SOLID

CIRCUITS
..
4

kt- '
. *<..
& %

.@

Edited by
Joe Johnson

Printed March, 1973

Published by

Communications Transistor Company

30 1 Industrial Way
San Carlos, California 94070
Application Book
2.2.8.0A
iii

PREFACE
Even though the science involved with RF power transistors and circuits has come a long way, there
is still a little art associated with a high power circuit design. The intent of this book is to disclose
all of the theoretical techniques and empirical tricks required for'easy circuit design with state-of-art
RF power transistors. The emphasis is on high power circuits! Electronic Engineers need not fear
having to wade through device theory or debates on interdigitated VS. overlay to get one or two
bits of how-to-do-it circuit information.
CTC believes the only way to build the best RF power transistors is to understand the circuit
designer's problems. Each chapter is written by an engineer who grew up with circuits in such
diverse companies as General Electric, Avco, Lenkurt, RCA and Fairchild. In addition, continuous
circuit research must provide new ways to use the state-of-the-art devices. Today, there are many
new, very sophisticated R F power transistors. .Yesterday's circuits will not provide optimum
L
performance from today's high power transistors.

.J

The first section "Basic RF Power Amplifier Considerations" discusses very basic but extremely
important subjects such as Common Base Versus Common Emitter or Thermal Considerations. Even
the experienced design engineer should review the chapters in Section I before reading Section 11,
"General Circuit Techniques". Important chapters such as Microstrip Design, Wideband Matching,
Techniques and Computer Aided Design highlight Section 11. "Special Considerations," Section 111,
concentrates specific circuit design problems. Some of these are Microwave Power Amplifiers,
Combining Techniques, Pulse Circuits and Oscillators. An extensive list of pertinent reference
follows each chapter.

CONTENTS
PAGES
Section I Basic RF Power Amplifier Considerations
Chapter
1 Design Philosophy - Johnson
2 Transistor Mounting Techniques - Johnson
3 Packages - Johnson
4 Thermal Considerations - Johnson, Moutoux
5 RF Components - Johnson
6 RF Measurements - Moutoux
7 Precautions for RF Power Transistors - Johnson
8 Common Base versus Common Emitter - Johnson, Duncan
Section I1 General Circuit Techniques
9 Basic Circuit Design - Johnson, Artigo
Chapter
10 Microstrip Design - Moutoux
11 Stability - Johnson
,
12 Wideband Circuit Design - Max
13 Computer Aided Design - Duncan
Section 111 Special Considerations
Chapter 14 Very High Power Amplifiers - Johnson
15 Microwave Power Amplifier - Herick
1 6 Combining Techniques - Artigo, Max
17 Linear Amplifiers - Max
,I
8 High Efficiency Amplifiers - Johnson
19 Common Base Amplifiers - Herick, Johnson
20 Pulse Circuits - Herick
2 1 Oscillators - Herick

SECTION I

BASIC

RF POWER

AMPLIFIER CONSIDERATIONS

Chapter 1
Design Philosophy

There are many ways to design RF power

amplifiers - it sometimes seems that each
engineer has his o w n circuit design
philosophy. The circuit design philosophy
used by Communications Transistor
C o r p o r a t i o n e m p h a s i z e s optimum
per form ance from the power transistor.
Others may place more emphasis on cost or
perhaps efficiency. The following basic
circuit concepts are recommended and used in
circuit discussions in the remaining text:

Use a Printed Circuit Board - In most

cases superior and more repeatable
performance can be obtained using a
printed circuit board with stripline
inductors. It is also easier t o maintain a
good ground plane around the transistor.

Fixed Tuned Matching Networks - A

well designed amplifier with fixed tuned
matchingenetwork eliminates the factory
or field tune-up and even more
important, eliminates lossy variable
capacitors. Today's more consistent
transistors can be easily purchased to
drop into a wideband circuit with no
tuning.

