EAB3606 3 v2 PDF

Semester 1, 2016-2017
Sensors
EAB 3606 AGRICULTURAL

AUTOMATION
Basic Automation Component consists of
Sensors
Analyzers
Four broad categories of
Actuators
automation
Drives
Basic Automation Component consists of
Sensors
Analyzers
Four broad categories of
Actuators
automation
Drives
Introduction
A sensor is an instrument that responds to a specific
physical stimulus and produces a measurable
corresponding electrical signal.
A
sensor
can
be
mechanical,
electromechanical, magnetic or optical.
electrical,
Sensors have an important role in daily life because of

the need to gather information and process it
conveniently for specific tasks.
Sensors
Sensors convey information from the manufacturing process

equipment, the piece part being manufactured, and from the human
operator, if any.
Once the information is sensed by an automated system, it must be

registered and analyzed for content, and then a decision must be made
by the system as to which action should be taken.
Once a real world condition is sensed and analyzed, human operator

must intervene and apply judgment for taking some kind of physical
action.
Transducers
A transducer is a device that converts one type of physical
quantity (eg. To, force, velocity, flow rate) into another type
(commonly electrical voltage).
The reason for making the conversion is that the converted
signal can be used or evaluated more conveniently.
Transducers are often called sensors when they are used to
measure the value of a physical quality.
Transducers
Transducers are used to measure the continuous analog signals by converting the
variable (such as T, flow rate, force, etc) into a more conventional electrical
signal (such as voltage or current).
Analog Transducers
Analog transducers produce a continuous analog signal such as electrical voltage.
The signal can be interpreted as the value of the measured variable.
Digital Transducers
Digital transducers are measuring devices that produce a digital output signal.
The digital signal may be in the form of a set of parallel status bits or a series of
pulses that can be counted.
Sensors
Sensors convey information from the manufacturing
process equipment, the piece part being
manufactured, and from the human operator, if any.
Sensors may be classified as either contact or noncontact. They may be further classified as internal or
external and as passive or active.
Contact Sensors
A limit switch is a contact sensor. This limit switch permits the robot to
sense whether an object is present or missing.
Force, pressure, temperature and tactile sensors all respond to contact.
They all send their signals to the controller for processing.
Non-Contact Sensors
Pressure charges, To charges and electromagnetic charges can all be
sensed by non-contact methods. They usually react to a change in a
magnetic field or light pattern.
Another non-contact sensor is the television camera mounted on the end
of the manipulator. It can see the presence of parts and compare them to
what is in the memory of the computer and then pick up the right part
and move it to a preprogrammed location.
Manual Switches
Electric lamp switches is a sensor. The switch is the
link between the lamp and the person who desires
the lamp to be turned on and off.
The automation system is linked to the operator, who
may desire to turn the system on or off or make
adjustments to the automated cycle.
b) Limit Switches
Like manual switches, limit switches are actuated mechanically, but limit switches
are automatic inputs from the manufacturing process, the material, or the
automated system itself, without intervention by the operator.
Robot systems employ limit switches. Limit switches can be used to limit the travel
of a robot arm on any of its axes of motion. When the limit is reached, a circuit is
opened (or closed) that removes power from the axis of motion either directly or
via the robot controller.
Limit switches are designed to be turned on and off by an object contacting a lever
or roller that operates the switch. Some low and medium technology robots use
this type of sensor.
Limit switch is a contact sensor. Touch, force, pressure, To and tactile sensors all
respond to contact.
Sensors for Bioproduction Robots

External Sensors for Perception
Internal Sensors for Mechanism Control
Principle categories of robot sensors:

internal state and external state
Prof. Ir. Dr. Wan Ishak bin Wan Ismail
The function of robot sensors may be divided into two principal categories:
Internal state
External state
Internal state sensors deals with the detection of variables such as arm joint position, which
are used for robot control.
Internal sensors controlling position and velocity of the various joints. These sensors form
a feedback control loop with the robot controller. Typical sensors used to control the
position of the robot arm include potentiometers and optical encoder.
External state sensors to coordinate the operation of the robot with other equipment.
Includes tactile sensors, force sensors, proximity sensors, machine vision and optical sensors.
External sensing mechanisms allows a robot to interact with its environment in a flexible
manner. It deals with the detection of variables such as range, proximity and touch.
Classification of external state sensor:

contact and non contact
SENSING CAPABILITY
Mechanical manipulation has many applications, but

used alone its success is highly dependent upon the
positioning and orientation of the workpiece.
Sensing capability on a robot can have widely ranging
degrees of sophistication in addition to a variety of
sensing media.
For instance, optical sense capability can vary from a
simple photoelectric cell to a complex, threedimensional vision system.
A. Gripper Pressure Sense
The most elementary sense capability on a robot is

probably the ability of the gripper to detect grip force
between its fingertips.
In its simplest form, the grip sensor consists merely of a

limit switch that trips when a given preset grip pressure is
reached.
Such a limit switch is a practical safeguard against over

closure of the gripper in case of either program error or
payload dimensional variability.
Gauge pressure and grip closure are in fact the same

operation.
B. Electro-Optic Force Sensor
Flexible gripper contact material through which

one or more holes have been drilled to admit an
LED light beam for photoelectric sensing at the
opposite end of the hole.
The force of the gripper closing an object causes a

deformation in the cross-sectional area of the hole
in the flexible gripper material, which results in a
reduction in the light detected by the photoelectric
sensor.
C. Optical Presence Sensing
Once a robot has grip pressure sense capability, the next step is to add some
sort of presence-sensing mechanism, usually a photoelectric cell.
A natural place to mount such a sensor is again on the gripper, to detect that an
object is ready to be picked up, but this is no means the only possible mounting
place.
Photoelectric sensors are the most popular devices for presence sensing.
Infrared devices have the advantage of not reading ambient light as a false
signal.
Radio frequency devices are also a possibility, but these systems must be tuned
to trigger at the right time for the right object.
Radio frequency devices are affected by the size and conductivity of the object
to be sensed, and large variations in objects encountered can cause problem.
D. Robot Vision
Machine vision system can be divided into 2 somewhat

sequential steps:
The gathering of the image into a machine-readable form.

