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Course Outline
Day 1.
Introduction
General discussion on well performance
Phase diagram
Naturally fractured reservoirs
Day 2.
Reservoir deliverability
Single phase deliverability
IPR curves
Day 3.
Two phase deliverability
Gas well deliverability
Deliverability test for gas well
Practical examples, coning & decline analysis
Dr. Alpheus Igbokoyi PTT Well Performance
Course Outline
Day 4.
Wellbore performance
Single phase flow
Multi-phase flow
Flow through choke
Nodal analysis
Day 5.
Practical demonstration of nodal analysis
Artificial lift pumps and gas lift
DAY 1
ITRODUCTIO
Introduction
The role of the Production Engineers is extremely broad. It varies within the
operating companies in the oil and gas industry.
Scope: The production system is a composite term describing the entire production
process and includes the following principal components:
The reservoir it productive capacity and dynamic production characteristics
over the envisaged life of the development.
The wellbore the production interval, the sump and the fluids in the wellbore.
Production Conduit comprising the tubing and the tubing components.
Wellhead, Xmas Tree and Flow lines.
Treatment Facilities.
Dr. Alpheus Igbokoyi PTT Well Performance
Introduction
Introduction
From the above definition it can be seen that the responsibilities of the
Production Engineer cover primarily subsurface aspects of the system but they
can also extend to some of the subsurface facilities and treatment capabilities,
depending on the operating company.
The role of the production Engineer is one of achieving optimum performance
from the production system and to achieve this, the engineer must fully
understand the chemical and physical properties of the fluid and also entire
reservoir system.
The main disciplines which are involved in Production Engineering are:
Production Engineering:
Fluid flow
Reservoir dynamics
Equipment design, installation, operation and fault diagnosis
Production Chemistry:
The fluids produced, injected and treatment fluids
The Rocks mineralogy, physical/chemical properties and rock strength and response to fluid flow.
Introduction
The objectives of an oil company operation could be broadly classified, with
respect to two complementary business drivers.
Maximising the magnitude of and accelerating cash flow.
Cost minimization in terms of cost/bbl
Introduction
Costs In this category there would be both fixed and direct cost. The fixed
cost may be the daily operating cost. The direct cost or variable cost are those
associated with the level of production and the nature of the operating
problems. The production engineer seeks to:
Minimize capital costs
Minimize production costs
Minimize treatment costs
Minimize workover costs
Introduction
Involvement The production engineer is involved in the initial design of a
producing well. He manages the life cycle of the well. His interest and data
needed to manage the well include the following:
Design Phase
Activity
Drilling
Completion
Production
Workover
Abandonment
10
Dr. Alpheus Igbokoyi PTT Well Performance
Introduction
The production engineer must be well equipped to handle the following key
areas for optimum and well performance operations.
Well Productivity.
Well completion.
Well Stimulation.
Associated Production Problems.
Remedial and Workover Techniques.
Artificial Lift and Productivity Enhancement.
Surface Procecessing.
11
Introduction
12
Introduction
Well Productivity An oil or gas reservoir contains highly compressible fluid
at in-situ pressure and temperature. The reservoir is assumed to be produced
under constant temperature while depleting the energy which is the reservoir
pressure. Optimum utilization of this energy is essential. The productivity of
the system is dependent on the pressure loss which occurs in several areas of
the flow system namely:
The reservoir.
The wellbore.
The tubing string.
The flow line.
The separator.
Dr. Alpheus Igbokoyi PTT Well Performance
13
Introduction
Three methods for predicting future oil well flow rates are in current use. These
are:
Productivity index J or PI calculations
Decline curve analysis.
Theoretical steady-state, pseudo-steady state and unsteady-state.
The productivity index method is considered by many engineers to be the best
for predicting production rates.
It accounts for the effects of wellbore damage or improvement, changing
reservoir pressure, fluid saturations, and the amount of pressure drawdown to
the wellbore.
The technique employs the physically measured well productivity at one set of
conditions to extrapolate to productivity at different reservoir or operating conditions.
14
Introduction
Extrapolation is by means of sound practical (and theoretical) relationships so
that predicted values are of good quality.
A disadvantage of this method is that a test is usually required for each well,
and depending on the system, testing can be extensive.
However, in wells where wellbore damage is rare or predictable, not all wells
in a reservoir may need to be tested.
Predicting rates by decline-curve analysis can also be reliable so long as
operating conditions are the same for the period of data collection as they will
be for the prediction period.
The term decline-curve analysis implies that only the well production rates on a
time basis are known, so this analysis is generally limited to wells producing at
their maximum rate.
Dr. Alpheus Igbokoyi PTT Well Performance
15
Introduction
If the wellbore pressure has not been drawn down as far as it will be in the
future, then the predicted rates may be too low.
An advantage that this technique offers is that data for its application are
normally available in the form of production statistics on individual wells or
groups of wells.
Since the data are from the actual operation, including reservoir and equipment
limitations that might otherwise be overlooked, there is considerable merit in
using decline-curve analysis even though it may not be as theoretically rigorous
as the productivity index approach.
Further, it does not require a separate prediction of future reservoir pressures
and fluid saturations as does the productivity index method, since these
changing conditions are generally reflected in the historical productivity
decline.
Dr. Alpheus Igbokoyi PTT Well Performance
16
Introduction
Under natural flow conditions, the reservoir pressure must provide all the
energy to operate the system i.e. All the pressure drop in the system.
PR = PSYSTEM + PSEPARATOR
PR
Reservoir pressure
PSYSTEM
PSEP
Separator pressure
The optimum distribution of pressure energy between these various areas has a
major bearing on the cost effectiveness of a well design and hence production
cost.
Dr. Alpheus Igbokoyi PTT Well Performance
17
Introduction
The pressure drop which occurs in the reservoir P
RES
The pressure drop across the reservoir, the tubing and choke are rate dependant
and these relationships therefore define the means by which we can optimize
the production of the fluid from the reservoir.
In some cases there will be significant limitations on the extent to which we
can optimize the pressure loss.
Dr. Alpheus Igbokoyi PTT Well Performance
18
Introduction
19
Introduction
Limitations
Limited reservoir and solution gas driven reservoir often deplete fast. They may require
pressure maintenance to achieve significant and economic production rate from the well.
Artificial lift can also be used to aid in the lifting capacity of the system and thus improving the
production capacity.
Minimum Surface Pressure This is needed to ensure liquid movement to the separator and
the flow line.
20
Introduction
Well completion must take care of the immediate and the future goal of the
reservoir depletion plan.
Completion fluid must be non-damaging or minimize damage.
Future artificial need must be accommodated at the initial design.
Type of completion open, sand control, horizontal well, perforations etc must consider the
desired production rate.