Low Q Matching Networks - The use of

low loaded Q matching networks
minimizes the loss due to high RF
circulating currents. Any component
variation in production is less likely to
cause a problem in a low Q matching
network. Use an external filter for any
desired additional frequency selectivity.

Transformers - The use of impedance

matching transformers makes wideband
circuit design much easier.

T h e CTC philosophy of transistor

selection is equally important and includes
t h e following suggestions:

Ruggedness - Always use a transistor

that will withstand 00 VSWR if possible!

, This will prevent ' a lot of unexplained

failures. If a device that will withsthd

VSWR is not available, use the most

rugged available.
00

Power Dissipation - Select a transistor

that has a dissipation capability at least
twice the RF power out rating. This will
help insure maximum reliability.

Power Output

- Operate the transistor

at a power output level that is 75 to 80%
of the saturated power output. This will
p r o v i d e less power slump w i t h
t e m p e r a t u r e and m o r e efficient
operation. The saturated power output
of a transistor is defined as the
maximum output obtainable.

Largest Available Transistor - Select a

large transistor over combining two or
more small ones. Not only is this more
economical; but, the circuit design is
simpler and more reliable.

This should provide a basic idea of the

circuit design approach. Details are covered in
the following chapters.

REFERENCES
1. Johnson, J.H. and Artigo R., "Fundamentals of Solid State Power-Amplifier

Design," QST, Sept., 1972.

2. Johnson, J. H. and Mallinger, M.J., "You
Can Depend on Today's RF Transistors"
Electronics, Sept. 13, 197 1.

3. Gundlach, R., "Rx for R F Power Transistors," Electronics, May 26, 1969.

FIGURE 1 This 80 Watt 70 to 170 MHz

Wideband Amplifier Using the
BM80 - 28 Ill~istrates the CTC
Circuit Design Philosophy

Chapter 2
Transistor Mounting
Techniques

An RF power transistor is a reliable device

capable of operating in excess of 100,000
hours without failure when proper mounting
techniques and electrical specifications are
o b s e r v e d Without proper mounting the
transistor may be both mechanically and
thermally stressed beyond reliable limits.

Stud Torque
A stud torque of 8 k 1
in-lb should be used when installing a
318" stud transistor; 5 5 1 in-1 b for 114"
stud and 10 + 1 in-lb 112" stud. A
releasing type torque wrench should
always' be used. (Torque Controls;
TS-30).

Mounting Flange Packuges - Flange

packages must be mounted on flat ( 2
Mils) surface if the proper heat transfer
is expected. It is most important that the
flange not be twisted or bent before or
during installation.

Studless Packages - Studless packages

may be installed using epoxy or solder.
When soldered properly, thermal
resistances equivalent to the stud
packages can be expected. Some
degradation in thermal resistance will be
experienced when epoxy is used; the
extent depends on the conductivity of
the epoxy used.

What A bout Silicone Grease - A high

q u a l i t y silicone grease like G E
Insulgrease or equivalent should always
be used on both stud and flange devices.
The use of silicone grease will improve
the interface thermal resistance by at
least .2OC/Watt a n d as much as
several0C/Watt if the heatsink surface has
a poor flatness.
Retatiorzship 0f Leads To Circuit - This
is one of the most important aspects oi
transistor mounting! The transistor
*
should fit in the circuit without stresing
the leads when torqued to the heatsink.
Never solder a transistor into a circuit
before torqueing to the heatsink! The
two most important points t o remember
when mounting a transistor are:
a.
b.

Don't stress the lcads excessively.

Keep the common lead (usually
emitter) inductance at a minimum.
(keep leads short)

GE Insulgrease - G-641
Silicone Product Dept. Waterford, N.Y.
Torque Controls - TS-30 South El Monte, California

,I
PCB

I1

Ground clip goes under transistor. Makes

good electrical ground, but degrades
thermal resistance by approximately
1"C/Watt.

