. 39.
133. Laytner, Arguing, p. xx.
134. At the other end of the spectrum lies Ps. 37, which can be read as composed
entirely of DV-like utterances.
135. D. Blumenthal, Facing the Abusing God: A Theology of Protest (Louisville,
KY: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1993), has focused on laments, and Ps. 44 in
particular, as a way to make possible a continuing post-holocaust relationship with
God. In light of the horror of such an event, complaint becomes perhaps the primary
way to pray with integrity. His thesis, that God is sometimes abusive, accords well
with my reading of some of the supplicants' experiences of God (though I would not
make the claim that the supplicants' own reading of God accords with Blumenthal's
quite modern psychological perspective).
194
5. Socio-rhetorical Context
195
196
Dialogic lament psalms bring together more cultural voices, which opens
the door to possibilities of change and creativity. Such representation
should be given a more privileged place in our own diverse discursive
context.
140. Brueggemann, Abiding, pp. 41, 52. Although Westermann and Gerstenberger
are rightly credited with trying to keep the rhetoric of dissent in focus.
141. See Brueggemann, Abiding, p. 57, for a broader application of this notion.
142. Brueggemann, Theology of the Old Testament, p. 459.
Chapter 6
SOME CONTEXTUAL OBSERVATIONS AND GENERAL CONCLUSIONS
It is possible, but cannot be determined conclusively, that the doublevoicing of some lament psalms reflects a remnant of an actual dialogue
rather than merely a rhetorical dialogism. In other words these laments
could be construed as echoes of'scripts' of a sort, records that preserve a
liturgical dialogue between the supplicant and a cultic functionary of some
kind. The goal in the final section of this study is to explore possibilities
for fleshing out what social role this functionary may have filled, and for
suggesting possible ritual settings for dialogic lament psalms. The following analysis may turn out to be a merely heuristic exercise, but in that case
it can still provide some grounding to our previous rhetorical-ideological
observations. In any case, historical observations will be dealt with in only
a cursory fashion simply in order to round out the analysis. More elaborate
contextual analyses will have to await a future study.
The very notion of a formal dialogue presupposes a ritual setting,
whether that be connected to cultic venues of great prestige, like the temple, or merely the family cult. The fact that an instructional agenda seems
to be a hallmark of the third person interjection should be an important
datum for clarifying personnel issues. If, as has been suggested, the didactic voice represents a status quo or normative theology, then to answer
this question we should look to members of those institutions that
traditionally held the power to dictate belief. The obvious candidates
would be connected to cult practice in some manner, the institution in
which group identity was actualized and confirmed through congregational
worship services of various kinds.1
The only cultic functionaries we are aware of who might have been in a
position to expound didactic exhortations include someone of the priestly
1. Many scholars have substantiated Max Weber's claim that the priesthood in
early Judaism established exclusive control over theology and ethics (Economy and
Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology (New York: Bedminster Press, 1968),
pp. 425-26, 500-502.
198
caste (Aaronide or Levitic), or perhaps a cultic prophet (as one who many
have suggested might be responsible for uttering the oracular portions of
ritual supplications).
There is little clear evidence for speculating on just what the cultic
duties of priests or prophets may have been (other than the obvious sacrificial duties of some of the priesthood). Chronicles suggests that Levites
were responsible for many of the day-to-day functionings of the temple,
including singing and incense burning, etc. There is no direct evidence of
prophetic involvement in the cult, though Mowinckel mounts a good
argument in favor of such.2 There is plenty of evidence in the Prophets
that points toward prophetic involvement in oracular utterances, but these
are by definition words of God directed toward humans. The type of
discourse of primary interest to this study involves horizontal movement
words of instruction uttered by humans to humansinserted into what is
primarily vertical discourse, that is, human to deity. In terms of priestly
options, the confusion about priests and Levites and their various cultic
functions complicates the picture. This is not the place to rehearse all the
arguments surrounding the evolution of the priesthood. It is probably safe
to say that, as with any institutional entity, there was a hierarchy within the
priesthood.3 It has been suggested that Israelite priests maintained a 'sanctuary of silence', meaning that sacrificial duties were carried on in silence,
without any vocal accompaniment.4 This would preclude the use of lament
psalms in association with the primary cultic activity of sacrifice. Because
of Y. Kaufmann's contention that Israelite priests were not involved in any
kind of activity that could be considered magical, such as any form of
incantation, any priestly involvement in vocal worship. This conclusion is
debatable (see Joel 1.13, is also precluded where complaint seems to be
the provenance of those who also practice sacrifice),5 or perhaps, if
2. Mowinckel, Israel's Worship, II, p. 53; see also Johnson, The Cultic Prophet.
3. At least in the postexilic period it seems fairly clear that the priesthood was
divided into layers of authority and/or tasks, and according to Chronicles it was the
Levites, in particular, who were responsible for the vocal (singing) portion of liturgical
ceremonies.
4. See primarily studies by Y. Kaufhiann and I. Knohl. Y. Kaufinann, The
Religion of Israel from its Beginnings to the Babylonian Exile (Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1960); I. Knohl, Sanctuary of Silence: The Priestly Tor ah and the
Holiness School (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1994).
5. Mowinckel, Israel's Worship, I, p. 10, makes the case that psalms and sacrifice
went together (including private offering). Lament psalms accompanied the private and
congregational sin and purification sacrifices.
200
The prayer included in 1 Sam. 1.9-2.10 can be useful for exploring the
personnel issue, but a strong correlation between it and the psalms on
which this study focused should not be drawn. Hannah's request does not
correspond to the laments that have been highlighted in previous chapters.