The production tubing size must be optimize for necessary production capacity.
Efficient well and reservoir monitoring is a key in design consideration.
21
Introduction
Well stimulation is often required to enhance the productivity of the well and
reservoir deliverability. Stimulation techniques are intended to:
Improve the degree of inter-connection between the pore space, particularly for low
permeability or vugular rocks.
Remove or bypass impediments to flow, e. g. damage.
Provide a large conductive hydraulic channel which will allow the wellbore to communicate
with a larger area of the reservoir.
The principal techniques are
Propped hydraulic fracturing.
Matrix acidization.
Acid fracturing.
Frac packing.
Dr. Alpheus Igbokoyi PTT Well Performance
22
Introduction
Associated Production Problems. Production of hydrocarbon from a reservoir
is a dynamic process which involves changes in reservoir rock and fluid
properties. Problems are usually encountered as a results of the following.
Physico-chemical changes of the produced fluids as they experience a temperature and
pressure reduction as a result of flow through the reservoir and up the wellbore. This can result
in a deposit of heavy hydrocarbon materials such as asphaltenes and waxes.
Incompatibility between reservoir fluids and those introduced into the wellbore which may
result in formation damage, e.g., scale deposits or emulsions.
The mechanical collapse or breakdown of the formation may give rise to the production of
individual grains.
Corrosion due to presence of H2S and CO2.
23
Introduction
Remedial and Workover Technique. The production engineer monitor and
ensure safe operation of the well. He identifies and resolve problems that will
occur with the production system. His role includes:
Identification of problems and their source by making use of production data, pressure etc.
Plan the required corrective action. This includes:
Identifying the equipment, manpower and other capabilities required.
Identification and assessment of the unknowns/uncertainties.
Identification and evaluation of the key safety points and mile stones.
24
Introduction
Artificial Lift. Wells will produce under natural pressure support as long as the
reservoir pressure can sustain the necessary pressure loss to move the reservoir
fluids to the separator. In cases where the reservoir pressure is insufficient to lift
fluid to the surface or at an economic rate, it may be necessary to assist in the
lift process by either:
Reducing flowing pressure gradient in the tubing by gas lift.
Providing additional power using a pump, to provide the energy to provide part or all of the
pressure loss which will occur in the tubing. This can be achieved by using:
Electrical powered centrifugal pumps.
Hydraulic powered centrifugal pumps.
Sucker rod and screw pumps
Each artificial system has a preferred operating and economic envelope influenced by factors
such as fluid gravity, GOR, production rate as well as development factors such as well type,
location and availability of power.
Dr. Alpheus Igbokoyi PTT Well Performance
25
Introduction
Surface Processing. This could be the responsibility of another group different
from production engineering. However, the objectives of surface processing are
as follows:
To effectively separate oil, gas, water and remove other produced materials such as sand.
To monitor and adjust the chemical properties prior to separation, transportation or re-injection.
To transport gas or oil to sales tanks, remove water, prevent hydrate formation and pour point
depression.
To prepare for and to re-inject necessary fluids such as gas and water.
26
Introduction - Reservoir
A reservoir is a porous and permeable underground formation containing an
individual bank of hydrocarbons confined by impermeable rock or water
barriers and is characterized by a single natural pressure system.
Depending on the initial reservoir condition in the phase diagram,
hydrocarbon accumulations are classified as:
Oil
o Black oil
o Volatile oil
The two types of oil could be saturated or undersaturated.
Gas
o Dry gas
o Wet gas
Gas condensate
Dr. Alpheus Igbokoyi PTT Well Performance
27
Introduction - Reservoir
An oil that is at a pressure above its bubble-point pressure is called an
undersaturated oil because it can dissolve more gas at the given temperature.
An oil that is at its bubble-point pressure is called a saturated oil because it
can dissolve no more gas at the given temperature.
Single (liquid)-phase flow prevails in an undersaturated oil reservoir.
Two-phase (liquid oil and free gas) flow exists in a saturated oil reservoir.
28
29
30
Pressure
Temperature
OIL
High Press.
&Temp
OIL
SPILL POINT
WATER
WATER
31
Pressure
Temperature
OIL
Gas
High Press.
&Temp
OIL
SPILL POINT
WATER
WATER
32
33
34
Pressure
Temperature
Condensate
High Press.
&Temp
Gas
SPILL POINT
WATER
WATER
35
36
Pressure
Gas
Temperature
Water
Water
High Press.
&Temp
Gas
SPILL POINT
WATER
WATER
37
38
Gas
Temperature
Condensate
Condensate
Press. Drop
High Press.
&Temp
Gas
SPILL POINT
WATER
WATER
39
Gas Condensate
Volatile Oil
Black Oil
Wet Gas
Pressure
Dry Gas
Bottom hole
Dead Oil
Separator
Temperature
40
Introduction - Reservoir
Reservoir Fluid Envelope as it affects production
41
Introduction - Reservoir
Reservoir fluid properties as it affect production
42
Introduction - Reservoir
Example of using PVT data to optimize the operating condition at the separator.
43
Introduction - Reservoir
Optimum API gravity and GOR
44
Introduction - Reservoir
Optimum formation volume factor for maximum liquid at the separator.
45
Introduction Wells
Oil and gas wells are drilled like an upside-down telescope.
The large-diameter bore hole section is at the top of the well.
Each section is cased to the surface or a liner is placed in the well that laps
over the last casing in the well.
Each casing or liner is cemented into the well (usually up to at least where the
cement overlaps the previous cement job).
The last casing in the well is the production casing (or production liner).
Once the production casing has been cemented, the production tubing is run
into the well.
Usually a packer is used near the bottom of the tubing and the inside of the
casing.
Thus, the produced fluids are forced to move out of the perforation into the
bottom of the well and then into the inside of the tubing.
Dr. Alpheus Igbokoyi PTT Well Performance
46
Introduction Wells
Schematic Diagram
of a typical flowing oil
well.
47
Introduction Wells
The wellhead is defined as the surface equipment set below the master valve.
It includes casing heads and tubing head.
Most flowing wells are produced through a string of tubing run inside the
production casing.
The equipment at the top of the producing wellhead is called a christmas tree
and it is used to control flow.
48
Introduction Wells
49
Introduction Wells
50
DAY 2
RESERVOIR DELIVERABILITY
51
Reservoir Deliverability
Reservoir deliverability is defined as the oil or gas production rate achievable
from reservoir at a given bottom-hole pressure.
Reservoir deliverability determines types of completion and artificial lift
methods to be used.
A thorough knowledge of reservoir productivity is essential for production
engineers.