The manipulation and analysis of that image to interpret it and
accomplish the goals of the user.
Robot vision will be discussed in detail later.
Tactile Sensing
Robot fingers that can actually feel the difference between
various texture and surface shapes.
f.
Voice Communication
The idea of communicating with robots by voice. There are 2 modes to

such communication
Human to robot
Robot to human
General approach to designing a capability for a robot to speak is to store
segments of prerecorded human voice to recall by a computer program.
Although the voice itself is human, the sequence and timing of the voice
segments are controlled by a computer.
This is the mode used by telephone directory assistance, which uses real
human voices with prerecorded digits placed together by computer.
Introduction
Recent advances in microdevice technology, microfabrication, chemical
processes, and digital signal processing have enabled the development

of micro/nanosized, low-cost, and low-power sensors called
microsensors.
Microsensors have been successfully applied to many practical areas,
including medical and space devices, military equipment,
telecommunication, and manufacturing applications.
When compared with conventional sensors, microsensors have certain
advantages, such as interfering less with the environment they
measure, requiring less manufacturing cost, being used in narrow
spaces and harsh environments, etc.
The successful application of microsensors depends on sensor
capability, cost ,and reliability
Introduction
Typically sensors are used to measure variables such as:
Position, velocity, acceleration
Force, torque, strain, pressure
Temperature, humidity
Flow rate
O2, N2
Usually, a sensor is placed in the environment where a variable

is to be measured.
The sensor is exposed to the effect of the measured variable.
There are three basic phenomenon in effect in any sensor
operation:
The change in the measured physical variable is translated into a
change in the property of the sensor. For instance, the value of pressure
is translated into equivalent resistance.
The change in the property of the sensor is translated into a low power
level electrical signal in the form of voltage or current
The low power sensor signal is amplified, conditioned, and transmitted
to an intelligent device for processing. The signal can be used for
monitoring (LCD display) or used in a feedback loop control algorithm
In any measurement system, accuracy plays a significant role.

In discussing accuracy, one will always encounter the following
terms: accuracy, repeatability, and resolution.
These terms are related but defined distinct features in any
measurement system.
Accuracy refers to the difference between the measured
value and the actual value.
Accuracy can only be determined if there is way to
measure a value more accurately in order to make a
comparison.
Repeatability refers to average error in between
consecutive measurement of the same value.
Resolution is the smallest change that the sensor can
detect
Sensing Principles
Sensors for Bioproduction

Range Sensors
Proximity Sensors
Tactile Sensors
Ripeness Sensor for Fruit
Sensors for Robot Guidance
Fixed-Position and Fixed-Angle Detection

Position and Angle Measurement
Velocity and Angular Velocity Measurements
Acceleration Measurement
Inclination Measurement
Azimuth Measurement

Range Sensors
Ultrasonic Sensor
Position-Sensitive Device
Proximity Sensors
Photosensing Type
Pneumatic Type
Tactile Sensors
Touch Sensor
Pressure Sensor
Slip Sensor

Photo Sensor
Sonic Sensor
Gas Sensor

Fixed Path
Semifixed Path
Free Path
Range Sensors
Ultrasonic Sensor
Range Sensors
Are used to locate objects near a work station
to control manipulator. One type of range
sensors is called laser interfero-metric gage. It
is very expensive and is sensitive to humidity,
To and vibration.
Another ranging system is the television
camera.
1.0
Are used to locate objects near a work station to control manipulator. One type of range
sensors is called laser interfero-metric gage. It is very expensive and is sensitive to
humidity, To and vibration
Another ranging system is the television camera.
Lasers
Lasers are concentrated, amplified beams of collimated light. They are capable of delivering
over a distance a large amount of energy into a tiny spot and thus have obvious industrial
applications.
The precision available from laser systems for providing very narrow, concentrated beams
of light. The presence or absence of a continuous beam then can be used as logic input to
an automated control system.
Such precision also makes the laser a great tool for dimensional measurement.
Range Sensors
Lasers
Lasers are concentrated, amplified beams of collimated light.
They are capable of delivering over a distance a large amount
of energy into a tiny spot and thus have obvious industrial
applications.
The precision available from laser systems for providing very
narrow, concentrated beams of light. The presence or
absence of a continuous beam then can be used as logic input
to an automated control system.
Such precision also makes the laser a great tool for
dimensional measurement.
Infrared Sensors
Infrared sensors respond to radiation in the
range of wavelengths just beyond the visible
spectrum at the red end.
Hot objects emit infrared radiation, and thus
infrared sensors are useful for locating heat
sources in a process.
1.1
An ultrasonic wave is an elastic wave whose frequency is too high for the human ear to
detect. It propagates through air. liquid. and solid media. For measuring phenomena. it is
used in a fish detector, thickness meter, acoustic emission meter, flow meter, range finder,
and physical examination.
Ultrasonic Sensor
In the field of robotics, the ultrasonic wave is used to measure the distance from the robot
to the object. Figure below shows this measuring method in air. An ultrasonic pulse is
transmitted toward the object from an ultrasonic transducer, and the reflected wave from
the object is detected by another transducer. The distance to the object is calculated from
the time of flight, that is, the propagation time of the ultrasonic pulse.
Piezoelectric material is usually applied for use in the transducer. Such a transducer can be
applied, in general, as both an electroacoustic and an acousticelectro transducer.
Therefore a single transducer can be used as both a transmitter and a receiver. The
piezoelectric transducer has a resonant characteristic that has the effect of increasing both
the signal-to-noise ratio and the gain.
1.2 Position-Sensitive Device
A position-sensitive device (PSD) is used to measure distances. The device

is often used for the automatic focusing systems of compact cameras.
Figure shows the measuring method for distance. A light beam from the
light projector is reflected at the surface of the object. The reflected light
is focused by a lens on the sensitive zone of the PSD as a small image. The
PSD has two anodes, A and B; the ratio of these anode currents changes
according to the position of the image. The distance to the object is
calculated with these two currents by triangulation. The threedimensional image is obtained when the light beam is scanned in the
horizontal and the vertical directions.
Proximity Sensors
Photosensing Type
Pneumatic Type
Proximity Sensors
Give the robot the senses of touch and sight.
A proximity sensor can send out signals indicating the
proximity of the part being processed.
The inductive proximity sensor is based on an LC oscillator
circuit (LC = inductive capacitive).
The oscillator sets up a frequency that is turned off when a
metallic object comes near it. The metallic object charges the
inductance of the circuit and the frequency.
The RC circuit (RC = resistive capacitive) has its frequency changed by the
closeness (proximity) of the object being sensed. An advantage of RC sensor is its
ability to detect metallic and non-metallic objects.
Pulsed infrared photoelectric controls are used in industrial robotics for presence
sensing of any type of object.
Eddy current proximity detectors use magnetism to function. They induce a

magnetic field in any object nearby. A small coil picks up any charge in the
magnetic field about it and sends it on to the close controller for processing.
A reed switch is another magnetic electrical proximity switch. It responds to a

controlled magnetic field. It makes or breaks contact when exposed to either a
permanent magnetic field or an electromagnetic field.
2.0 Proximity Sensors
Proximity sensors are usually used to obtain local positions, to

recognize the presence of an object, to avoid obstacles, to
measure an objects shape, or to compensate for the error in
position detecting introduced by the vision sensor; a human
being does not have a biological analog to this sensor. This
sensor should be small and light because it is often utilized in
end-effectors. The classification of the sensor is as follows.