In other words, this prayer lacks a moral component to its claimno
suggestion of injustice on the part of YHWH; no suggestion of the
supplicant's culpability, in terms of innocence or guilt; no claim against an
'enemy', etc. But Hannah's prayer does suggest that ideally petitions
should be brought before the Lord at the temple and presented in the
presence of a priest or cultic functionary. Hannah travels with her family
to Shiloh for some type of annual festival. After consuming their sacrificial meal, Hannah 'rises up and presents herself before YHWH'.9 We
are told that she prays and weeps while 'Eli, the priest' looks on from
(the seat by the doorpost of thetempleof
YHWH). The exactness of the depiction of his location suggests the
technical nature of his position. Furthermore, the use ofindicates he
is officiating in some type of ritual prayer ceremony, even if it be a relatively informal one.10 In other words, Eli is not simply 'hanging around'
watching worshippers pray. A ritual setting also seems clear in that Eli
expects Hannah to pray in a particular wayaloud, publicly.'' That she is
breaking an established custom is reinforced by Eli's strong condemnation. Once she convinces him that she has been praying, Eli gives her an
'answer' not unlike in tone the interjections of the DVs: essentially he
offers her assurance that YHWH can be trusted to answer her plea. The
priestly response seems sufficient to alleviate her deep distress: she
Mesopotamian parallels as well as evidence of the existence of Sumerian and Hittite
lamentation priests (see P.M. Fales, 'Grain Reserves, Daily Rations and the Size of the
Assyrian Army: A Quantitative Study', State Archives of Assyria Bulletin 4 [1990], pp.
23-34, esp. p. 30.), we can conclude that ritual experts guided lamentation (complaint)
ritual (i.e. the Gala priesthood of Babylon). Incidentally, Mesopotamian national
laments exhibit signs of voicing shifts/dramatic performance (see M.E. Cohen, The
Canonical Lamentations of Ancient Mesopotamia [Potomac, MD: Capital Decisions,
1988]), usually between city god/dess and poet. Thus, voicing shifts in ANE lament
literature are not unusual, but not close enough in form to the psalms studied here to be
useful as a comparative tool.
9. The MT omits 'presents herself before YHWH', but the second half of v. 9
confirms that she is praying at the temple.
10. is often understood as a seat of judgment, the throne of the high priest or
king.
11. Seybold, Introducing the Psalms, p. 82.
201
departs, no longer wearing the same (presumably sad) face (1.18). Apparently she takes Eli's response as tantamount to an answered prayer. The
aggregation of evidence is suggestive. Eli does not coincidentally happen
upon a woman in prayer, but is an integral part of a prayer ritual in which
he is expected to respond actively. This is a good example of how even the
most private supplications could have had a public actualization.
In confirmation of Eli's words of assurance, Hannah gives birth to a male
child. Following the physical confirmation of her 'change efface', Hannah
returns to the temple to make good on her vow to hand over her child to the
temple. It is at this time that she offers up what seems a fairly generic
thanksgiving prayer. Taking this evidence back to multi-voiced lament
psalms results in some interesting structural comparisons. The movement
of 1 Sam. 1.9-2.10 is from prayer (first person complaint plus vow) to
interjection (YHWH spoken of in third person) to praise. This structure
roughly parallels the movement studied in dialogic lament psalms. What is
not, of course, included in the laments recorded in the Psalter is a narrative
recounting of the actual resolution to the conflict that prompted the prayer.
Commentators have often speculated on what prompts the switch in tone,
an oracle, for example. A plausible alternative explanation is that most
lament psalms are the record of the entire prayer process, from complaint to
resolution to praise.12 Mesopotamian and Egyptian monumental records
that memorialize an experience of prayer, answer and praise may be
considered models for this thinking.B Hezekiah's prayer of thanksgiving in
Isa. 38.10-20 is another example of the same.14
202
204
oracle at the end of the psalm suggests a cultic setting, and thus we may
plausibly assume priestly involvement in the form of the voice behind the
third person address. There is fairly unquestionable (if sparse) support for
the involvement of priests in Mesopotamian individual lament rituals. In
an individual prayer to Ninlil, the supplicant's voice alternates with a
priest in the presentation of the appeal.18 The Ninlil Prayer is useful only
in making the broadest possible comparisons; while the lament portion of
the supplicant is quite similar to MT psalms, the priest's response has no
didactic quality, and is for the most part just a reiteration of the supplicant's appeal. Still, the similarity in theme and tone to biblical lament
psalms, in addition to its being an individual prayer, makes it suggestive
for comparison. The proposal that priests might have had some involvement in individual biblical laments is strengthened.
Needless to say, suggestions of this kind are more than a little speculative. The cultic context of most psalms can probably never be known for
certainneither the performers, nor the venue in which they were performed. The voicing shifts may represent only rhetorical and ideological
movements, reflective of larger cultural impulses, not actual changes in
speakers at all. But if they are based on real performances, then the
priesthood, or some type of lesser cultic functionary, as the guardians of
Israel's traditional theological testimony, may have been responsible for
the normative testimony that comprises the core ideology of dialogic
lament psalms. At the least, we can say that a dialogic reading of multivoiced laments highlights the instructional aspects of cultic prayer activity,
which may have been a part of Israel's worship practices quite early on.
1. General Conclusions
Ancient Israel structured much of its formal prayer dialogically. The
plainest formal indicators of this structure are the shifts in voice that occur,
a movement usually from first/second person to third person discourse
from speech directed to the deity to speech descriptive of the deity. Whether
this structure reflects an oral stage in which the supplicant actually
exchanged speech with anotherperhaps a priest or some other cultic
functionaryor whether the structure is merely a matter of formal and
rhetorical considerations, is not hermeneutically determinative. In either
case, reading dialogically as opposed to monologically opens up new
18. S. Langdon, Sumerian and Babylonian Psalms (ATLAMPP; Paris: Librairie
Paul Geuthner, 1909), pp. 268-71.