Reservoir deliverability depends on several factors including the following:
Reservoir pressure
Pay zone thickness and permeability
Reservoir boundary type and size
Wellbore radius
Reservoir fluid properties
Near-wellbore conditions
Reservoir relative permeability
52
Reservoir Deliverability
Because of heterogeneity, production could vary from well to well within the
same reservoir.
53
Reservoir Deliverability
Reservoir deliverability can be mathematically modeled on the basis of flow
regimes such as:
Transient flow
Steady state flow
Pseudo-steady state flow
As the fluid flows from the reservoir into and through the production system, it
experiences a continuous pressure drop.
The pressure begins at the average reservoir pressure and ends either at the
pressure of the transfer line or near atmospheric pressure in the stock tank.
In either case, a large pressure drop is experienced as the reservoir fluids are
produced to the surface.
54
Reservoir Deliverability
It is the petroleum engineers responsibility to use this pressure reduction in an
optimal manner to maximize oil and gas recovery.
The pressure reduction depends on the production rate and, at the same time, the
production rate depends on the pressure change.
Understanding the relationship between pressure and production rate is
important to predicting the performance of individual oil and gas wells.
Production performance involves matching up the following three aspects:
Inflow performance of formation fluid flow from formation to the wellbore
Vertical lift performance as the fluids flow up the tubing to surface.
Choke or bean performance as the fluids flow through the restriction at the surface.
55
Reservoir Deliverability
The relative significant of understanding the optimization of pressure drop in
the system was illustrated by Duns and Ros who predicted the following
distribution of pressure drop for a particular well.
56
Reservoir Deliverability
Initially, the reservoir pressure drops rapidly (transient period) before
stabilizing.
57
Reservoir Deliverability
The reservoir pressure drop depends on rate of production.
58
Reservoir Deliverability
Pressure draw down is limited by the average reservoir pressure which also
impacts deliverability.
59
Reservoir Deliverability
Reservoir/well performance depends on the reservoir depletion stage.
Single phase
Multi-phase
60
Reservoir Deliverability
Schematic diagram showing the pressure drop from the reservoir to surface
Dr. Alpheus Igbokoyi PTT Well Performance
61
Reservoir Deliverability
62
Reservoir Deliverability
Transient flow: The transient flow is defined as a flow regime where/when the
radius of pressure wave propagation from wellbore has not reached any boundaries
of the reservoir.
Assuming a single phase flow in the reservoir,
the general analytical solution describing flow
during transient flow regime in a radial system
is:
63
Reservoir Deliverability
For Oil
This is a constant rate solution with bottom hole flowing pressure varying with time.
For Gas
64
Reservoir Deliverability
Steady state flow: The steady state flow is defined as a flow regime where the
pressure at any point in the reservoir remains constant over time. This flow
condition prevails when the pressure funnel has propagated to a constant pressure
boundary.
The constant pressure boundary can be an
or a water injection well. The steady-state
flow condition due to a circular constant
pressure boundary at distance re from the
wellbore is:
65
Reservoir Deliverability
Pseudo-Steady state flow: The pseudo-steady state flow is defined as a flow
regime where the pressure at any point in the reservoir declines at the same
constant rate over time. This flow condition prevails after the pressure wave has
propagated to all no-flow boundary.
A no-flow boundary can be a sealing
fault, pinch-out of pay zone, or
boundaries of drainage areas of
production wells. The pseudo-steady state
flow condition due to a circular no-flow
boundary at distance re from wellbore is:
66
Reservoir Deliverability
If the no-flow boundaries delineate a drainage area of noncircular shape, the
following equation should be used for the analysis of pseudo-steady state flow.
For gas well located at the center of a circular drainage area, the pseudo-steady
state solution is:
qg =
(()
kh m P m(Pwf
))
4A
1424T ln
+ S + Dq g
2
2 C A rw
67
Reservoir Deliverability
68
Reservoir Deliverability
69
Reservoir Deliverability
An important question to be answered is how long the well should be producing
under reasonably stable flow conditions so that Pseudo-Steady State conditions
are valid.
Earlougher has shown that the time when pseudo-steady state conditions are
valid can be expressed in terms of a dimensionless time.
70
Reservoir Deliverability
For a single phase flow, the drainage radius, the average reservoir pressure and the
time to pseudo steady state are given by:
71
Reservoir Deliverability
Horizontal well: The transient flow, steady state flow, and pseudo-steady state
flow can also exist in reservoirs penetrated by horizontal wells. Different
mathematical models are available from the literature. Joshi presented the
following relationship considering steady state flow of oil in the horizontal plane
and pseudo-steady state flow in the vertical plane.
72
Reservoir Deliverability
Horizontal well: Babu and Odeh (SPE18298) presented the following equation for
evaluating the horizontal well performance in a closed rectangular box system.
73
Reservoir Deliverability
Joshi proposed the following equation for evaluating the pseudo-steady
state productivity in horizontal well.
q=
0.007078kh ( o Bo ) P R Pwf
re
ln 2.124 + s f + s m + sCAh + Dq
rw
74
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR
IPR is used for evaluating reservoir deliverability in production engineering. The
IPR curve is a graphical presentation of the relation between the flowing bottomhole pressure and the liquid production rate. The magnitude of the slope of the IPR
curve is called the productivity index (PI or J), that is:
75
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Single phase reservoirs
An oil reservoir is said to be producing under single phase if the production is
above bubble point pressure. The following equation define the productivity index
under various flow regimes with single phase.
Radial Transient state
76
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Single phase reservoirs
Radial Pseudo-steady state
77
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Single phase reservoirs
Joshi pseudo-steady state productivity index for horizontal well.
Jh =
q
=
P R Pwf
0.007078kh ( o Bo )
r
ln e 2.124 + s f + s m + sCAh + Dq
rw
D = Turbulence coefficient, 1/BOPD for oil and 1/MSCFD for gas
sm = Mechanical skin factor, dimensionless. s is the skin factor obtained from
the early radial flow of the horizontal well. This is obtained from well test
analysis.
78
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Single phase reservoirs
Babu and Odeh pseudo-steady state productivity index for horizontal well:
79
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Single phase reservoirs
In general, the single phase IPR can be represented by Darcys law as:
The absolute open flow (AOF) is defined as the maximum flow rate the
reservoir can produce when the bottom hole flowing pressure is zero.
80
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Single phase reservoirs
The single phase IPR is a straight line.
81
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Single phase reservoirs
The single phase IPR plotted in another form.
82
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Single phase reservoirs
The incompressible single phase or straight line IPR is valid when the fluids
flowing inside the reservoir are in single phase incompressible conditions.
It can be used as a good approximation for the IPR in the following cases:
Dead oil reservoirs.
Whenever bottom hole flowing pressure is above the bubble point pressure.
Very low production GLR.
Very high water cut.
Aquifers.