A proximity sensor can send out signals indicating the proximity of the
part being processed.
The inductive proximity sensor is based on an LC oscillator circuit (LC =
inductive - capacitive).
The oscillator sets up a frequency that is turned off when a metallic
object comes near it. The metallic object charges the inductance of the
circuit and the frequency.
The RC circuit (RC = resistive - capacitive) has its frequency changed by
the closeness (proximity) of the object being sensed. An advantage of RC
sensor is its ability to detect metallic and non-metallic objects.
Pulsed infrared photoelectric controls are used in industrial robotics for

presence sensing of any type of object.
Eddy current proximity detectors use magnetism to function. They
induce a magnetic field in any object nearby. A small coil picks up any
charge in the magnetic field about it and sends it on to the close
controller for processing
A reed switch is another magnetic electrical proximity switch. It
responds to a controlled magnetic field. It makes or breaks contact when
exposed to either a permanent magnetic field or an electromagnetic
field.
2.1 Photosensing Type

Illuminance on an object is determined by reflectance of the object,
distance between the light source and the object, direction of the light
source, and the spectrum of the light source. The illuminance on a object
is in inverse proportion to the squared value of distance from the light
source. When the objects reflectance, light-source direction, and
brightness are constant, the distance to that object can be determined
from the illuminance. A photointerrupter is often used for detecting the
presence of an object that comes between the light projector and
receiver, because the output signal is digital and is easy to install. Other
methods for utilizing light, including using a PSD for receiving projected
light from a LED or laser, transformation of a light stripe, and moir
topography are reported.
2.1.1
Photointerrupter
Luminance on an object is determined by reflectance of the object,

source, and the spectrum of the light source. The luminance on an object
source, When the object's reflectance, light-source direction, and
brightness are constant, the distance to that object can be detem1ined
from the luminance. A photo interrupter is often used for detecting the
receiver, because the output signal is digital and is easy to install.
2.2
It is possible to detect the distance to an object by the measurement of

air pressure or a change in air flow. Figure shows the principal idea of
this measuring method. When an air nozzle blowing with constant air
pressure moves toward an object, the air pressure in the neighboring
holes changes. This method is so robust that the sensor output is not
affected by environmental conditions.
Pneumatic Type
3.0 Tactile Sensors

Touch Sensor
Pressure Sensor
Slip Sensor
Tactile (Touch) Sensors

Rely on touch to detect the presence of the object.
The 2 types of tactile sensors are
Touch sensors
Stress sensors
Touch sensors respond only to touch.
Stress sensors produce a signal that varies with the magnitude of the
contact made between the object and the sensor.
The simplest touch sensor is the microswitch, which is turned on or off by
the presence of an object.
The stress gage is a good example of a stress sensor.
Tactile Sensors
Tactile sensors for robots can be commonly classified into

three types: sense touch, pressure, and slip. Each type is
based on direct contact with the external object.
3.1 Touch Sensor

A touch sensor outputs an ON-OFF signal
when it detects contact with an object.
Lightweight and compact sensors that can
detect a light force are available, although a
touch sensor can be made with a microswitch.
Figure shows typical touch sensor.
3.1 Touch Sensor

i) A flexible rod-lever touch sensor that uses an
actuator is suitable for multidirectional detection. A
flexible material, such as a coil spring, steel wire, or
plastic, is used for the actuator. This sensor can
detect a contact with an object, regardless of the
moving direction of the object, because the actuator
easily bends in all directions under a small force.
A push-on-type touch sensor consists of spring elements and

contacts. The output signal of the sensor is changed from
OFF to ON because the contacts are closed when an external
force is applied. On the other hand, a push-off-type sensor
changes its output signal from ON to OFF when an external
force is applied. Other sensors for which conductive rubber
is used for the contact and elastic material is used for the
spring element are also available.
3.2 Pressure Sensor

A pressure sensor detects a force from an object and outputs
an analog signal. The magnitude of the applied force can be
calculated by the measurement of the displacement of the
elastic material transformed by the external force. Typically
a pressure sensor is composed of a combination of elastic
materials with a sensor to measure the displacement of the
elastic materials or by use of a pressure-sensitive material
such as conductive rubber, and a piezoelectric element.
3.2 Pressure Sensor

A pressure sensor detects a force from an object and outputs an analog
signal. The magnitude of the applied force can be calculated by the
measurement of the displacement of the elastic material transformed by
the external force. Typically a pressure sensor is composed of a
combination of elastic materials with a sensor to measure the
displacement of the elastic materials or by use of a pressure-sensitive
material such as conductive rubber, and a piezoelectric element.
Figure below shows an example of a pressure sensor for which a

conductive rubber is used. The external force can be calculated by the
measurement of the change of resistance of the conductive rubber
inserted between the electrodes, since conductive rubber decreases its
resistance when compressed.
KBP 4708: Robotics in Agriculture

Prof. Dr. Ir. Wan Ishak bin Wan Ismail
3.3 Slip Sensor

Slip sensor which detects the sliding displacement of
an object, is classified into three types, as shown in
figure.
A roller-type sensor.
A vibrating-type sensor.
A ball-type sensor.
3.3 Slip Sensor

A roller-type sensor detects a sliding
displacement in one direction. A rotation of
the roller caused by a slip of the object is
detected by a magnetic or optical sensor.
3.3 Slip Sensor

A vibrating-type sensor detects, not the sliding
direction, but the sliding displacement and velocity.
When the object slides, the contact bar is vibrated
along the shape of object. The displacement can be
obtained from a vibration detected by a detecting
element such as a piezoelectric sensor, coil, or
magnet assembly.
3.3 Slip Sensor

A ball-type sensor also detects the sliding direction of an
object in a two-dimensional space. It consists of a ball, with
dimples like a golf ball, and a lever that is in contact with the
ball. As an object slides, the ball rotates and the lever
vibrates, inclining toward the moving direction of the dimples;
this makes or breaks contact with an electric circuit. The
sliding displacement and direction of the object are detected
from the frequency and the inclined direction of the lever.
Another ball-type sensor for which a checkered ball is used is
available.
4.0 Ripeness Sensor for Fruit

