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Chapter 7
Communication and Networking
7.1 Introduction
From the Analog to the Digital Age
Digital: Digital specifically refers to communications signals or information
represented in a two-stat (binary) way.
Analog: Continuously varying in strength and/or quantity.
Purpose of the Modem: Converting Digital Signals to Analog Signals & Back
Modem is short for modulate/demodulate; a sending modem modulates digital
signals into analog signals for transmission over phone lines. A receiving
modem demodulates the analog signals back into digital signals.
Converting Reality to Digital Form
The analog recording process will produce a near duplicate of the sounds. The
way in which music is captured for audio CDs does not provide a duplicate of a
musical performance. Rather, the digital process uses representative selections
(samples) to record the sounds.
Turning analog reality into digital form provides tremendous opportunities. Now
all kinds of multimedia can be changed into digital form and transmitted as data
to all kinds of devices.
The Practical Uses of Communications
Videoconferencing, also called teleconferencing, is the use of television video
and sound technology as well as computers to enable people in different locations
to see, hear, and talk with one another.
Workgroup computing, also called collaborative computing, enables teams
of co-workers to use networks of microcomputers to share information and to
cooperate on projects.
Telecommuting: Working at home while in telecommunication with the office is
called telecommuting. A related term is telework, which includes not only those
who work at least part-time from home but also those who work at remote or
satellite offices called telework centers.
Virtual offices: The virtual office is an often nonpermanent and mobile office run
with computer and communications technology.

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7.2 Communications Channels

Wired Communications Channels: Transmitting Data by Physical Means

Twisted-pair wire (1128 Mbps): Twisted-pair wire consists of two strands

of insulated copper wire, twisted around each other. This twisted-pair
somewhat reduces interference from electrical fields. The telephone line that
runs from your home to the pole outside, or underground, is probably twistedpair wire.

Coaxial cable (up to 200 Mbps): Coaxial cable, commonly called co-ax,
consists of insulated copper wire wrapped in a solid or braided metal shield,
then in an external cover. Co-ax is widely used in cable television. Thanks to
the extra insulation, it is much better than twisted-pair wiring at resisting
noise. Moreover, it can carry voice and data at a faster rate (up to 200 Mbps).

Fiber-optic cable (100 Mbps to 2 Gbps): A fiber-optic cable consists of

dozens or hundreds of thin strands of glass or plastic that transmit pulsating
beams of light rather than electricity. These strands, each as thin as a human
hair, can transmit up to 2 billion pulses per second (2 Gbps), each on pulse
representing one bit.

Wireless Communications Channels: Transmitting Data through the Air

Infrared transmission (14 Mbps): Infrared wireless transmission sends

data signals using infrared-light waves. Infrared ports can be found on some
laptop computers and printers, as well as wireless mice.

Broadcast radio (up to 2 Mbps): A wireless transmission medium that

sends data over long distances between regions, states, or countries.

Microwave radio (45 Mbps): Microwave radio transmits voice and data
through the atmosphere as super-high-frequency radio waves called
microwaves.

Communications satellites: Communications satellites are microwave relay

stations in orbit around the earth. Transmitting a signal from a ground station
to a satellite is called uplinking; the reverse is called downlinking.

Types of Long-Distance Wireless Communications

One-way communicationsthe Global Positioning System: The

Global Positioning System (GPS) consists of a series of earth-orbiting
satellites continuously transmitting timed radio signals that can be used to
identify earth locations. A GPS receiver can pick up transmission from any
four satellites, interpret the information from each, and pinpoint the
receivers longitude, latitude, and altitude.

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One-way communicationspagers: Once stereotyped as devices for

doctors and drug dealers, pagers are now consumer items. Pagers are
simple radio receivers that receive data (but not voice messages) sent
from a special radio transmitter.

Two-way communicationspagers: Recently advances have given us

two-way paging or enhanced paging. In one version, users can send a
preprogrammed message or acknowledgment that they have received a
message. Another version allows consumers to compose and send e-mail
to anyone on the Internet and to other pagers.

Two-way communicationsfirst generation analog cellular services:

Analog cellular phones are designed primarily for communicating by voice
through a system of ground-area cells.