83
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Single phase reservoirs
The linear IPR can be determined from:
Reservoir and fluid properties.
This require the knowledge of the reservoir average pressure, drainage radius, drainage
area, formation thickness, formation permeability, fluid viscosity and formation volume
factor.
84
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Single phase reservoirs
Determine the IPR for the following well.
Permeability 20 md.
Thickness 60 ft.
Fluid viscosity 10 cp.
Well bore diameter 7 in.
Drainage radius 1200 ft.
Reservoir average pressure 1250 psi.
Formation volume factor 1.2 rbl/stb.
Well located in the center of square CA 30.9
Dr. Alpheus Igbokoyi PTT Well Performance
85
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Single phase reservoirs
Solution.
86
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Single phase reservoirs
Solution.
87
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Single phase reservoirs
Determine the IPR for the following well based on the information from a shutin test.
Average reservoir pressure 1250 psi.
Stabilized bottomhole flowing pressure before shut-in of 900 psi.
Stabilized flow rate before shut in: 600 stb/d.
88
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Single phase reservoirs
89
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Single phase reservoirs
Determine the IPR for the following well based on the information from the
following production tests.
First stable production test produced 30 bpd with a bottomhole flowing pressure of
1000 psi.
Second stable production test produced 60 bpd with a bottomhole flowing pressure of
800 psi.
90
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Single phase reservoirs
91
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Single phase reservoirs
The absolute open flow is a function of the average reservoir pressure.
Example
Bubble point pressure of 3200 psi, Oil 30 degree API, Produced gas with 0.75
specific gravity and Reservoir temperature 180 degree F.
92
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Single phase reservoirs
As we produce fluids from the reservoir, a depletion in reservoir pressure will
take place.
Provided the flow is still in single phase conditions, the productivity index will
be affected by the changes in the fluid properties.
93
DAY 3
RESERVOIR DELIVERABILITY
MULTI-PHASE FLOW
94
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Two phase reservoirs
The linear IPR model presented in the previous section is valid for pressure values
as low as bubble-point pressure. That is both flowing and average reservoir
pressure are above or at the bubble point pressure. Below the bubble-point
pressure, the solution gas escapes from the oil and become free gas. The free gas
occupies some portion of the pore space, which reduces flow of oil. This effect is
quantified by the reduced relative permeability.
Also oil viscosity increases as its solution gas content drops.
The combination of the relative permeability effect and the viscosity effect results
in lower oil production rate at a given bottom-hole pressure.
This makes the IPR curve deviating from the linear trend below the bubble-point
pressure.
95
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Two phase reservoirs
We have applied Darcys Law extensively in formulating the IPR for the single phase
flow.
During multi-phase flow in the reservoir, the velocity of each phase depends on its
relative permeability and saturation.
Whenever the saturation of any phase is above its critical saturation, the phase will
become mobile.
Therefore, the knowledge of relative permeability in relation to the phase saturation is
important.
Applying Darcys Law to multi-phase flow will therefore result to complex equation to
solve.
With the proper boundary and initial conditions, this system can be solved for the
pressure, phase fractions and phase velocities fields. This is routinely done by
computational tools known as Reservoir Simulators.
Dr. Alpheus Igbokoyi PTT Well Performance
96
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Two phase reservoirs
The constant PI concept is no longer valid.
The flow rate under two phase conditions for a certain pressure gradient is
smaller than the flow rate under single phase flow conditions for the same
pressure gradient..
The difference between the actual and the single phase oil flow rate increases
with a reduction in pressure.
Since the fluid properties are pressure dependant, we can the write the flow rate
at the surface as:
k rf
2kh
=
dP
re P f B f
B
ln
rw
P
q SC
Dr. Alpheus Igbokoyi PTT Well Performance
97
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Two phase reservoirs
q SC
q SC
2kh P Pwf
=
r
o Bo ln e
rw
P
2kh k ro
=
dP
re P o Bo
B
ln
rw
98
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Two phase reservoirs
IPR under multi-phase flow conditions cannot be easily estimated.
The most accurate method is by solving the equations governing the flow in the
porous media through a reservoir simulator.
The IPR is important to the Petroleum Engineers that simplified or empirical
methods to estimate it are necessary.
The most common correlations are Vogel and Fetkovich.
99
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Two phase reservoirs
Vogel used a numerical reservoir simulator to generate the IPR. He studied
several cases for specific condition:
Solution gas drive mechanism.
No water production.
No skin.
100
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Two phase reservoirs
101
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Two phase reservoirs
Pressure was normalized dividing the bottom hole flowing pressure by the
reservoir pressure.
Flow rates were normalized dividing the flow rate by the absolute open flow.
102
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Two phase reservoirs
Note that Vogel did not obtain a unique curve. He obtained a cluster of curves.
For practical purposes, Vogel reasoned that a single curve could describe the
behaviour of the IPR with sufficient accuracy for production calculations.
One of the most important achievements of Vogel work is the recognition that
the inflow performance is a strong function of the reservoir average pressure and
absolute open flow potential.
103
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Two phase reservoirs
The coefficients of the Vogel parabola must satisfy two important conditions:
The flow rate must be zero when the bottom hole flowing pressure is equal to the
average reservoir pressure.
The flow rate must be the absolute open flow when the bottom hole flowing pressure
is zero.
104
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Two phase reservoirs
The linear case is obtained when the coefficient b is -1.
The quadratic IPR has a non physical behaviour when the coefficient b is
greater than zero.
105
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Two phase reservoirs
Based on his simulations, Vogel determined that the value of -0.2 for b was the
best fit for his simulation results.
106
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Two phase reservoirs
The linear IPR can be determined by:
Reservoir average pressure and rock and fluid properties.
Production tests
Note that Vogel IPR cannot be determined from rock and fluid properties.
Vogel IPR can only be determined from production test data.
This may seem a weakness of Vogel method, but in reality, it is one of its
strengths
Although the method was developed for solution gas drive reservoirs (undersaturated conditions) it has been used successfully in many other conditions.
107
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Two phase reservoirs
Fetkovich proposed the isochronal testing of oil wells to estimate
productivity.
Fetkovich deliverability equation is based on the emperical gas-well
deliverability equation proposed by Rawlins and Schellhardt:
2
R
qo = C P P
2
wf
108
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Two phase reservoirs
Fetkovich IPR curve is developed by re-arranging his deliverability test equation:
2
R
qo = C P P
2
wf
Pwf
qo = C P 1
PR
2n
R
Pwf
qo = q max 1
PR
qmax = C P
2n
R
109
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Two phase reservoirs
Jones, Blount and Glaze method. This method attempted to incorporate non-Darcy
flow effects. Jone, Blount and Glaze methods basic equation that describes the
flow is:
110
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Two phase reservoirs
Jones, Blount and Glaze maximum flow rate can be estimated from the following
equation.