Photo Sensor
Sonic Sensor
Gas Sensor
Photoelectric Sensors
Sensors that are sensitive to light radiation: photoelectric sensors.
Two basic approaches for employing photoelectrics are in use:
The first approach merely uses a photocell to detect the presence of light
radiating naturally from some object in the process.
E.g.: Use of photocells to turn on lighting systems automatically at dusk and
to turn them back off again at dawn.
The second approach to photoelectrics employs a beam of light emitted by an
artificial light source.
The principal purpose of this approach is to detect the presence or

absence of objects in the path of the beam.
4.0
Most fruits have a suitable time for harvesting

according to their maturity, colour, hardness, and
size. However, criteria for harvesting also vary from
country to country and from district to district. In
operations of postharvesting, maturity, colour and
size are also important factors for grading the fruits.
Here, non-destructive evaluation methods of
internal quality are introduced.
4.1 Photo Sensor

Sugar and acid content have an impact on taste and have high
correlations with photoabsorption in the near infrared region. For
example, it is said that wavelengths of 772, 832, 920, 1008, 1208, 1260,
1376, 1466, 1682, 1752, 2096,, and 2252 nm have some relation to fruit
sugar, whereas 790, 838, 924, 1038, 1206, 1266, 1390, 1538, 1692, 17466,
2126, 2280, and 2320 nm are for cane sugar (Mohri and Iwao, 1995). If a
light that includes some of these wavelengths is projected onto the fruit
and the reflected transmitted light is analyzed, inside quality can be
determined. This method has already been commercialized for peaches
in Japan, and the feasibility for applying it to fruits with thin skin, such as
grapes, has been reported (Mohri et al., 1994). A similar internal
analysis method for which crushed rice is used is also applied to quality
evaluation of rice.
4.2
Sonic Sensor
Traditionally we evaluate the inside quality of watermelon

by hitting the fruit surface. We actually can her lowerpitched sounds when a mature fruit is hit, whereas we hear
higher sounds for the unmatured or small fruits. Recently
this operation was mechanized for grading the watermelon
by use of the power spectrum density obtained from the
sonic wave by Fourier analysis.
4.3
Gas Sensor
Melon fruit is harvested when it is still unmatured and is

ripened during the storage period after harvesting. The fruit
breathes in O2 and outputs CO2 and ethylene gas. From
this, it is possible to deduce the inside status of an object by
use of gas chromatography or a semiconductor gas sensor
(Benady et al., 1992). Kiwi fruit is also harvested when it is
unmatured and may be graded with a gas sensor, but
grading is currently done according to its hardness.
5.0 Sensors for Robot Guidance

Fixed Path
Semifixed Path
Free Path
Fiber Optics
Fiber optic light tubes are flexible pipes of glass or plastic that
can be used to bend light beams around corners.
When bundles of fibers are used together, whole images can
be transmitted.
Fiber optics are so efficient that it becomes worthwhile for
the telephone industry to convert communications circuits
from electrical signals to modulated light signals for
transmission via fiber optics and subsequent reconversion at
the receiving end.


Azimuth Measurement

Microswitch
Photoelectric Sensor

Potentiometer
Encoder

Tachometer Generator
Moving Magnet Velocity Sensor
Piezoelectric Acceleration Sensor
Strain-Gauge Acceleration Sensor
Photoelectric Inclination Sensor
Electroytic-Liquid-Type Inclination Sensor
Azimuth Measurement
Gyroscope
Geomagnetic Sensor
Internal sensors for measuring the states of the

robot, including angle and angular joint velocity
and position and velocity of the manipulator, are
essential elements required for controlling a robot.
Therefore high accuracy and reliability, rapid
response, and wide range of detection area are
demanded.
Sensors for detecting position, angle velocity, and acceleration are the
typical internal sensing devices for a robot; moreover, sensors for
detection of the robots own position are used on an autonomous land
vehicle in the field.
These sensors that detect the vehicles own position based on an

inertial frame of reference (or the Earth), such as gyroscope, a
geomagnetic sensor, and a mileage meter, can be included as types of
internal sensors.
In addition, an inclination sensor might be necessary for a robot that

moves on an inclined place in order to prevent overturning and to
secure safety.
1.0 Fixed-Position and Fixed-Angle Detection

The following sensors detect fixed position or angle
by using the binary equivalent of on and off. On
robots, they are commonly used to sense or limit
motion, such as a zero return and an overrunning.
Microswitch
1.1. Microswitch
The microswitch is widely used for a limit switch, is designed
to open and close a circuit when a push button is depressed
or released by a lever. The contact is made or broken
suddenly, regardless of the operating speed of the lever, by a
snap-action mechanism. Very little force is required for
depressing a push button. For these reasons, microswitches
are used in a wide range of sensor systems.

Figure shows an internal mechanism of a micro switch. When an external
force is not applied to the lever, a contact between the COMMON and the
NC (normally closed) terminals is made. On the other hand, when the
lever is depressed, the switch position is suddenly changed in COMMONNO (normally open) by the snap-action mechanism. The switch elements
are covered by a metallic or plastic case for protection from water, oil, and
dust. The two most common levers for the switch are the straight and the
roller lever. The roller-lever type is widely used for robots. The detection
accuracy of the switch is approximately 1 mm.
1.2
A photoelectric sensor system basically consists of a light beam

transmitter with a LED (to generate a light beam with a particular
wavelength) and a receiver composed of a photodiode or a
phototransistor. An object is detected by its effect of breaking or changing
the intensity of the light beam emitted from the transmitter. Three
common types of sensors, shown in figure are available.
i).
ii.
iii).
through beam type

reflex type
diffuse type
B. Photoelectric Sensor
i)
Through-beam type
Diagram
In a through-beam type, the transmitter and the receiver are mounted in
separate enclosures and are positioned facing each other. This system
allows the detection of any object that breaks the light beam, including
opaque and reflective objects. It is suitable for long-range detection up
to ~30 m, although an accurate setup alignment of the optical axis is
essential, and for detection for which high accuracy is required. A sensor
with the transmitter and the receiver built into the same enclosure is
also available, although its detecting range is much shorter.
ii)
Reflex type Photoelectric Sensor
In a reflex type, the transmitter and the receiver are built

into the same enclosure and a reflector is mounted opposite
the sensor unit. This system allows detection of any object
that breaks the reflected beam and is suitable for mediumrange detection from 0.1 to 10 m. Commonly this system is
used for detection of objects on conveyors. The optical axis
is set an angle with respect to the measured objects surface
in order to prevent reflections when smooth and reflective
objects are being detected.
iii) Diffuse Type

In a diffuse type, a transmitter and a receiver are built into the
same enclosure. This system allows detection of any object
that reflects the light beam and is close to a sensor unit, and it
is suitable for short-range detection from ~5 cm to 2 m and
for the detection of transparent or translucent objects such as
glasses. The setup alignment of the optical axis and the
reflector are unnecessary because the reflected beam is
utilized for detection. Sensitivity adjustment is necessary
since the usable range depends largely on the color and the
reflectance of the object being detected.