Two-way communications--second generation digital wireless

services (2G): Digital wireless services support digital cellphones and
personal digital assistants use a network of cell towers to send voice
communications and data over the airwaves in digital form.

Two-way communications planned for the future-third-generation

broadband wireless digital services (3G): Broadband wireless digital
services, usually referred to as third-generation (3G) technology, are based
on the GSM standard, are (like cable modems) always on, carry data at
high speeds (56 kilobits per second up to about 2 megabits per second
eventually), and are able to quickly transmit video, still pictures, and music,
along with offering better ways to tap into websites than todays 2G
wireless systems.

Two-way communication in the near future 2.5G, a compromise

between 2G and 3G.

Short-range wireless communications at 2.4 Gigahertz:

Bluetooth up to 30 feet: Bluetooth is a short-range wireless digital

standard aimed at linking cellphones, PDAs, computers, and peripherals
up to distances of 30 feet.

WiFi up to 300 feet: WiFi is a short-range wireless digital standard

aimed at helping machines inside offices to communicate at high speeds
and share Internet connections at distances up to 300 feet; it connects to
a kind of local area network known as the Ethernet.

HomeRF up to 150 feet: HomeRF is a separate incompatible

standard designed to network up to 10 PCs and peripherals as far as 150
feet apart.

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7. 3 Data Transmission
Transmission Rate: Higher Frequency, Wider Bandwidth, More Data
Transmission rate is the function of two variables: frequency and bandwidth.
Frequency: the cycles of waves per second expressed in hertz.
Bandwidth: the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies. The
more frequencies it has available and hence the more data that can be sent
through the channel.
Line configurations: Point-to-Point & Multipoint
Point-to-Point: line that directly connects the sending and receiving devices.
Multipoint: A multipoint line is a single line that interconnects several
communications devices to one computer.
Serial & Parallel Transmission
Serial Data Transmission: bits are transmitted sequentially.
Parallel Data Transmission: bits are transmitted through separate lines
simultaneously.
Direction of Transmission: Simplex, Half-Duplex, & Full-Duplex
Simplex transmission: data can travel in only one direction.
Half-duplex transmission: data travels in both directions but only in one
direction at a time.
Full-duplex transmission: data is transmitted back and forth at the same
time.
Transmission Mode: Asynchronous & Synchronous
Asynchronous transmission: data is sent one byte (or character) at a time.
Each string of bits making up the byte is bracketed, or marked off, with special
control bits.
Synchronous transmission: sends data in blocks. Start and stop bit
patterns, called synch bytes, are transmitted at the beginning and end of the
blocks.
Circuit Switching & Packet Switching: For Voice, Data, & Both:
Circuit switching: best for voice: The transmitter has full use of the circuit
until all the data has been transmitted and the circuit is terminated.
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A packet is a fixed-length block of data for transmission.

Packet switching: electronic messages are divided into packets for
transmission over a wide area network to their destination, through the most
expedient route.
Multiplexing: Enhancing Communications Efficiencies:
Multiplexers: A device that merges several low-speed transmissions into one
high-speed transmission.
Concentrators: Collects data in a temporary storage area.
Front-end processors: A smaller computer that is connected to a larger
computer and assists with communications functions.
Protocols: The rules of data transmission:
Protocol: Communications protocol is a set of conventions governing the
exchange of data between hardware and/or software components in a
communications network.
OSI: Open Systems Interconnection. Backed by the International Standards
Organization, OSI is an international standard that defines seven layers of
protocols for worldwide computer communications.

7. 4 Networks
A network, or communications network, is a system of interconnected computers,
telephones, or other communications devices that can communicate with one
another and share applications and data.
The Benefits of Networks

Sharing of peripheral devices: Expensive devices such as printers, disk

drives, and scanners can be shared.

Sharing of programs and data: People in an organization can use the

same software and have access to the same files.

Better communications: Networks make e-mail possible, keeping everyone

posted about important information.

Security of information: Information on a network is apt to be backed up

(duplicated) somewhere. Thus, a fire or flood is less apt to destroy essential
information.

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Access to databases: Networks enable users to tap into all kinds of

databases.