206
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ahlstrom, G.W., Joel and the Temple Cult of Jerusalem (Leiden: EJ. Brill, 1971).
Albertz, R., Personliche Frommigkeit undoffizielle Religion: religionsinterner Pluralism in
Israel und Babylon (Stuttgart: Calwer Verlag, 1978).
A History of Israelite Religion in the Old Testament Period (OTL; Louisville, KY:
Westminster/John Knox Press, 1994).
Anderson, A.A., The Book of Psalms (London: Oliphants, 1972).
Anderson, B.W., Out of the Depths: The Psalms Speak for Us Today (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1974).
Anderson, E.B., 'Practicing Ourselves: Liturgical Catechesis as a Practice of the Theonomous
Self (PhD dissertation, Emory University, 1997).
Anderson, G.A., A Time to Mourn, a Time to Dance: The Expression of Grief and Joy in
Israelite Religion (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1991).
'The Praise of God as a Cultic Event', in Anderson and Olyan (eds.), Priesthood and Cult,
pp. 15-33.
Anderson, G.A., and S.M. Olyan (eds.), Priesthood and Cult in Ancient Israel(JSOTSup, 125;
Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1991).
Auffret, P., La sagesse a bati sa maison: Etudes de structures litteraires dans I'Ancien
Testament et specialement dans les psaumes (Fribourg Suisse Editions Universitaires;
Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1982).
Avalos, H., Illness and Health Care in the Ancient Near East: The Role of the Temple in
Greece, Mesopotamia, and Israel (HSM, 54; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1995).
Avishur, Y., Studies in Hebrew and Ugaritic Psalms (Jerusalem: Magnes Press, 1994).
Bakhtin, M.M., 'Discourse in the Novel', in M. Holquist (ed.), The Dialogic Imagination
(UTPSS, 1; Austin: University of Texas Press, 1981), pp. 259-422.
Problems of Dostoevsky's Poetics (THL; Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press,
1984).
'The Problem of Speech Genres', in C. Emerson and M. Holquist (eds.), Speech Genres and
Other Late Essays (trans. V.W. McGee; UTPSS, 8; Austin: University of Texas Press,
1986), pp. 60-102.
Balentine, S.E., Prayer in the Hebrew Bible (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1993).
Balla, E. Das Ich der Psalmen (FRLANT 16; Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1912).
Barre, M.L., 'Hearts, Beds, and Repentance in Psalm 4.5 and Hosea 7.14', Bib. 76 (1995), pp.
53-62.
Barucq, A., L 'expression de la louange divine et de lapriere dans la Bible et en Egypte (Le
Cairo: Institut fran9ais d'archeologie orientale; Centre national de la recherche
scientifique, 1962).
Bauman, R. (ed.), Folklore, Cultural Performance, and Popular Entertainments (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1992).
Bazak, J., Structures and Contents in the Psalms (Jerusalem: Devir, 1984).
208
Bibliography
209
Corvin, J., 'A Stylistic and Functional Study of the Prose Prayers in the Historical Narratives
of the Old Testament' (PhD dissertation, Emory University, 1972).
Craig, K.M., A Poetics of Jonah: Art in the Service of Theology(Columbia, SC: University of
South Carolina Press, 1993).
Reading Esther: A Case for the Literary Carnivalesque (LCBI; Louisville, KY:
Westminster/John Knox Press, 1995).
Craigie, P.C., Ugarit and the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1983).
Cronbach, A., 'The Social Implications of Prayer', in D. Philipson (ed.), Hebrew Union
College Jubilee Volume (1875-1925) (Cincinnati: Hebrew Union College, 1925), pp.
483-512.
Gumming, C., The Assyrian and the Hebrew Hymns of Praise (New York: Columbia
University Press, 1934).
Curtis, A., 'The Psalms since Dahood', in A. Curtis, G. Brooke and J. Healy (eds.), Ugarit and
the Bible (Miinster: Ugarit-Verlag, 1994).
Dahood, M, Psalms (AB, 16-17a; 3 vols.; Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1966-70).
Deissler, A., Die Psalmen (3 vols.; WB, 1; Dusseldorf: Patmos, 1963).
Delekat, L., Asylie und Schutzorakel am Zionheiligtum (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1967).
Dhanaraj, D., Theological Significance of the Motif of Enemies in Selected Psalms of
Individual Lament (Gluckstadt: Augustin, 1992).
Dobbs-Allsopp, F.W., Weep, O Daughter ofZion: A Study of the City-lament Genre in the
Hebrew Bible (Roma: Pontificio Istituto Biblico, 1993).
'Tragedy, Tradition, and Theology in the Book of Lamentations', JSOT74 (1997), pp. 2960.
Drazin, N., History of Jewish Education from 515 B.C.E. to 220 C.E. (Baltimore. The Johns
Hopkins University Press, 1940).
Easterling, P.E. (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Greek Tragedy(New York: Cambridge
University Press, 1997).
Eaton, J.H., 'Hard Sayings' [Ps. 4: 6-7], Theology 67 (1964), pp. 355-57.
Psalms (London: SCM Press, 1967).
Kingship and the Psalms (SET; London: SCM Press, 1976).
Eichrodt, W., Theologie des Alien Testaments (3 vols.; Leipzig: J.C. Hinrichs, 1933-39).
Eissfeldt, O., The Old Testament: An Introduction (London: Basil Blackwell, 1965).
Engnell, I., A Rigid Scrutiny: Critical Essays on the Old Testament (trans, and ed. John T.
Willis; Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 1969).
Erman, A., The Literature of the Ancient Egyptians (trans. A.M. Blackman; London: Methuen,
1927).