Potentiometer
Encoder

Range Sensors
Proximity Sensors
Tactile Sensors

Azimuth Measurement

Range Sensors
Ultrasonic Sensor
Proximity Sensors
Photosensing Type
Pneumatic Type
Tactile Sensors
Touch Sensor
Pressure Sensor
Slip Sensor

Photo Sensor
Sonic Sensor
Gas Sensor

Fixed Path
Semifixed Path
Free Path
Range Sensors
Ultrasonic Sensor
Range Sensors
Are used to locate objects near a work station
to control manipulator. One type of range
sensors is called laser interfero-metric gage. It
is very expensive and is sensitive to humidity,
To and vibration.
Another ranging system is the television
camera.
1.0
Are used to locate objects near a work station to control manipulator. One type of range
sensors is called laser interfero-metric gage. It is very expensive and is sensitive to
humidity, To and vibration
Another ranging system is the television camera.
Lasers
Lasers are concentrated, amplified beams of collimated light. They are capable of delivering
over a distance a large amount of energy into a tiny spot and thus have obvious industrial
applications.
The precision available from laser systems for providing very narrow, concentrated beams
of light. The presence or absence of a continuous beam then can be used as logic input to
an automated control system.
Such precision also makes the laser a great tool for dimensional measurement.
Range Sensors
Lasers
Lasers are concentrated, amplified beams of collimated light.
They are capable of delivering over a distance a large amount
of energy into a tiny spot and thus have obvious industrial
applications.
The precision available from laser systems for providing very
narrow, concentrated beams of light. The presence or
absence of a continuous beam then can be used as logic input
to an automated control system.
Such precision also makes the laser a great tool for
dimensional measurement.
Infrared Sensors
Infrared sensors respond to radiation in the
range of wavelengths just beyond the visible
spectrum at the red end.
Hot objects emit infrared radiation, and thus
infrared sensors are useful for locating heat
sources in a process.
1.1
An ultrasonic wave is an elastic wave whose frequency is too high for the human ear to
detect. It propagates through air. liquid. and solid media. For measuring phenomena. it is
used in a fish detector, thickness meter, acoustic emission meter, flow meter, range finder,
and physical examination.
Ultrasonic Sensor
In the field of robotics, the ultrasonic wave is used to measure the distance from the robot
to the object. Figure below shows this measuring method in air. An ultrasonic pulse is
transmitted toward the object from an ultrasonic transducer, and the reflected wave from
the object is detected by another transducer. The distance to the object is calculated from
the time of flight, that is, the propagation time of the ultrasonic pulse.
Piezoelectric material is usually applied for use in the transducer. Such a transducer can be
applied, in general, as both an electroacoustic and an acousticelectro transducer.
Therefore a single transducer can be used as both a transmitter and a receiver. The
piezoelectric transducer has a resonant characteristic that has the effect of increasing both
the signal-to-noise ratio and the gain.
1.2 Position-Sensitive Device
A position-sensitive device (PSD) is used to measure distances. The device

is often used for the automatic focusing systems of compact cameras.
Figure shows the measuring method for distance. A light beam from the
light projector is reflected at the surface of the object. The reflected light
is focused by a lens on the sensitive zone of the PSD as a small image. The
PSD has two anodes, A and B; the ratio of these anode currents changes
according to the position of the image. The distance to the object is
calculated with these two currents by triangulation. The threedimensional image is obtained when the light beam is scanned in the
horizontal and the vertical directions.
Proximity Sensors
Photosensing Type
Pneumatic Type
Proximity Sensors
A proximity sensor can send out signals indicating the
proximity of the part being processed.
The inductive proximity sensor is based on an LC oscillator
circuit (LC = inductive capacitive).
The oscillator sets up a frequency that is turned off when a
metallic object comes near it. The metallic object charges the
inductance of the circuit and the frequency.
The RC circuit (RC = resistive capacitive) has its frequency changed by the
closeness (proximity) of the object being sensed. An advantage of RC sensor is its
ability to detect metallic and non-metallic objects.
Pulsed infrared photoelectric controls are used in industrial robotics for presence
sensing of any type of object.
Eddy current proximity detectors use magnetism to function. They induce a

magnetic field in any object nearby. A small coil picks up any charge in the
magnetic field about it and sends it on to the close controller for processing.
A reed switch is another magnetic electrical proximity switch. It responds to a

controlled magnetic field. It makes or breaks contact when exposed to either a
permanent magnetic field or an electromagnetic field.
Proximity sensors are usually used to obtain local positions, to

recognize the presence of an object, to avoid obstacles, to
measure an objects shape, or to compensate for the error in
position detecting introduced by the vision sensor; a human
being does not have a biological analog to this sensor. This
sensor should be small and light because it is often utilized in
end-effectors. The classification of the sensor is as follows.

A proximity sensor can send out signals indicating the proximity of the
part being processed.
The inductive proximity sensor is based on an LC oscillator circuit (LC =
inductive - capacitive).
The oscillator sets up a frequency that is turned off when a metallic
object comes near it. The metallic object charges the inductance of the
circuit and the frequency.
The RC circuit (RC = resistive - capacitive) has its frequency changed by
the closeness (proximity) of the object being sensed. An advantage of RC
sensor is its ability to detect metallic and non-metallic objects.
Pulsed infrared photoelectric controls are used in industrial robotics for

presence sensing of any type of object.
Eddy current proximity detectors use magnetism to function. They
induce a magnetic field in any object nearby. A small coil picks up any
charge in the magnetic field about it and sends it on to the close
controller for processing
A reed switch is another magnetic electrical proximity switch. It
responds to a controlled magnetic field. It makes or breaks contact when
exposed to either a permanent magnetic field or an electromagnetic
field.
2.1 Photosensing Type