P C B

Common lead inductance too high.

Result will be poor gain.

Leads are forced up to meet PCB. May

fracture lead at -package. May destroy
cap seal on competitive transistors.

FIGURE 2 Improper Trailsistor Mounting Techniques

Note that leads are on an even plane

with PCB
PCB

PCB

Iv/////////L 7

Proper Mounting Technique

Using Printed Circuit Board

Ground clip for Ebrnmon leads. Keep

short as possible.

Use stand off for input and output leads

*
Proper Mounting Technique
Without Printed Circuit Board

Note: Clip does not disturb the interface

between transistor and heatsink.

Copper grounding
clips.

FIGURE 3 Proper Transistor Mounting Techniques

Chapter 3
Packages

The most important part of today's RF

power transistor is the package. A high
performance transistor chip does not look
very good in an old style package. Gain
improvements of 6 db or more can be
obtained using state-of-the-art packages with
low common lead inductance.
There are many RF power transistor
packages available today which have the
desirable features listed below:
7
"Ceramic sealed" cap for 10- Atm
cc/sec herme ticity.
CTC uses a "hard" copper alloy stud on

most stud' packages to withstand higher

torques.

T o d a y's packages offer performance

advantages over the older types due primarily
to much lower parasitic lead inductance. The
lead inductances for various packages are
shown in Figure 4.
T h e primary performance parameters
effected by parasitic inductances are power
gain, bandwidth, saturated power output, and
the input and output load impedance. See
Chapter 8 for the magnitude of this effect.
b

+A close look at several packages styles will

help the reader visualize where the para&tic
inductances~occur.

Parasitic lead inductances have been

minimized.
All packages provide good mechanical
construction with well attached leads.
Large packages with excellent thermal
resistance are available.

REFERENCES
1. "Solid State Power Circuits"
Designer's Handbook, 1972.

FIGURE 4
Parasitic Lead Inductance For Common Package

RCA

T h e 318" stripline stud is the most

common RF power package today. L1 the
base lead inductance inside the package and
L, the base bonding wires, add t o give the
input parasitic inductance. L j the emitter
bonding wires and L4 the omitter bridge form
the common lead inductance. The output
i n d u c t a n c e , o r collector inductance is
attributed to the collector lead inside the
package.

FIGURE 5 - 318" Stripline Stud

The Jq5 type package, just beginning to see

wide use, offers several advantages in lower
parasitic inductance as well as an intern,al
input match. The input inductance is made up
af the base lead and bonding wires (L,)& It is
approximately the same as the standard 318"
package. L, the next set of base bonding
wires is used as an L matching section in
conjunction with C1. The major improvement
with the J@ package is the lower colnmpn lead
inductance. Note that the emitter is bonded
to both the bridge and a ground strap in front
of the chip (L3 & L4). TO further reduce the
emitter inductance L2 and L3 are coupled so
that the mutual inductance is subtracted from
both L, and L3 and added to L6. Because of
the inductance transfer to the output, the
collector inductance is higher with the J@.

FIGURE 6 - J4Package

T h e microstrip package is a unique

approach used only by CTC. Here the
parasitic inductance is reduced in all
terminals. The package is a two layer ceramic
structure with an unbroken ground plane
running under the entire top metalization.
T h e emitters bond to the groundplane
through slots in the top ceramic. Because of
the groundplane both base and collector leads
a r e low inductance microstriplines. The
groundplane is brought around the edge of
the top ceramic to contact the emitter leads.\