Fales, P.M., 'Grain Reserves, Daily Rations and the Size of the Assyrian Army: A Quantitative
Study', State Archives of Assyria Bulletin 4 (1990), pp. 23-34.
Ferris, P.W., The Genre of Communal Lament in the Bible and the Ancient Near East (Atlanta:
Scholars Press, 1992).
Fine, S. (ed.), Sacred Realm: The Emergence of the Synagogue in the Ancient World (Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 1996).
Fisch, H. (ed.), Poetry with a Purpose: Biblical Poetics and Interpretation (ISBL;
Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1988).
Fishbane, M., 'Biblical Colophons: Textual Criticism and Legal Analogies', CBQ42 (1980),
pp. 438-49.
Flint, P.W., The Dead Sea Psalms Scrolls and the Book of Psalms (STDJ, 17; Leiden: E.J.
Brill, 1997).
210
Flooysvik, I., 'When God Behaves Strangely: A Study in the Complaint Psalms', Concordia
Journal 21 (1995), pp. 298-304.
Fretheim, T., 'Some Reflections on Brueggemann's God', in Linafelt and Beal (eds.), God in
the Fray (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1998), pp. 24-37.
Gammie, J.G., and L. Perdue, The Sage in Israel and the Near East (Winona Lake, IN:
Eisenbrauns, 1990).
Geertz, C., The Interpretation of Cultures (New York: Basic Books, 1973).
Gerstenberger, E.S., 'Psalms', in Hayes (ed.), Old Testament Form Criticism, pp. 179-224.
Der bittende Mensch (WMANT, 51; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1980).
Psalms (FOIL, 14; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1988).
Gillingham, S.E., The Poems and Psalms of the Hebrew Bible (Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 1994).
Girard, M, Les Psaumes: Analyse structurelle et interpretation (Paris: Cerf, 1984).
Grabbe, L., Priests, Prophets, Diviners, Sages: A Socio-historical Study of Religious
Specialists in Ancient Israel (Valley Forge, PA: Trinity Press International, 1995).
Gray, J., The Legacy of Canaan (VTSup, 5; Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1965).
Green, B., Mikhail Bakhtin and Biblical Scholarship: An Introduction (SBLSS, 38; Atlanta:
Society of Biblical Literature, 2000).
Green, M., 'The Eridu Lament', JCS 30 (1978), pp. 127-67.
'The Uruk Lament', JAOS 104 (1984), pp. 253-79.
Greenberg, M., Biblical Prose Prayer (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983).
Griffiths, A. (ed.), Stage Directions: Essays in Ancient Drama in Honour ofE. W. Handley
(Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies Supplement, 66; London: Institute of
Classical Studies, University of London School of Advanced Study, 1995).
Gunkel, H., The Psalms (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1967).
Gunkel, H., and J. Begrich, Einleitung in die Psalmen (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht,
1933).
An Introduction to the Psalms (trans. J.D. Nogalski; Mercer Library of Biblical Studies;
Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 1998).
Gunn, G., Singers of Israel (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1963).
Hallo, W.W., 'Individual Prayer in Sumerian: the Continuity of a Tradition', JAOS 88 (1968),
pp. 71-89.
Haran, M., 'Priest, Temple, and Worship', Tarbiz 48 (1979), pp. 175-85.
'Priesthood, Temple, Divine Service: Some Observations on Institutions and Practices of
Worship', HAR 1 (1983), pp. 121-35.
Harris, J.G., Prophetic Oracles in the Psalter (Ann Arbor, MI: University Microfilms, 1971).
Hayes, J.H. (ed.), Old Testament Form Criticism (TUMSR, 2; San Antonio: Trinity University
Press, 1974).
Understanding the Psalms (Valley Forge, PA: Judson Press, 1976).
Heaton, E.W., The School Tradition of the Old Testament (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
1994).
Herdner, A., 'Une priere a Baal des Ugaritains en danger', CRAIBL (1972), pp. 693-97.
Hoglund, K.G. et al. (eds.), The Listening Heart: Essays in Wisdom and the Psalms in Honor
of Roland E. Murphy, O. Carm (JSOTSup, 58; Sheffield: JSOT Press,1987).
Holquist, M., Dialogism: Bakhtin and his World (NACC; London: Routledge, 1990).
Hooke, S.H., Prophets and Priests (IS, 3; London: T. Murby & Co., 1938).
Home, T.H., Introduction to the Critical Study and Knowledge of the Holy Scriptures (4 vols.;
Philadelphia: E. Little, 1827).
Horsley, S., The Book of Psalms (London: F.C. & J. Rivington, 1816).
Bibliography
211
Jay, N., Throughout your Generations (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992).
Jenson, R.W., 'Psalm 32', Int 33 (1979), pp. 172-76.
Johnson, A.R., The Cultic Prophet in Ancient Israel(Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1944).
Sacral Kingship in Ancient Israel (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1967).
The Cultic Prophet and Israel's Psalmody (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1979).
Judisch, D.M.L., 'Propitiation in the Language and Typology of the Old Testament', CTQ 48
(1984), pp. 221-43.
Kaminsky, J.S., The Sins of the Fathers', Jud46 (1997), pp. 319-32.
Kaufmann, Y., The Religion of Israel from its Beginnings to the Babylonian Exile (Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1960).
Keel, O., The Symbolism of the Biblical World: Ancient Near Eastern Iconography and the
Book of Psalms (New York: Seabury, 1978).
Kim, Ee Kon, The Rapid Change of Mood in the Lament Psalms: A Matrix for the
Establishment of a Psalm Theology (Seoul: Korea Theological Study Institute, 1985).
Kimelman, R., 'Psalm 145: Theme, Structure, and Impact', JBL 113 (1994), pp. 37-58.
Kingsbury, J.D. (ed.), 'The Book of Psalms: Studies in Tribute to James Luther Mays', Int 46
(1992), pp. 115-80.