Illuminance on an object is determined by reflectance of the object,
source, and the spectrum of the light source. The illuminance on a object
source. When the objects reflectance, light-source direction, and
brightness are constant, the distance to that object can be determined
from the illuminance. A photointerrupter is often used for detecting the
receiver, because the output signal is digital and is easy to install. Other
methods for utilizing light, including using a PSD for receiving projected
light from a LED or laser, transformation of a light stripe, and moir
topography are reported.
2.1.1
Photointerrupter
Luminance on an object is determined by reflectance of the object,

source, and the spectrum of the light source. The luminance on an object
source, When the object's reflectance, light-source direction, and
brightness are constant, the distance to that object can be detem1ined
from the luminance. A photo interrupter is often used for detecting the
receiver, because the output signal is digital and is easy to install.
2.2
It is possible to detect the distance to an object by the measurement of

air pressure or a change in air flow. Figure shows the principal idea of
this measuring method. When an air nozzle blowing with constant air
pressure moves toward an object, the air pressure in the neighboring
holes changes. This method is so robust that the sensor output is not
affected by environmental conditions.
Pneumatic Type
3.0 Tactile Sensors

Touch Sensor
Pressure Sensor
Slip Sensor
Tactile (Touch) Sensors

Rely on touch to detect the presence of the object.
The 2 types of tactile sensors are
Touch sensors
Stress sensors
Touch sensors respond only to touch.
Stress sensors produce a signal that varies with the magnitude of the
contact made between the object and the sensor.
The simplest touch sensor is the microswitch, which is turned on or off by
the presence of an object.
The stress gage is a good example of a stress sensor.
Tactile Sensors
Tactile sensors for robots can be commonly classified into

three types: sense touch, pressure, and slip. Each type is
based on direct contact with the external object.
3.1 Touch Sensor

A touch sensor outputs an ON-OFF signal
when it detects contact with an object.
Lightweight and compact sensors that can
detect a light force are available, although a
touch sensor can be made with a microswitch.
Figure shows typical touch sensor.
3.1 Touch Sensor

i) A flexible rod-lever touch sensor that uses an
actuator is suitable for multidirectional detection. A
flexible material, such as a coil spring, steel wire, or
plastic, is used for the actuator. This sensor can
detect a contact with an object, regardless of the
moving direction of the object, because the actuator
easily bends in all directions under a small force.
A push-on-type touch sensor consists of spring elements and

contacts. The output signal of the sensor is changed from
OFF to ON because the contacts are closed when an external
force is applied. On the other hand, a push-off-type sensor
changes its output signal from ON to OFF when an external
force is applied. Other sensors for which conductive rubber
is used for the contact and elastic material is used for the
spring element are also available.
3.2 Pressure Sensor

A pressure sensor detects a force from an object and outputs
an analog signal. The magnitude of the applied force can be
calculated by the measurement of the displacement of the
elastic material transformed by the external force. Typically
a pressure sensor is composed of a combination of elastic
materials with a sensor to measure the displacement of the
elastic materials or by use of a pressure-sensitive material
such as conductive rubber, and a piezoelectric element.
3.2 Pressure Sensor

A pressure sensor detects a force from an object and outputs an analog
signal. The magnitude of the applied force can be calculated by the
measurement of the displacement of the elastic material transformed by
the external force. Typically a pressure sensor is composed of a
combination of elastic materials with a sensor to measure the
displacement of the elastic materials or by use of a pressure-sensitive
material such as conductive rubber, and a piezoelectric element.
Figure below shows an example of a pressure sensor for which a

conductive rubber is used. The external force can be calculated by the
measurement of the change of resistance of the conductive rubber
inserted between the electrodes, since conductive rubber decreases its
resistance when compressed.
KBP 4708: Robotics in Agriculture

Prof. Dr. Ir. Wan Ishak bin Wan Ismail
3.3 Slip Sensor

Slip sensor which detects the sliding displacement of
an object, is classified into three types, as shown in
figure.
A roller-type sensor.
A vibrating-type sensor.
A ball-type sensor.
3.3 Slip Sensor

A roller-type sensor detects a sliding
displacement in one direction. A rotation of
the roller caused by a slip of the object is
detected by a magnetic or optical sensor.
3.3 Slip Sensor

A vibrating-type sensor detects, not the sliding
direction, but the sliding displacement and velocity.
When the object slides, the contact bar is vibrated
along the shape of object. The displacement can be
obtained from a vibration detected by a detecting
element such as a piezoelectric sensor, coil, or
magnet assembly.
3.3 Slip Sensor

A ball-type sensor also detects the sliding direction of an
object in a two-dimensional space. It consists of a ball, with
dimples like a golf ball, and a lever that is in contact with the
ball. As an object slides, the ball rotates and the lever
vibrates, inclining toward the moving direction of the dimples;
this makes or breaks contact with an electric circuit. The
sliding displacement and direction of the object are detected
from the frequency and the inclined direction of the lever.
Another ball-type sensor for which a checkered ball is used is
available.
4.0 Ripeness Sensor for Fruit

Photo Sensor
Sonic Sensor
Gas Sensor
Photoelectric Sensors
Sensors that are sensitive to light radiation: photoelectric sensors.
Two basic approaches for employing photoelectrics are in use:
The first approach merely uses a photocell to detect the presence of light
radiating naturally from some object in the process.
E.g.: Use of photocells to turn on lighting systems automatically at dusk and
to turn them back off again at dawn.
The second approach to photoelectrics employs a beam of light emitted by an
artificial light source.
The principal purpose of this approach is to detect the presence or

absence of objects in the path of the beam.
4.0
Most fruits have a suitable time for harvesting

according to their maturity, colour, hardness, and
size. However, criteria for harvesting also vary from
country to country and from district to district. In
operations of postharvesting, maturity, colour and
size are also important factors for grading the fruits.
Here, non-destructive evaluation methods of
internal quality are introduced.
4.1 Photo Sensor