Types of Networks: WANs, MANs, & LANs

Networks may be classified into three categories according to their geographical
range:

Wide area network: A wide area network (WAN) is a communications

network that covers a wide geographical area, such as a country or the
world.

Metropolitan area network: A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a

communications network covering a city or a suburb.

Local area network: A local area network (LAN) connects computers

and devices in a limited geographical area, such as one office, one
building, or a group of buildings close together.

Types of LANs: Client-Server & Peer-to-Peer

Client-server LANs: A client-server LAN consists of clients, which are

microcomputers that request data, and servers, which are computers used to
supply data.
A file server is a computer that acts like a disk drive, storing the programs
and data files shared by users on a LAN.

Peer-to-peer LANs: In a peer-to-peer LAN, all microcomputers on the

network communicate directly with one another without relying on a server.
These are less expensive than client-server networks and work effectively for
up to 25 computers; beyond that, they slow under heavy use.

Components of a LAN

Connection or cabling system: LANs may use a wired or wireless

connection system. Wired connections may be twisted-pair wiring, coaxial
cable, or fiber-optic cable. Wireless connections may be infrared or radiowave transmission.

Microcomputers with network interface cards: Two or more

microcomputers are required, along with network interface cards. A
network interface card (inserted into an expansion slot in a PC) enables
the computer to send and receive messages over a cable network.

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Network operating system: The network operating system (NOS), such

as Novell NetWare, Microsoft Windows NT/2000, Unix, and Linux, is the
system software that manages the activity of a network.

Other shared devices: Printers, scanners, storage devices, and other

peripherals may be added to the network as necessary and shared by all
users.

Routers, bridges, and gateways:

A router is a special computer that directs communicating messages
when several networks are connected together.
A bridge is an interface used to connect the same types of networks. An
example is the Ethernet.
A gateway is an interface permitting communication between dissimilar
networksfor example, between a LAN and a WAN.

Topology of LANs
Star network: one in which all microcomputers and other communications
devices are connected to a central server. The advantage of a star network is
that the hub prevents collisions between messages.
Ring network: one in which all microcomputers and other communications
devices are connected in a continuous loop. Electronic messages are passed
around the ring until they reach the right destination. There is no central
server.
Bus network: all communications devices are connected to a common
channel. Each communications device transmits electronic messages to
other devices. If some of those messages collide, the device waits and tries
to transmit again.

7. 5 Intranets, Extranets, & Firewalls: Private Internet Networks

Intranetsfor internal use only: An intranet is an organizations internal

private network that uses the infrastructure and standards of the Internet
and the World Wide Web. Access to an intranet is not available to people
outside the organization.

Extranetsfor certain outsiders: Extranets are private intranets that

connect not only internal personnel but also selected suppliers and other
strategic parties.

Firewalls: A firewall is a system of hardware and software that blocks

unauthorized users inside and outside the organization from entering the
intranet.

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7.6 The Future of Communications

Satellite-Based Systems
More than half the people in the world, mostly in underdeveloped countries,
live more than 2 hours from the nearest telephone. These people, as well as
business travelers and corporations needing speedy data transmission, are
demanding more than wire-line or cellular service can deliver.
In the next few years, four kinds of satellite systems will dot the skies to
provide a variety of consumer services. The first is the TV direct-broadcast
system, and the second is the GPS system, both of which we described
earlier. The third type is designed to handle cellular-phone and paging
services, using satellite transmissions in place of tower-to-tower microwave
transmissions.
Probably most interesting is the fourth, which consists of global high-speed
satellite networks that will let users exchange a much broader range of data,
including Internet pages and videophone calls, anywhere in the world.
Beyond 3G to 4G
3G Cellphones: send and receive voice and data at speeds of up to 2
megabits per second. The 3G radio spectrum is not yet available in the U.S.
4G wireless technology is started to be developed.
Photonics: Optical Technologies at Warp Speed
Photonics is the science of sending data bits by means of light pulses carried
on hair-thin glass fibers. Photonics has achieved breakthroughs that enable
glass fibers to carry more light signals than ever before.
Older fiber-optic technologies were limited to only a few dozen miles. An
optical amplifier boosts light signals without converting them first to electrical
signals.