Knohl, I., Sanctuary of Silence: The Priestly Torah and the Holiness School (Philadelphia:
Fortress Press, 1994).
'Between Voice and Silence: The Relationship between Prayer and Temple Cult', JBL 115
(1996), pp. 17-30.
Koch, K., 'Is There a Doctrine of Retribution in the Old Testament?', in J.L Crenshaw (ed.),
Theodicy in the Old Testament fIRT, 3; Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1983).
Kraus, H.J., Die Konigsherrschaft Gottes im Alien Testament (BHT, 13; Tubingen: J.C.B.
Mohr, 1951).
Worship in Israel: A Cultic History of the Old Testament (trans. G. Buswell; Richmond:
John Knox Press, 1966).
Psalmen (BKAT 15/1-2; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 5th edn, 1978).
Theology of the Psalms (trans. K. Crim; Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1986).
Psalms 1-59: A Commentary (trans. H.C. Oswald; Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1988).
Psalms 60-150: A Commentary (trans. H.C. Oswald; Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1989).
Kruger, P.A., 'Nonverbal Communication and Symbolic Gesture in the Psalms', Bible
Translator 45 (1994), pp. 213-22.
Kselmann, J.S., 'A Note on Psalm 4.5', Bib. 68 (1987), pp. 103-105.
Kuntz, J.K., 'The Canonical Wisdom Psalms of Ancient Israel', in JJ. Jackson and M. Kessler
(eds.), Rhetorical Criticism: Essays in Honor of J. Muilenberg (Pittsburgh: Pickwick
Press, 1974).
'Recent Perspectives on Biblical Poetry', RelSRev 19 (1993), pp. 321-27.
Lanahan, W.F., 'The Speaking Voice in the Book of Lamentations', JBL 93 (1974), pp. 41-49.
Langdon, S., Sumerian and Babylonian Psalms (ATLAMPP; Paris: Librairie Paul Geuthner,
1909).
Laytner, A., Arguing with God (Northvale, NJ: J. Aronson, 1990).
Leslie, E., The Psalms: Translated and Interpreted in the Light of Hebrew Life and Worship
(Nashville: Abingdon-Cokesbury Press, 1949).
Levine, H., 'Dialogic Discourse of Psalms', in A. Loades (ed.), Hermeneutics, the Bible and
Literary Criticism (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992).
Sing unto God a New Song: A Contemporary Reading of the Psalms (Bloomington: Indiana
University Press, 1995).
Linafelt, T., and T. Beal (eds.), God in the Fray (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1998).
212
Lindstrom, F., Suffering and Sin: Interpretation of Illness in the Individual Complaint Psalms
(ConBOT, 37; Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1994).
Mannati, M, 'Sur le sens de min en Ps. 4.8', VT2Q (1970), pp. 361-66.
March, W.E., 'Note on the Text of Psalm 12.9', VT21 (1971), pp. 610-12.
Mattingly, G., 'The Pious Sufferer: Mesopotamia's Traditional Theodicy and Job's
Counselors', in Bible in Light of Cuneiform Literature (ANETS, 8; Lewiston, NY:
Edwin Mellen Press, 1990).
Mays, J.L., 'The Question of Context in Psalms Interpretation', in McCann (ed.), pp. 14-20.
McCann, J.C., 'The Psalms as Instruction', Int 46 (1992), pp. 117-28.
A Theological Introduction to the Book of Psalms: The Psalms as Torah (Nashville:
Abingdon Press, 1993).
McCann, J.C. (ed.), The Shape and Shaping of the Psalter (JSOTSup, 159; Sheffield: Sheffield
Academic Press, 1993).
Mendelsohn, I. (ed.), Religions of the Ancient Near East: Sumero-Akkadian Religious Texts
and Ugaritic Epics (New York: Liberal Arts Press, 1955).
Meysing, J., 'Note d'exegese: une nouvelle conjecture a propos du Psaume 4', Revue des
Sciences Religieuses 40 (1966), pp. 154-57.
Miller, P.D., 'Psalms and Inscriptions', VTSup 32 (1981), pp. 311-32.
'Trouble and Woe: Interpreting the Biblical Laments', Int 37 (1983), pp. 32-45.
Interpreting the Psalms (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1986).
They Cried to the Lord: The Form and Theology of Biblical Prayer (Philadelphia: Fortress
Press, 1994).
'Deuteronomy and Psalms: Evoking a Biblical Conversation', JBL 118 (1999), pp. 3-18.
Miller, P.O., P. Hanson and S.D. McBride (eds.), Ancient Israelite Religion (Philadelphia:
Fortress Press, 1987).
Mitchell, D., The Message of the Psalter: An Eschatological Programme in the Book of
Psalms (JSOTSup, 252; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1997).
Morson, G., and C. Emerson (eds.), Mikhail Bakhtin: Creation of a Prosaics (Stanford:
Stanford University Press, 1990).
Mowinckel, S., 'Psalms and Wisdom', VTSup 3 (1955), pp. 205-24.
The Psalms in Israel's Worship (2 vols.; New York: Abingdon Press, 1962).
Religion and Cult (trans. John F.X. Sheehan, SJ; Marquette: Marquette University Press,
1981).
Murphy, R.E., 'A Consideration of the Classification "Wisdom Psalms'", in J.L. Crenshaw
(ed.), Studies in Ancient Israelite Wisdom (LBS; New York: Ktav, 1976).
'The Faith of the Psalmist', Int 34 (1980), pp. 229-39.
Wisdom Literature and Psalms (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1983).
Neale, J.M., and R.F. Littledale, A Commentary on the Psalms: From Primitive and Mediaeval
Writers (London: Joseph Masters & Co., 1884; repr., New York: AMS Press, 1976).