Sugar and acid content have an impact on taste and have high
correlations with photoabsorption in the near infrared region. For
example, it is said that wavelengths of 772, 832, 920, 1008, 1208, 1260,
1376, 1466, 1682, 1752, 2096,, and 2252 nm have some relation to fruit
sugar, whereas 790, 838, 924, 1038, 1206, 1266, 1390, 1538, 1692, 17466,
2126, 2280, and 2320 nm are for cane sugar (Mohri and Iwao, 1995). If a
light that includes some of these wavelengths is projected onto the fruit
and the reflected transmitted light is analyzed, inside quality can be
determined. This method has already been commercialized for peaches
in Japan, and the feasibility for applying it to fruits with thin skin, such as
grapes, has been reported (Mohri et al., 1994). A similar internal
analysis method for which crushed rice is used is also applied to quality
evaluation of rice.
4.2
Sonic Sensor
Traditionally we evaluate the inside quality of watermelon

by hitting the fruit surface. We actually can her lowerpitched sounds when a mature fruit is hit, whereas we hear
higher sounds for the unmatured or small fruits. Recently
this operation was mechanized for grading the watermelon
by use of the power spectrum density obtained from the
sonic wave by Fourier analysis.
4.3
Gas Sensor
Melon fruit is harvested when it is still unmatured and is

ripened during the storage period after harvesting. The fruit
breathes in O2 and outputs CO2 and ethylene gas. From
this, it is possible to deduce the inside status of an object by
use of gas chromatography or a semiconductor gas sensor
(Benady et al., 1992). Kiwi fruit is also harvested when it is
unmatured and may be graded with a gas sensor, but
grading is currently done according to its hardness.
5.0 Sensors for Robot Guidance

Fixed Path
Semifixed Path
Free Path
Fiber Optics
Fiber optic light tubes are flexible pipes of glass or plastic that
can be used to bend light beams around corners.
When bundles of fibers are used together, whole images can
be transmitted.
Fiber optics are so efficient that it becomes worthwhile for
the telephone industry to convert communications circuits
from electrical signals to modulated light signals for
transmission via fiber optics and subsequent reconversion at
the receiving end.


Azimuth Measurement

Microswitch

Potentiometer
Encoder

Azimuth Measurement
Gyroscope
Geomagnetic Sensor
Internal sensors for measuring the states of the

robot, including angle and angular joint velocity
and position and velocity of the manipulator, are
essential elements required for controlling a robot.
Therefore high accuracy and reliability, rapid
response, and wide range of detection area are
demanded.
Sensors for detecting position, angle velocity, and acceleration are the
typical internal sensing devices for a robot; moreover, sensors for
detection of the robots own position are used on an autonomous land
vehicle in the field.
These sensors that detect the vehicles own position based on an

inertial frame of reference (or the Earth), such as gyroscope, a
geomagnetic sensor, and a mileage meter, can be included as types of
internal sensors.
In addition, an inclination sensor might be necessary for a robot that

moves on an inclined place in order to prevent overturning and to
secure safety.

The following sensors detect fixed position or angle
by using the binary equivalent of on and off. On
robots, they are commonly used to sense or limit
motion, such as a zero return and an overrunning.
Microswitch
1.1. Microswitch
The microswitch is widely used for a limit switch, is designed
to open and close a circuit when a push button is depressed
or released by a lever. The contact is made or broken
suddenly, regardless of the operating speed of the lever, by a
snap-action mechanism. Very little force is required for
depressing a push button. For these reasons, microswitches
are used in a wide range of sensor systems.

Figure shows an internal mechanism of a micro switch. When an external
force is not applied to the lever, a contact between the COMMON and the
NC (normally closed) terminals is made. On the other hand, when the
lever is depressed, the switch position is suddenly changed in COMMONNO (normally open) by the snap-action mechanism. The switch elements
are covered by a metallic or plastic case for protection from water, oil, and
dust. The two most common levers for the switch are the straight and the
roller lever. The roller-lever type is widely used for robots. The detection
accuracy of the switch is approximately 1 mm.
1.2
A photoelectric sensor system basically consists of a light beam

transmitter with a LED (to generate a light beam with a particular
wavelength) and a receiver composed of a photodiode or a
phototransistor. An object is detected by its effect of breaking or changing
the intensity of the light beam emitted from the transmitter. Three
common types of sensors, shown in figure are available.
i).
ii.
iii).
through beam type

reflex type
diffuse type
B. Photoelectric Sensor
i)
Through-beam type
Diagram
In a through-beam type, the transmitter and the receiver are mounted in
separate enclosures and are positioned facing each other. This system
allows the detection of any object that breaks the light beam, including
opaque and reflective objects. It is suitable for long-range detection up
to ~30 m, although an accurate setup alignment of the optical axis is
essential, and for detection for which high accuracy is required. A sensor
with the transmitter and the receiver built into the same enclosure is
also available, although its detecting range is much shorter.
ii)
Reflex type Photoelectric Sensor
In a reflex type, the transmitter and the receiver are built

into the same enclosure and a reflector is mounted opposite
the sensor unit. This system allows detection of any object
that breaks the reflected beam and is suitable for mediumrange detection from 0.1 to 10 m. Commonly this system is
used for detection of objects on conveyors. The optical axis
is set an angle with respect to the measured objects surface
in order to prevent reflections when smooth and reflective
objects are being detected.
iii) Diffuse Type

In a diffuse type, a transmitter and a receiver are built into the
same enclosure. This system allows detection of any object
that reflects the light beam and is close to a sensor unit, and it
is suitable for short-range detection from ~5 cm to 2 m and
for the detection of transparent or translucent objects such as
glasses. The setup alignment of the optical axis and the
reflector are unnecessary because the reflected beam is
utilized for detection. Sensitivity adjustment is necessary
since the usable range depends largely on the color and the
reflectance of the object being detected.

Potentiometer
Encoder
The servomechanism to control a robot is constructed by the

uniting of final controlling devices and detecting elements
with computer and operation circuits. In this mechanism, a
potentiometer, an encoder, and a resolver are used for
position and angle measurement.
i) Potentiometer
ii) Encoder
iii) Resolver
i)
Potentiometer
Basically a potentiometer consists of a resistance element and a wiper

that detects an electric signal by contacting a resistance element. The
motion of the wiper can be rectilinear motion or rotation for measuring
linear and rotary displacements.
The movement of the wiper connected to an actuator is converted into a
proportional amount of electric resistance.
Consequently the displacement is measured as an analog amount of

voltage or current. Figure shows the electric-equivalent-circuit chart of a
potentiometer whose total resistance is Rp. The terminal output voltage
eo is given by following equation, since the value of resistance Rm is
changed in proportion to the position of the wiper:
eo = eRm/Rp
i)
The resolution of the potentiometer is strongly influenced by the construction of

the resistance element.
Resistance elements in common use may be classified as wire-wound, conductive

plastic, hybrid, or Cermet (combination of ceramic and metallic materials).
An essentially continuous stepless resistance variation may be obtained if a single,

thin slide wire is used as the resistance element; however, such potentiometers
are limited in resistance values and strength.
Figure shows the contact constructions between a wiper and a resistance element,
and the resolutions of wirewound-type and conductive-plastic-type elements.
Potentiometer
The wirewound potentiometer is widely used