Vogel, Fetkovich and Jones, Blount and Glaze method are only valid for the case
when both the bottom hole flowing pressure and average reservoir pressure is
below the bubble point pressure.
111
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Two phase reservoirs
In certain circumstances, both single phase and two-phase flow may be occuring
in the reservoir. This results when the average reservoir pressure is above the
bubble point pressure of the reservoir while the flowing bottom hole pressure is
less than the bubble point pressure.
Neely developed a composite IPR to handle this situation. The composite IPR
couples Vogels IPR for two-phase flow with the single-phase productivity index.
The relationship that yields the maximum oil production rate is:
From the above equation, when the average reservoir pressure is equal to the
bubble point pressure, then:
q max
Dr. Alpheus Igbokoyi PTT Well Performance
JPb
=
1.8
112
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Two phase reservoirs
When the bottom hole flowing pressure is below the bubble point pressure and the
average reservoir pressure is above the bubble point pressure:
q = (qmax
Pwf Pwf
qb )1 0.2
Pb Pb
q = q + qb
q = (qmax
Pwf Pwf
+ qb
qb )1 0.2
Pb Pb
113
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Two phase reservoirs
We can also expressed q as:
q = (qmax
Pwf Pwf
+ qb
qb )1 0.2
Pb Pb
P
P
JPb
wf
wf
+ J P R Pb
1 0.2
q=
1.8
Pb Pb
J=
q
2
P
P
Pb
wf
wf
+ P R Pb
1 0.2
1.8
Pb Pb
)
114
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Two phase reservoirs
Wiggins presented an easy-to-use IPR for three-phase flow, which is similar in
form to Vogels IPR. It was based on a series of simulation studies.
For oil
Pwf
Pwf
qo = qo max 1 0.52
0.48
Pb
Pb
For water
Pwf
Pwf
q w = q w max 1 0.72
0.28
Pb
Pb
115
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Future Performance Methods
Once the petroleum engineer has estimated the current productive capacity of a well, it is
often desired to predict future performance for planning purposes.
Standing was one of the first to address the prediction of future well performance from
IPRs. He used Vogels IPR with a modified multiphase productivity index to relate current
well performance to future performance. Unfortunately, his relationship requires knowledge
of fluid properties and relative permeability behaviour.
This makes Standings method difficult to use because one must estimate saturations,
relative permeabilities, and fluid properties at a future reservoir pressure.
Fetkovich suggested that Standings modified multiphase productivity index ratios could be
approximated by the ratio of pressures. He proposed that the future maximum oil production
rate could be estimated from the current maximum production rate with the following
equations.
116
Reservoir Deliverability
FETKOVICH
PRESENT AND
FUTURE
IPR Performance Methods
Inflow Performance
Relationship
IPR
Future
Pwf
qo = q max 1
PR
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Future Performance Methods
Tbg:
0.5
1
Tbg:
1.0
Tbg: 1.5
Tbg: 2.375
2 3/8
Tbg: 2.875
2 7/8
Tbg: 3.5
3
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Future Performance Methods
GLR
=2000 Scf/Stb
2000
1500
GLR
2500=2500 Scf/Stb
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Effect of Drive Mechanism
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Future Performance Methods
Fetkovich Future IPR:
121
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Oil well Example: Vogels Method
122
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Oil well Example: Vogels Method
123
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Oil well Example: Fetkovichs
Method
124
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Oil well Example: Fetkovichs
Method
125
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Oil well Example: Fetkovichs
Method
Question: Estimate flow rate at bottom hole flowing pressure of 800 psia.
800
qo = 14971
1734
0.734
= 1256 stb / d
126
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Oil well Example: Jones, Blount and
Glazes Method.
127
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Oil well Example: Jones, Blount and
Glazes Method.
128
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Oil well Example: Jones, Blount, and
Glazes Method.
129
Reservoir Deliverability
Practical Example from horizontal wells
The most practical method of evaluating well performance is to install a
downhole pressure gauge in each well.
The bottomhole flowing pressure can the be monitor on a continuous basis.
The well can be shut in at anytime for build up to obtain the average pressure
of the drainage area.
The build up analysis can be carried out to identify any damage.
If the well is already producing water and free gas, the relative permeability
can be estimated from the build up analysis.
The result obtained can then be use to estimate the composite productivity
index due to the total fluid produced.
Dr. Alpheus Igbokoyi PTT Well Performance
130
Reservoir Deliverability
2800
200
2600
150
2400
100
2200
FBHT oF
Pressure - psia
50
0
28/06/2003
23/04/2004
17/02/2005
14/12/2005
DHG FBP
DHG Static
FBHT
10/10/2006
500
10
400
300
200
100
Oil rate
01/09/2002
0
01/09/2002
0
28/06/2003
PI Stb/D/psi
23/04/2004
17/02/2005
Spot PI Stb/D/psi
14/12/2005
131
Reservoir Deliverability
Practical Example from horizontal wells
200
3000
180
2800
160
120
100
2400
80
60
2200
40
20
2000
01/09/2002
0
28/06/2003
23/04/2004
17/02/2005
DHG FBP
DHG Static
14/12/2005
10/10/2006
FBHT
100
PI (Based on average reservoir pressure)
PI & FBHT
2600
20
80
15
60
10
40
Pressure - psia
140
5
20
0
01/09/2002
0
28/06/2003
23/04/2004
17/02/2005
14/12/2005
Spot PI Stb/D/psi
132
Reservoir Deliverability
Practical Example from horizontal wells
3000
200
180
2800
160
2600
120
100
2400
80
PI & FBHT
Pressure - psia
140
60
2200
40
20
2000
01/09/2002
28/06/2003
23/04/2004
17/02/2005
DHG FBP
DHG Static
14/12/2005
10/10/2006
FBHT
100
80
Suspected
damage
60
40
20
0
01/09/2002
28/06/2003
PI (Average Res. Press)
23/04/2004
17/02/2005
14/12/2005
133
Reservoir Deliverability
Practical Example from horizontal wells
160
140
120
100
1600
80
60
1500
Water encroachment
into high viscosity oil
reservoir leading to
apparent improved PI.