Newsom, C., 'Bakhtin, the Bible and Dialogic Truth', JR 76.2 (1996), pp. 290-306.
Niditch, S., Oral World and Written Word: Ancient Israelite Literature (LAI; Louisville, KY:
Westminster/John Knox Press, 1996).
Nilsson, M.P., Greek Popular Religion (New York: Columbia University Press, 1940).
Oesterley, W.O.E., A Fresh Approach to the Psalms (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons,
1937).
The Psalms (2 vols.; New York: Macmillan, 1939).
Ollenburger, B., Zion, City of the Great King: A Theological Symbol of the Jerusalem Cult
(JSOTSup, 41; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1987).
Bibliography
213
Patton, J.H., Canaanite Parallels in the Book of Psalms (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins
University Press, 1944).
Perdue, L., Wisdom and Cult (SBLDS, 30; Missoula, MT: Scholars Press, 1977).
Perdue, L., and J.G. Gammie (eds.), The Sage in Israel (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1990).
Perdue, L., B.B. Scott and W.F. Wiseman (eds.), In Search of Wisdom: Essays in Memory of
John G. Gammie (Louisville, KY: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1993).
Perlitt, L., Bundestheologie im Alten Testament (WMANT, 36; Neukirchen-Vluyn:
Neukirchener Verlag, 1969).
Person, R.F., 'The Ancient Israelite Scribe as Performer', JBL\\1 (1998), pp. 601-609.
Peters, J.P., The Psalms as Liturgies (New York: Putnam's Sons, 1922).
Polzin, R., Moses and the Deuteronomist: A Literary Study of the Deuteronomic History (New
York: Seabury, 1980).
Samuel and the Deuteronomist: I Samuel (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1989).
Puglisi, M., Prayer (trans. B.M. Allen; New York: Macmillan, 1929).
Pulleyn, S., Prayer in Greek Religion (OCM; Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997).
Raabe, P.R., Psalm Structures: A Study of Psalms with Refrains (JSOTSup, 104; Sheffield:
JSOT Press, 1990).
Reed, W., Dialogues of the Word: The Bible as Literature According to Bakhtin (Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 1993).
Reid, S.B. (ed.), Prophets and Paradigm: Essays in Honor of Gene M. Tucker (JSOTSup, 229;
Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996).
Listening In: A Multicultural Reading of the Psalms (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1997).
Reif, S.C., 'Some Liturgical Issues in the Talmudic Sources', Studia Liturgica 15 (1982), pp.
188-206.
Reventlow, H.G., Gebet im Alten Testament (Stuttgart: W. Kohlhammer, 1986).
Ringgren, H., 'Some Observations on the Text of the Psalms', Maarav 5-6 (1990), pp. 307309.
Robert, A., 'L'exegese des psaumes selon les methodes de la "Formgeschichte Schule'", in
R.M. Diaz (ed.), Miscellanea Biblica B. Ubach (ScDoc; Montiserrati, 1953).
Sarason, R., 'Recent Developments in the Study of Jewish Liturgy', in J. Neusner (ed.), The
Study of Ancient Judaism (New York: Ktav, 1991).
Sarna, N., Songs of the Heart (New York: Schoken Books, 1993).
Schaefer, K., Psalms (BO; Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 2001).
Schmidt, H., Die Psalmen (Tubingen: J.C.B. Mohr, 1934).
Segal, R.A. (ed.), The Myth and Ritual Theory: An Anthology (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1998).
Seux, M-J., Hymnes et prieres aux dieux de Babylonie et d'Assyrie (LAPO, 8; Paris: Cerf,
1976).
Seybold, K., and U.B. Mueller, Sickness and Healing (trans. D.W. Stott; BBS; Nashville:
Abingdon Press, 1981).
Seybold, K., Das Gebet des Kranken im Alten Testament (BWANT, 99; Stuttgart: W.
Kohlhammer, 1973).
Introducing the Psalms (trans. R.G. Dunphy; Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1990).
Sheppard, G.T., Wisdom as a Hermeneutical Construct: A Study in the Sapiential izing of the
Old Testament (Berlin: W. de Gruyter, 1980).
'Theology and the Book of Psalms', Int 46 (1992), pp. 143-55.
Simon, U., Four Approaches to the Book of Psalms (SUNYSJud; Albany: SUNY Press, 1991).
Simpson, D.C., The Psalmists (London: Oxford University Press, 1926).
Smend, R., 'Uber das Ich der Psalmen', ZAW% (1888), pp. 49-147.