to get high resistance values. The resistance
wire is would on a straight or circular
insulating material. The variation of
resistance is not a linear continuous change,
however, because the wiper moves from one
turn of the wire to the next.
The conductive-plastic potentiometer is widely used for robots because of

its long life, high resolution, and other benefits. Moreover, it is greatly
improved in reliability and life compared with the wirewound
potentiometer, which has a single wire as the resistance element.
The surface of the resistance element is smooth, so there is little friction
and noise between the element and the wiper. The resolution of the
resistance is theoretically infinitesimal.
A magnetoresistive potentiometer, which measures the position and the

angle by noncontact, has been noted in recent years in response to the
demand for higher resolution and longer life during the rapid
development of robots.
Ii)
Occasionally a digital output is more convenient for signal processing when

transducers communicate with digital equipment. In such cases, a digital
transducer that produces digital data is used instead of an analog-digital
converter.
The encoder is a sensor that produces digital output and is classified as a linear
encoder for linear displacement and a rotary encoder for angular displacement.
According to the output form of its signal, an encoder is classified as an

incremental encoder, which outputs pulses for each increment of displacement,
and an absolute encoder, which detects absolute position and is furthermore
classified into an optical, a magnetic, or an electromagnetic induction encoder,
according to its detection method. Optical and magnetic encoders that are
usually used for robots are described here
Encoder
Ii)
Encoder
The detection mechanism of an optical rotary encoder is shown below.

An incremental encoder consists of a rotating code disk on which slits are
arranged at regular intervals, pairs of light-emitting and light-receiving
elements positioned face to face, a set disk, and a shaft connected to the
disk.
The amount of light passing through the slits from the light-emitting
element is changed and synchronized with the revolution of the disk.
Simultaneously, a pulse is produced from the light-receiving element.
The angular displacement of the shaft can be determined by counting
pluses.
3.0 Velocity and Angular Velocity Measurements

4.0 Acceleration Measurement

5.0 Inclination Measurement

5.1.
The structure and the detection method of a liquid-type inclination sensor are
shown in figure.
This sensor uses a hemispheric vessel in which a bubble and liquid are
enclosed, a LED, and photodiodes that are set up beneath the vessel. The light
emitted from the LED projects the shadow of the bubble onto four adjacent
photodiodes after passing through the vessel.
The area of the shadow projected onto each photodiode is equal when the
sensor causes a difference in the amount of light received by each photodiode
because the position of the projected shadow is altered.
Therefore the inclination is detected by calculation of the difference of the

amount of light received by each photodiode. This sensor can detect an
inclination of up to ~20 and its resolution is approximately 0.001.
5.2.
Electrolytic-Liquid-Type Inclination Sensor
Figure shows a structure of an electrolytic-liquid-type inclination sensor.
This sensor, which adopts the working principle of a capacitor, uses a

hemispheric vessel, in which an inert gas and an electrolyte solution are
enclosed, and electrodes. The electrolyte solution flows within the vessel
when the sensor is inclined. Simultaneously, capacitances between two
pairs of electrodes change respectively in proportion to the inclination of
the sensor.
Therefore an inclination is detected by the measurement of changes in
capacitances of both electrodes.
EAB4608: Robotics in Agriculture

6.0 Azimuth Measurement

Gyroscope
Geomagnetic Sensor
Azimuth Measurement
An autonomous robot that moves in a field or a greenhouse has to detect
both its own position and its inclination for its proper positional control.
One of the methods to detect the robots own position is to calculate a
path by the integration of data obtained from displacement sensors
installed on actuators. However, this method can cause cumulative errors.
Azimuth sensors detect the azimuthal change of a moving object, and it is
thought that they will eventually be widely used for bioproduction robots
that travel in large fields. The azimuth sensors, including gyroscopes and
geomagnetic sensors, are described here.
Video References
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dQVPEw_rx1k (Ultrasonic)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dGEikYrlfp0 (Sonar Fish)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kELam6BWQcc (Sonar Intro)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HCKsglTlblc (Encoder)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xkyfjo7spFc (Flow sensor)

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Semester 1, 2016-2017

EAB 3606 AGRICULTURAL

Basic Automation Component consists of

Basic Automation Component consists of

Sensors have an important role in daily life because of

Sensors convey information from the manufacturing process

Once the information is sensed by an automated system, it must be

Once a real world condition is sensed and analyzed, human operator

Sensors for Bioproduction Robots

Principle categories of robot sensors:

Prof. Ir. Dr. Wan Ishak bin Wan Ismail

Classification of external state sensor:

Mechanical manipulation has many applications, but

A. Gripper Pressure Sense

The most elementary sense capability on a robot is

In its simplest form, the grip sensor consists merely of a

Such a limit switch is a practical safeguard against over

Gauge pressure and grip closure are in fact the same

B. Electro-Optic Force Sensor

Flexible gripper contact material through which

The force of the gripper closing an object causes a

C. Optical Presence Sensing

Machine vision system can be divided into 2 somewhat

The gathering of the image into a machine-readable form.

Robot vision will be discussed in detail later.

The idea of communicating with robots by voice. There are 2 modes to

processes, and digital signal processing have enabled the development

Usually, a sensor is placed in the environment where a variable

In any measurement system, accuracy plays a significant role.

Sensors for Bioproduction

Internal Sensors for Mechanism Control

Fixed-Position and Fixed-Angle Detection

Sensors for Bioproduction

Ripeness Sensor for Fruit

Sensors for Robot Guidance

1.2 Position-Sensitive Device

A position-sensitive device (PSD) is used to measure distances. The device

Eddy current proximity detectors use magnetism to function. They induce a

A reed switch is another magnetic electrical proximity switch. It responds to a

2.0 Proximity Sensors

Proximity sensors are usually used to obtain local positions, to

2.0 Proximity Sensors

2.0 Proximity Sensors

Pulsed infrared photoelectric controls are used in industrial robotics for

2.1 Photosensing Type

Luminance on an object is determined by reflectance of the object,

Prof. Ir. Dr. Wan Ishak bin Wan Ismail

It is possible to detect the distance to an object by the measurement of

3.0 Tactile Sensors

Tactile (Touch) Sensors

Tactile sensors for robots can be commonly classified into

3.1 Touch Sensor

3.1 Touch Sensor

A push-on-type touch sensor consists of spring elements and

3.2 Pressure Sensor

3.2 Pressure Sensor

Figure below shows an example of a pressure sensor for which a

KBP 4708: Robotics in Agriculture

3.3 Slip Sensor

3.3 Slip Sensor

3.3 Slip Sensor

3.3 Slip Sensor

4.0 Ripeness Sensor for Fruit