40
1400
20
01/09/2002
28/06/2003
23/04/2004
17/02/2005
DHG FBP
DHG Static
14/12/2005
10/10/2006
FBHT
10
60
50
40
6
30
4
20
Pressure - psia
1700
1800
10
0
01/09/2002
0
28/06/2003
23/04/2004
17/02/2005
14/12/2005
PI Stb/D/psi
Spot PI Stb/D/psi
134
Reservoir Deliverability
Well Performance Coning
Reservoir Deliverability
Well Performance Coning
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
10
15
Cone Height - ft
20
25
Reservoir Deliverability
Well Performance Coning
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
10
20
30
40
Breakthrough Time - Day
50
60
Reservoir Deliverability
Well Performance Coning
Reservoir Deliverability
Well Performance Coning
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0
50
100
Breakthrough Time - Days
150
200
Reservoir Deliverability
Well Performance Coning
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0
10
15
Cone Height - ft
20
25
Reservoir Deliverability
Well Performance Decline Analysis
qt = qi (1 + nDt )
1 n
Reservoir Deliverability
Well Performance Decline Analysis
Reservoir Deliverability
Well Performance Decline Analysis
Reservoir Deliverability
Well Performance Decline Analysis
Reservoir Deliverability
Well Performance Decline Analysis
Reservoir Deliverability
Well Performance Decline Analysis
Reservoir Deliverability
Well Performance Decline Analysis
Reservoir Deliverability
Well Performance Decline Analysis
Reservoir Deliverability
Well Performance Decline Analysis
Reservoir Deliverability
Well Performance Decline Analysis
Reservoir Deliverability
Well Performance Decline Analysis
Reservoir Deliverability
Well Performance Decline Analysis
Reservoir Deliverability
Well Performance Decline Analysis
100
3000
0.00032
4000
80
2400
3000
60
1800
2000
40
1200
0.00020
1000
20
600
0.00016
0.00024
Water Cut ( %)
0.00028
5000
0.00036
2003
05
Date
EA028T:C9200E
Reservoir Deliverability
Well Performance Decline Analysis
Reservoir Deliverability
Well Performance Decline Analysis
Reservoir Deliverability
Well Performance Decline Analysis
100
5000
0.00048
6000
80
4000
4500
60
3000
3000
40
2000
0.00036
1500
20
1000
0.00032
0.00040
Water Cut ( %)
0.00044
7500
0.00052
2002
04
Date
06
EA021T:D4000C
Reservoir Deliverability
Well Performance Decline Analysis
7500
1.5
6000
6000
1.2
4500
4500
2000
3000
3000
0.6
20
1000
1500
1500
0.3
0.0
160
152
144
136
128
120
112
104
96
88
80
72
64
56
48
40
32
24
16
8
1000
Water Cut ( %)
80
60
40
4000
3000
2002
04
06
7500
5000
Cumulative Oil Produced ( Kbbl )
100
0.9
EA021T:D4000C
6000
2400
0.8
1800
0.6
4500
3000
1200
0.4
1500
600
0.2
0.0
2002
04
Time (Year)
06
800
600
400
200
FTHP ( psia )
1.0
Choke
3000
Sand
7500
FBHP ( psia )
Time (Year)
Reservoir Deliverability
Well Performance Decline Analysis
Reservoir Deliverability
Well Performance Decline Analysis
EA022T:D4000C
0.000675
6000
0.000600
100
3000
80
2400
60
1800
3000
40
1200
20
600
1500
0.000375
0.000300
2002
04
Date
06
0.000450
Water Cut ( %)
0.000525
4500
Reservoir Deliverability
40
1800
6000
1.2
4500
4500
3000
1200
3000
20
600
1500
0.9
0.6
60
2400
1.5
6000
Water Cut ( %)
80
7500
3000
Cumulative Oil Produced ( Kbbl )
100
1500
0.3
2002
04
06
0.0
160
152
144
136
128
120
112
104
96
88
80
72
64
56
48
40
32
24
16
8
1000
4000
2400
0.8
1800
0.6
3000
2000
1200
0.4
1000
600
0.2
0.0
2002
04
Time (Year)
06
800
600
400
200
FTHP ( psia )
1.0
Choke
3000
Sand
5000
FBHP ( psia )
Time (Year)
Reservoir Deliverability
Well Performance Decline Analysis
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Gas wells
Early estimate of gas well performance were conducted by opening the well to the
atmosphere and then measuring the flow rate.
Such method could be damaging to well equipment, reservoir and also creates
environmental concern.
The idea, however, did leave the industry with the concept of absolute open flow AOF.
AOF is a common indicator of well productivity and refers to the maximum rate at which a
well could flow against a theoretical atmospheric backpressure at the reservoir.
The productivity of a gas well is determined with deliverability testing.
Deliverability tests provide information that is used to develop reservoir rate-pressure
behaviour for the well and generate an inflow performance curve or gas-backpressure curve.
162
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Gas wells
Rawlins and Schellhardt developed the emperical backpressure method of testing
gas wells based on the analysis of tests on more than 500 wells.
163
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Gas wells
In terms of maximum gas rate Rawlins and Schellhardt equations become:
For pressure-squared
For pseudopressure
Dr. Alpheus Igbokoyi PTT Well Performance
164
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Gas wells
Houpeut developed a theoretical deliverability relationship for stabilized flow with
a Forch-heimer velocity term to account for non-Darcy flow effects in highvelocity gas production.
For pressure-squared
For pseudopressure
Dr. Alpheus Igbokoyi PTT Well Performance
165
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Gas wells
Houpeut equations can be written as:
For pressure-squared
For pseudopressure
166
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Gas wells
Using the pseudo-steady state of the gas equation to evaluate deliverability test,
Houpeurts constant a and b can be estimated with the following equations.
For pressure squared:
For pseudo-pressure:
167
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Gas wells
Jones, Blout, and Glaze suggested Houpeut equations be written as:
For pressure-squared
For pseudopressure
Jones, Blout, and Glaze arrangement provide a method of analyzing the data
graphically.
Dr. Alpheus Igbokoyi PTT Well Performance
168
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Gas wells
Knowing a and b, the flow rate can be estimated for various bottom hole flowing
pressure at a fixed average reservoir pressure.
For pressure-squared
For pseudopressure
169
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Gas wells
Deliverability Test Methods for gas well
There are three types of deliverability test. They are Flow-After-Flow, Isochronal
Test and Modified Isochronal Test.
Flow-After-Flow: This test is performed by producing the well at a series of
stabilized flow rates and obtaining the corresponding stabilized flowing
bottomhole pressures. In addition, a stabilized shut-in bottomhole pressure is
required for the analysis. A major limitation of this test method is the length of
time required to obtained stabilized data for low-permeability gas reservoir.
170
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Gas wells
Flow-After-Flow Example:
171
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Gas wells
Flow-After-Flow Example:
172
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Gas wells
Flow-After-Flow Example: Plot with pressure-squared.
173
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Gas wells
Flow-After-Flow Example: Plot with pressure-squared.