214
INDEXES
INDEX OF REFERENCES
BIBLE
9.5
Old Testament
Genesis
18
195
199
Psalms
22-24, 27,
33
1.1
2
138
100
18
153
33.10
142
202
1 Samuel
1.9-2.10
199-201
Numbers
6
Deuteronomy
4.7
1.9
1.18
8
12.23
2 Samuel
19.1
3-41
200
201
181
202
34
190
4.2
1,7,30-
32
4.3
1,30,31,
4.4-6
34
32
4.4
2 Kings
17.27
20.2
1,2,7,8,
33, 34, 40,
62,110,
111, 119,
135, 137,
144, 165,
4.4a
202
202
1,31-33
7,8,31,
32, 105,
113, 124,
4.7b
4.8-9
33
31
4.8
4.9
7
2,31,33
2,31
1,36,40,
47, 56, 74,
75, 107,
120, 125,
127, 130,
135-37,
144, 176
7.1
35
40
36
7.2-8
7.2-3
7.2
7.3
7.4-6
7.4-5a
7.7-10
7.7-8
191
35
35
35
177
36
7.7
35,37,40,
7.7c
146
41
7.9a
7.4
7.5
7.6
128
1 Chronicles
20.3-19
199
4.4b
4.5-6
2 Chronicles
20.3
110
4.5
31,32
8,31-33,
105, 110,
113, 121
1,31
4.5a
4.5b
119
119
4.6
4.7
2,31, 135
2,31,33
Nehemiah
5
9
151
202
35,37
35,39
36,40
7.8
7.9
35,37
35,37,
113, 119,
124, 128
36, 37, 40,
41,75,
105
7.9b
37,75
216
7.9b-10a
7.10
7.10a
7.1 Ob
7.11-12
7.11
7.12-17
7.12-14
7.12-13a
7.12
7.12a
7.12b
7.13-17
7.13-15
7.13
7.14
7.15-17
7.15
7.16-17
7.16
7.17
7.17a
7.18
8
8.1-3
8.4-9
8.10
9-10
36,37,41,
9.2
9.3
9.4
120
9.5-7
9.5
41,43
42, 44, 48
41,44,45,
9.6-7
47
44
36
35
38
41
41
41,47,75
35-39,41
9.6
9.7
40
9.8-10
36, 105,
113, 124
41
129
9.8-9
126
35,38-41,
107, 119,
120, 125,
135, 136
39,41
9.8
42, 45,
107, 124
42, 45, 75,
39
9.9
9.9a
9.10
38-40
39
36,38,39
36,38
36, 105,
113,125,
127, 135
36,38
39
36,38
36,38
9.11
9.12-13
9.12
112
112
112
112
64
1, 43, 44,
47, 50, 56,
60, 74,
107,110,
111, 125,
127, 13537, 144,
9.1
165
41
9.2-4
9.2-3
42,44
43,60
9.13
9.13a
9.14-15
9.16-18
9.16-17
9.16
9.17
12.5
12.6
42, 43,
45-47
43, 46-48,
105, 110,
114, 124
42, 46, 48,
12.7a
12.8
12.9
12.12-14
42,46
46
43, 44, 46,
42-44
42,46
43, 47, 48,
105, 114,
125, 127
136
42
42
10
43,44
12-8b
49
42
43,47
48-50
49
49-52
48,50,51
51
49-52,
105, 114,
48, 50,
137
48
18,48,49,
51
50
49-52,
105, 114,
124
130
49,51
49,51,52
105
26, 202
20.7
21.9
18
18
23
61,62
23.5-6
62
26
26
24
24.3
45
22, 24, 27
25
1,54,55,
64, 107,
126, 127,
139, 14447, 165
25.1
25. Ib
25.2-7
25.2-6
25.2-3
25.2
25.3
25.4-5a
52
54
54
182
56
52
52
55
42, 136
42, 125,
42, 107
137
48
15
17
19
47
136
9.18
9.19
9.20-21
9.20
9.21
1, 14, 18,
27, 49, 64,
107,110,
124
12.4
12.7-9
12.7
48
9.14
9.15
9.16-19
12.1
12.2
12.2 LXX
12.2-3
12.3
12.4-6
12.4-5
130
128
126
36, 40, 50
128
135
12
217
Index of References
25.4
25.5
25.5a
25.5b-7
25.6
25.7
25.8-14
25.8-10
25.8
25.9-10
25.9
25.10
25.10a
25.11
25.12-14
25.12-13
25.12
25.13-14
25.13
25.14
25.15
25.16-21
25.16-20
25.16
25.17
25.18
25.19-20
25.19
25.20
25.21
26
27
27.1-6
27.1
27.1a
27.1b-3
27.2
27.3
27.4-5
27.4
27.5-6
27.5
27.6
27.7-14
27.7-9
27.7
27.8-12
27.8
27.8b-9a
27.9
27.10
27.11-12
27.11
27.12
27.13
27.14
28
28.1
28.1a
28.1b
28.1b-2
28.2
28.3-4
28.3
28.4
28.5-7
28.5
145, 147,
165, 186
62
62
58
60
58,62
58, 62, 63
60
59,62
63
59,60
59,60
61
62
59, 60, 62,
147
60
18,59,62
132, 143,
183
59,67
59, 62, 63
62
59
59
59, 60, 62
18,59-63,
73, 105,
111, 112,
115, 128,
144, 147
1, 64, 67,
80, 107,
130, 137,
144, 165
65, 94,
183
63
67
64
63, 65, 67
64, 65, 67
63, 65, 68
63, 65, 67
185
63-68,
105, 115,
28.5b
28.6-7
28.6
28.7
28.8
28.8a
28.8b
28.9
30-32
30
30.1
30.2-4
30.2
30.3-4
30.3
30.4
30.5-6
30.5
30.5b-6a
30.6
30.6b
30.7-11
30.7-8
30.7
30.8
30.8b-9a
30.9
30.10
30.11
30.12-13
30.12
30.13
30.13b
31
31.1
31.2-3
124, 137
68
64, 66, 68
64, 68, 93
64
64, 66, 68,
105,115,
124, 130
67
67
64
1
28, 92, 93,
96-98,
101, 104,
124, 132
92
93, 95, 96
92,93
93
92
92
95-97,
106,117,
124
92-94
130
92-94, 98
94
93,95
94,96
92, 94, 95
92,94
132
92,94
92, 94, 95
92
93-96
92-94
93,96
93
62, 71, 73,
75, 107,
111,112,
137, 139,
165,201
69
71
218
31.2
31.3
31.4-7
31.4
31.5
31.6-7
31.6