FIGURE 7-318'' Microstrip Package

Chapter 4
Therm a1
Considerations

Would quick and easy methods for calculating temperatures a t various thermal interfaces aid your design job? Is it more accurate
to measure thermal resistance using the IR
or VBE methods? How is the IR method done?
How do you minimize total thermal
resistance? Does thermal resistance really
change with temperature, DC to R F or with
VSWR? For success in today's competitive
market, the RF power design engineer must
know the answers to these questions.
Many solid state RF designs were done in
the past with little concern with thermal
properties. This may have been acceptable
with yesterday's low power transistors and
amplifiers; but, with today's super power
transistors, high power amplifiers; and a keen
desire for the ultimate in reliability, the
thermal considerations of the design must be
studied in detail. A low overall thermal
resistance is ,essential for a high power
transistor in order to keep the junction
temperature at a minimum. If the junction
temperature is kept low enough, it is possible
to design a transistor power amplifier that will
last in excess of 500,000 hours. (Figure 8 MTF versus Junction Temperature).
Of equal importance to the transistor
junction t o case thermal resistance is the
thermal resistance between the transistor and
the environment. Each of the interfaces and
layers of material in the heat flow path must
be carefully investigated to insure the proper

FIGURE 8
MTF v s Junction Temperature for
CTC BM80-28

t h e r m a l design. T h e m o s t p o p u l a r
arrangement provides a large finned heatsink
with a short, highly conductive mounting
shelf as shown in Figure 9. The thermal
resistances in the heat flow part are 0 J C
(transistor junction to case), Bc H s (transistor
case to heatsink), 0 shelf and 0 heatsink.
All are very important.

If the thermal resistance of each barrier in

the heat flow path is known, the temperature
can be quickly calculated as follows:

However, if the following guidelines are

closely observed, an approximate solution can
be calculated:
transistor

transislot
case

#'JC

heals~nk

mounting
shelf

CCHS

The heat spreading bar behind the fins

must have good conductivity t o get the
heat t o the end fins. The distance
between t h e transistors a n d the
heatsink must be minimized.

smb~ent
radiation

" heatsink
Shelf
conducuon

The fins should be thick and fairly short

to make sure that the heat is conducted
to the end of the fin.
TOTAL THERMAL RESISTANCE X POWER,

The heatsink material must have good

conductivity. Aluminum is the most
common material for heatsinks because
of i t s good conductivity and light
weight. Extruded aluminum is the best
and the porous castings can be quite
p o o r . A good quality casting is
acceptable.

DISSIPATION = TEMPERATURE RISE

O('C/W) x PD (Watts) = TR PC)
Example: If the transistor is dissipating 200
watts and
0 J C = .8OC/W
0 C H S = .2'C/W
0 ahelf = .05OC/W
the junction temperature rise above heatsink
temperature will be:
(8 x .2 + .05) x 210C
TRANSISTOR-HEATSINK COMBINATION

TRANSISTOR
,-MOUNTING SHELF

Without disregarding the first two

points, the surface area should be
maximized. A coating for high emissivity
will help the radiation resistance.
A heatsink as described above will have a
surface temperature which is approximately
the same over the entire surface in the steady
state. With this assumptioxl, the thema1
resistance by convection in still air may be
calculated as follows:
q
q
h

A
AT

=
=
=

=
=

oHS =
FIGURE 9
The heatsiizk is responsible for getting rid
of t h e heat t o t h e environment by
convection and radiation. Because of all the
many heat transfer modes occurring in a
finned heatsink, the easiest way t o obtain the
exact thermal resistance is to measure it.

hA AT
heat flow BTU/hr
coefficient of heat transfer
(BTU/hr ft2 OF)
surface area ft2
temperature difference between
heatsink and ambinet (OF or OR)
thermal resistance =1 hr oF/BTU
hA

For a heatsink with 2" high vertical fins

and a AT of approximately 70F, the value
for h i s 1.1. h for vertical fins = 0.29 AT '/4

L
L

height of fin (ft)

If the heatsink is large, has a surface with

high emissivity, is enclosed in a large
enclosure and is at least 70F above ambient,
radiation should be considered in addition to
convection.
q = t . 6 A ( T , 4 - T24)

where hr

= t

, 6(T, - T24) (T in OR)

TI - T2
-

effective radiating area (not total sur-.

face area) (ft2)

emissivity (approximately - 8 for anodized aluminum)

Steven Boltzman's constant 0.174 x

lk4 BTU/hr ft2 OR

To illustrate the contribution of both convection and radiation, the thermal resistances of a typical heatsink i s considered.
The shape and size of the heatsink is a s
shown in Figure 9, but with 25 fins.