From the graph, n = 0.651. C is evaluated at Pwf = 3020 psia. C = 0.2874
Mscf/D/psia
qmax = C P
Dr. Alpheus Igbokoyi PTT Well Performance
2n
R
174
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Gas wells
Flow-After-Flow Example: Plot with pseudopressure
175
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Gas wells
Flow-After-Flow Example: Plot with pseudopressure
From the graph, n = 0.637. C is evaluated at pseudopressure equivalent of Pwf
= 3020 psia. C = 0.0269 Mscf/D/psia
[ ( )]
qmax = C Pp P R
Dr. Alpheus Igbokoyi PTT Well Performance
n
176
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Gas wells
Flow-After-Flow Example: Houpeurt Method
177
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Gas wells
Flow-After-Flow Example: Houpeurt Method pressure squared
178
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Gas wells
Flow-After-Flow Example: Houpeurt Method - pseudopressure
179
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Gas wells
Flow-After-Flow Example: Houpeurt Method IPR
For pressure-squared
For pseudopressure
180
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Gas wells
Isochronal Test: Cullender proposed the isochronal test to overcome the need to obtain
a series of stabilized flow rates required for the flow-after-flow test for the slow-tostabilize well. This test consists of producing the well at several different flow rates
with flowing periods of equal duration.
Each flow period is separated by a shut-in period in which the shut-in bottomhole
pressure is allowed to stabilize at essentially the average reservoir pressure. The test
also requires that an extended stabilized flow point be obtained. The test method is
based on the principle that the radius of investigation is a function of the flow period
and not the flow rate. Thus for equal flow periods, the same drainage radius is
investigated in spite of the actual flow rates.
To analyze the data from an isochronal test, the flow data from the equal flow periods
is plotted according to the Rawlins and Schellhardt or Houpeurt methods. These data
points are used to determine the slope of the deliverability curve. The stabilized flow
point is then used to estimate the flow coefficient C for Rawlins and Schellhardt
method or the intercept a for the Houpert method by extending the slope of the
multirate data to the stabilized flow point.
Dr. Alpheus Igbokoyi PTT Well Performance
181
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Gas wells
Isochronal Test Example
182
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Gas wells
Isochronal Test Example
183
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Gas wells
Isochronal Test Example
2 0.9294
= 27,151 Mscf / d
184
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Gas wells
Isochronal Test Example
185
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Gas wells
Isochronal Test Example
186
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Gas wells
Modified Isochronal Test: For some low-permeability wells, the time required to
obtain stabilized shut-in pressures may be impractical. To overcome this limitation,
Katz et al proposed a modification to the isochronal test by requiring equal shut-in
periods.
The modified isochronal test is essentially the same as the isochronal test, except
the shut-in periods separating the flow periods are equal to or longer than the flow
periods. The method also requires the extended stabilized flow point and a
stabilized shut-in bottomhole pressure.
The modified isochronal test method is less accurate than the isochronal method
because the shut-in pressure is not allowed to return to the average reservoir
pressure.
187
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Gas wells
Modified Isochronal Test: In the analysis of the collected data, the measured
bottomhole pressure obtained just before the begining of the flow period is used in
the equations below instead of average reservoir pressure.
188
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Future performance of gas wells
The following equation are used to predict the future performance of gas wells.
For pressure squared:
For pseudo-pressure:
189
Reservoir Deliverability
Gas Well Performance
A full PVT characterization of gas sample is necessary to optimize gas
reservoir performance.
Liquid drop out in the reservoir causes permeability damage, most especially
around the wellbore where the minimum bottom hole pressure is observed in
the reservoir.
Accumulation of hydrocarbon liquid around the wellbore during wet gas
production is referred to as Condensate Banking.
190
Reservoir Deliverability
Gas Well Performance
191
Reservoir Deliverability
Gas Well Performance Effect of Condensate Banking on Gas Relative
Permeability
192
Reservoir Deliverability
Wellbore
Pressure
PD
Dewpoint pressure
PBHV
193
Reservoir Deliverability
Wellbore
Pressure
PD
PBHV
Reservoir
pressure
Dewpoint pressure
194
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Flow Efficiency
195
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Flow Efficiency
196
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Flow Efficiency
197
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Flow Efficiency
198
Reservoir Deliverability
Inflow Performance Relationship IPR Flow Efficiency
Stimulation flow
efficiency above 1.0
Damage - flow
efficiency below 1.0
199
DAY 4
FLOW IN PIPE & NODAL ANALYSIS
200
201
V12
P2 g
V22
g
+
Z1 +
=
+
Z2 +
+ W + El
2gc gc
2gc
gc
P1
202
g
V 2
=
Z +
+ El
gc
2gc
dP g
v dv fv 2
=
sin +
+
dL g c
g c dL 2 g c d
Methods to estimate the pressure drop in tubulars for single-phase liquid, singlephase vapour (gas) and multiphase flow are based on this fundamental relationship.
203
)
)
Sd 5 Pwf2 e S Pwh2
q g = 200
S
g TZLf M e 1
S=
0.0375 g L
TZ
f M = {2 log[3.71 ( d )]}
204
205
2 f F v 2 L
g
2
P = P1 P2 =
Z + v +
gc
gc
gc D
P = pressure drop, lbf/ft2
P1 = pressure at point 1, lbf/ft2
P2 = pressure at point 2, lbf/ft2
g = gravitational acceleration, 32.17ft/s2
gc = unit conversion factor, 32.17lbm-ft/lbf-s2
= fluid density, lbm/ft3
Z = elevation increase, ft
v = fluid velocity ft/s
fF = Fanning friction factor
L = tubing length, ft.
D= tubing inner diameter, ft
Dr. Alpheus Igbokoyi PTT Well Performance
206
* Re =
Dv
Or in U. S. field units as
* Re =
1.48q
d
207
For laminar flow where NRe < 2000, the Fanning friction factor is inversely
proportional to the Reynolds number, or:
16
fF =
* Re
208
1
fF
0.8981
1.1098
5.0452
7.149
= 4 log
log
+
* Re
2.8257 * Re
3.7065
209
fM
fF =
4
Example: Suppose that 1,000 bbl/day of 40o API, 1.2 cp oil is being produced
through 2-7/8-in, 8.6 lbm/ft tubing in a well that is 15 degree from the vertical.
If the tubing wall relative roughness is 0.001, calculate the pressure drop over
1,000 ft of tubing.
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
VL
yL =
V
Minimizing the GLR will there lead to more efficient flow of the liquid in the system.
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
k +1
k 2
k
k
y y
k 1
qg = Mscf/day
CD = discharge coefficient
Pwh = tubing head pressure in psia
d = choke diameter in inches
Tsc = standard temperature oR
Psc = Standard pressure psia
Twh = wllhead temperature oR
g = gas gravity
Z = gas compressibility factor
Dr. Alpheus Igbokoyi PTT Well Performance
232
Pdownstream
k 1
= yc = 2
P
k +1
upstream
k = Cp/Cv is the specific heat ratio. The value of k is about 1.28 for natural gas.