31.7
31.8-9
31.8
31.9
31.10-14
31.10
31.11
31. lie
31.12
31.13
31.14
31.15-19
31.15-16
31.15
31.16
31.17
31.18
31.19
31.20-23
31.20-21
31.20
31.21
31.22-23
31.22
31.23
31.23b
31.24-25
31.24
31.24b
31.25
32
32.-5b
32.1-7
32.1-2
32.1
32.1a-2
32.1b-2
32.2
32.3-7
32.3-5
32.3
32.4
32.5
32.6-7
32.6
32.7
32.8-11
32.8-10
32.8-9
32.8
32.9-10
32.9
32.10
32.11
34
34.2-4
34.4
35.3
37
40.15
41.2
41.5
41.8
44
44.1-8
44.9
44.11
44.19
45
123, 127
100
100
101, 117
99
103
100, 106
99
101, 103
100, 101
99, 103
99
99
100
99
99
100, 101
100, 103,
104, 106,
117
15, 120,
121
15,99102, 122
101
99, 101,
102
99, 101103, 120,
121, 125
99-101,
117
23-25
25
23
18
24, 140,
141, 193
168
100
168
168
131, 193
131
131
131
131
18
48
49
50
52
55
55.1-21
55.1
55.2-9
55.2-3a
55.2
55.2b-3
55.3
55.3b-9
55.4
55.5
55.6
55.7-9
55.7
55.8
55.9
55.10-12
55.10-11
55.10
55.10a
55.10b-12
55.11
55.12
55.13-15
55.13
55.14
55.15
55.16
55.16a
55.17-19
55.17
55.18
55.19
55.20
26
24, 141
123
141
1, 10, 62,
78, 80, 81,
85, 107,
108, 137
10
75
78
77, 132
75
80-82
75
77,80
75, 78, 79
75
75
78
75
76
76
77,78
79, 109
76,79
81
81
76
76
77-79, 81,
109
76
76
76
76, 77,
79-82,
106, 109,
116, 124,
128
129, 137
76-79
76,78
76,78
76, 78, 79
77, 79, 82,
106, 116,
124, 137
Index of References
55.20a
55.20b-20d
55.21-22
55.21
55.22
55.23
55.24
60.8-10
60.12-14
62
62.1
62.6
62.9
62.10-11
62.12
66
66.16
71.11
73
76
78
88
88.5
88.7
88.14
89
91
91.3
91.14-16
93
94
102
102.1
102.2-3
102.2
102.3
102.4-13
102.4-12
81
81
77-79, 81
77
10,77
10, 77,
80-82,
106, 116,
124, 128
77,78,81,
82
18
17
18, 110
141
18
18
18
18
18
25
25
168
141
26
24, 188
85, 131,
193
131
131
131
18
138,203
138
18
14
141
1, 84, 87,
88,91,
107, 132,
144, 145,
147, 186
82
84,85
83
83
84, 85, 87
85
102.4
102.5
102.6
102.7
102.8
102.9
102.10
102.11-12
102.11
102.12
102.12a
102.13
102.13a
102.14-23
102.14-16
102.14
102.14a
102.15
102.16
102.16a
102.17-23
102.17
102.17a
102.18
102.19
102.20
102.21
102.22
102.23
102.24
102.25-29
102.25
102.26-28
102.26
102.27
102.28
102.29
105
106
108.8-10
110
111
112
118
83
83
83
83
83
83,87
83
86
83, 85,
132
83,87
85
83, 85-87
85
85
84-86
83
147
83
83
85
84, 85,
106, 116,
124
83, 85, 87
147
83,86
83
83
83
84
84
84, 86, 88
84,86
84,86
84, 86-88
84
84
84
84
24, 188
24, 188
18
18
24
23, 24,
138, 141
26
219
130.7a
130.7b
130.7b-8
130.8
132
136
26
22, 23, 27
100
26
24
138
100
1,89-91,
130, 144,
145, 147,
186
88
89
88
89-91
88, 90,
147
89,91
89-91
89,92
89,91
89,91,92,
106, 116
124, 145
89-91,
147
91
90
91, 129
89,90
18
188
Proverbs
11.31
22.4-5
23.29
140
140
126
Isaiah
6
26.8-14a
38.10-20
201
110
201
Jeremiah
11.19
12.1
12.2
14.2-10
131
131
131
110
118.27
119
119.1-2
122
127
128
128.2
130
130.1
130.1b-2
130.2
130.3-4
130.3
130.4
130.5-6
130.5
130.6
130.7-8
130.7
220
15.18
18.18
20.7
20.11
Lamentations
1
87, 131
131
1.5
1.14
131
1.15
131
1.18
131
2
131
2.2
131
2.5
132
87
5.19
Ezekiel
7.26
202
Hosea
4.4-6
202
Joel
1.13
198
Haggai
2.11
20
Malachi
2.7
2.17
202
191
INDEX OF AUTHORS
Childs,B.S. 12
Chopp, R. 164
Clark, K. 149
Cohen, M.E. 200
Corvin,J. 6,24,25,123, 185
Craig, K.M. Jr. 161
Cronbach, A. 6, 7
Dahood, M. 53-55, 59, 66, 76, 77, 85, 90
Deissler, A. 12, 62, 87, 90
Delekat, L. 15, 102
222
Robert, A. 12
Langdon, S. 204
Laytner, A. 24, 134, 138, 193
Lee, S. 9
Lindstrom, F. 165
Todorov, T. 167
Turner, V. 172
Van der Toorn, K. 60, 152, 155, 194,
199
VanGennep, A. 184-86,194
Vice, S. 156-59, 162, 163, 167-69, 17375, 192
Voloshinov, V.N. 168
von Rad, G. 128, 196
Waltke,B. 45,77
Weber, M. 197
Weiser, A. 15, 23, 39, 44, 50, 54, 55, 58,
61,65,67,68,71,79,85,88,93,
100, 102,126
Westermann, C. 4, 25, 26, 32, 54, 67, 73,
80, 81, 85, 87-91, 93, 96, 130-32,
183, 196
White, A. 159, 161
Wilson, G.H. 12,24,201