Thus, the critical pressure ratio is about 0.55 for natural gas.
The discharge coefficient CD can be obtained from the chart on the next page,
having known the Reynolds Number NRE.
qsc = Mscf/day
20q sc g
d = choke diameter in inches
* Re =
g = gas gravity
d
= gas viscosity in cp
Dr. Alpheus Igbokoyi PTT Well Performance
233
234
235
A1q L R A2
Pwh =
d A3
Researchers
A1
A2
A3
Gilbert
0.00386
0.546
1.89
0.00426
0.500
2.00
0.00312
0.546
1.93
0.00154
0.650
1.88
qL = stb/day
Ros
R = GLR in scfstb
Baxendell
d = choke diameter in 1/64
Pwh = wellhead pressure in psia Achong
Dr. Alpheus Igbokoyi PTT Well Performance
236
237
Choke line
238
Nodal Analysis
The inflow performance relationships described provide a picture of pressure and
rates that a reservoir with certain characteristics, operating under certain
conditions (pressure, mode of flow), can deliver into the bottomhole of a well.
The fluid must traverse a path from the bottom of the well to the top and then into
surface equipment such as separator.
The Figure below describes such a path, which consists of several segments,
joints and valves, all of which cause a pressure drop.
Nodal analysis considers the reservoir/well system and uses calculations of the
pressure loss across each segment to predict the production rate and identify any
restrictions that may reduce the hydrocarbon flow rate.
At its simplest manifestation, for a given wellhead pressure, tubing performance
allows calculation of the required bottomhole flowing pressure to lift a range of
flow rates to the top.
Dr. Alpheus Igbokoyi PTT Well Performance
239
Nodal Analysis
240
Nodal Analysis
241
Nodal Analysis
242
Nodal Analysis
243
Nodal Analysis
244
Nodal Analysis
245
Nodal Analysis
246
Nodal Analysis
247
Nodal Analysis
248
Nodal Analysis
249
Nodal Analysis
250
DAY 5
ARTIFICIAL LIFT
257
Artificial Lift
Artificial lift is a method used to lower the producing bottom hole pressure on
the formation to obtain a higher production rate from the well.
This can be done with positive displacement downhole pump such as:
Beam pump.
Progressive cavity pump.
It can also be done by using:
Centrifugal pump.
Electrical submersible pump.
Most common method is the use of gas-lift. This is done by injecting gas into
the tubing to lower the column density of the wellbore fluid for the well bottom
hole flowing pressure to be able to lift the liquid and the expanding gas also
helps in lifting.
To realise the maximum potential from developing any oil or gas field, the most
economical artificial lift method must be selected.
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Artificial Lift
This could be based on:
What works in the past.
What is available.
What can technically provide the best lifting.
Evaluation should also consider:
Advantages
Disadvantages
Initial and operating cost
Durability
Production increase
It is necessary to evaluate the field for possible artificial lift at the development
planning stage and incorporate the design in the completion equipment at the initial
completion.
Reservoir Pressure and Well Productivity: Reservoir and well productivity
performance together with the tubing out flow at the wellhead must be evaluated at
various tubing head pressure and reservoir pressure together with the producing
GOR and water cut.
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Artificial Lift
This can be used to determine the natural lift die out and when artificial lift
operation should commence.
Each well must be evaluated for near wellbore damage at the initial stage of
production. Permeability, skin and turbulence factor are necessary and must be
obtained from each well at the initial stage.
Reservoir Fluids: The characteristics of the reservoir fluid also be considered.
Paraffin buildup can be attacked mechanically when sucker rod pumping is
used.
Thermal or chemical method may be necessary to remove wax when other
artificial methods are used.
The producing GOR is important to the lift designer. If the percentage of free
gas at the intake conditions is high, gas interference is a potential detriment to
all methods of lifts but beneficial to gas lift.
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Artificial Lift
High fluid viscosity hinders most major forms of lift but the progressive cavity
pump system may produce low temperature, shallow viscous fluids with little
difficulty.
Sand or solid-laden production which can rule out the use of plunger lift also
can cause wear with sucker-rod pumps, reciprocating hydraulic pumps and jet
pumps.
Gas lift and progressive cavity pumps produce moderate volume of solids with
only minor problems.
Long term Reservoir Performance and facility constraints: Design can be done
on the basis of:
Current performance.
Anticipated performance.
If future reservoir performance can be predicted, then necessary artificial lift
equipment can be put in place in anticipation of high liquid production and high
GOR.
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Artificial Lift
However, this philosophy can lead to overdesign and low efficiency.
Designing for the current conditions can lead to multiple required changes in
the size or type of installed lift equipment.
This often result to large capital investment. Changing reservoir condition with
time must be considered.
If a pump system is used, then an additional term is introduced to reflect the
supplementary energy provided, P
PUMP.
This will allow a higher production rate to be attained by the well.
PRES+PPUMP = PRES+PBHC+PVL+PSURF+PCHOKE+PSEP
PRES = Reservoir pressure, PPUMP = Pump pressure
PRES = pressure drop in the reservoir
PBHC = pressure drop due to completion equipment
PVL = pressure drop due to lifting, PSURF = pressure drop Xmas tree and flow line
PCHOKE = pressure drop through the choke, PSEP = separator pressure
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Gas lift
Well
Flowing
Well
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Reduction of the fluid density and the column weight so that the pressure
between reservoir and wellbore will be increased.
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Produced
Hydrocarbons
Out
Side Pocket
Mandrel with
Gas Lift Valve
Gas Lift
System Advantages
High Degree of Flexibility and
Design Rates
Wireline Retrievable
Side Pocket
Mandrel with
Gas Lift Valve
Completion
Fluid
Single
Production
Packer
Single Compressor
Multiple or Slimhole Completion
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Produced
Hydrocarbons
Out
Side Pocket
Mandrel with
Gas Lift Valve
Gas Lift
System Limitations
eeds High-Pressure Gas Well or
Compressor
One Well Leases May Be
Side Pocket
Mandrel with
Gas Lift Valve
Uneconomical
Fluid Viscosity
Side Pocket
Mandrel with
Gas Lift Valve
Bottomhole Pressure
High Back-Pressure
Completion
Fluid
Single
Production
Packer
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Maximum*
Operating
Depth
15,000 TVD
Operating
Volume
30,000 BPD
100 - 250 F
400 F
0- 50
70
Short to
Medium
Radius
Operating
Temperature
Wellbore
Deviation
Corrosion Handling
Gas Handling
Solids Handling
Fluid Gravity
Servicing
Prime Mover Type
Offshore Application
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