'

6 Hs by radiation = 1

hr OF/BTU

hrA

t
6 HS

conduction

1
hA

1.1 BTU/hr ft 2 OF) (1.9 ft2)

.48 hr OR or
BTU

.91C
watt

radiation
=

1.67 hr

OR

or

3.16OC/watt

BTU
Therefore, the total heatsink thermal resistance is:
heatsink

In many cases , a heatsink may not be

required to dissipate power continuously,
but on a pulsed basis. If the on time is longer
than a fiw seconds, it may be necessary to
consider the thermal time constant of t h e
heatsink. The temperature of the heatsink used in ihe previous example is plotted
versus time in Figure 10 . Note that the
steady state value is reached in approximately
30 minutes. For any "on time" less than 30
minutes, the heatsink has an apparent thermal
resistance which is ,less than the calculated
steady state value. The transient thermal
resistance is best determined by measurement
of the heatsink temperature during a power
dissipation cycle.
Even with optimum mounting there is still
a thermal resistance associated with the
transistor to heatsink interface. This resistance
is often assumed to be zero by uninformed
design engineers. Figure 1 1 gives the interface thermal resistance (Oc H s ) for various
transistor packages.

HEATSINK TEMP VS TIME FOR THE HEATSINK

USED IN THE EXAMPLE. BEGINNING HEATSINK
TEMP IS 24OC.

TIME-MINUTES

FIGURE 10

The most important thermal resistance in

t h e transistor to ambient string is the
transistor junction to case thermal resistance
(0 J C ). The specified value of this thermal
resistance is given o n t h e transistor
manufacturer's data sheet. Because of the
extreme importance of 8 sc in the overall
design, it is imperative that the design
engineer know the specified value and how it
was determined. Manufacturers do not all use
the same technique in measuring 8 J C and,
therefore, their results sometimes differ as
much as 2: 1.

Techiziqzies f o r Illeasurilzg Tllerrnal

Resistance. T w o d i s t i n c t l y different
a p p r o a c h e s t o measuring j u n c t i o n
temperature are in common use today. One
approacll makes use of the temperature
coefficient of the emitter base junction. The
other technique involves the measurernellt of
infrared radiation given off by the transistor
to measure junction temperature. Use of both
techniques is necessary to fully characterize
tlle thermal properties of a transistor.

FIGURE 11
Thermal resistance of the case to
heatsink interface for
various packages
The VB method makes use of the 'nearly
living relationship be tween temperature and
emitter-base voltage. At low current densities,
i.e. collector currents of 0.1% of the nominal
operating current for the device, the change

of voltage w i t h t e m p e r a t u r e will be
approximately - 2nlv/"C. This method involves
the application of a desired dc steady state
voltage and c u r r e n t a n d periodically
interrupting the steady state flow t o sample
tlle emitter base junction voltage at a fixed
low level current. By noting the VB prior to
applying power, one can calculate the A VBE,
divide by t h e temperature coefficient
( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2mvJC) a n d get a
c o r r e s p o n d i n g A T,. By dividing the
temperature rise by the known applied dc
power, the thermal resistance is obtained. The
junction temperature thus measured is more
or less an average value and will be generauy
lower than that corresponding to the hottest
spot on the transistor:'The failure of the VB
method to measure hot spot temperature is its
chief limitation. The other shortcoming of the
V B E method is its restriction t o measuring
junction temperature under dc rather than R F
operating conditions. These limitations aside,
one can generate some very useful transient
thermal analysis using the V B method that is
n o t possible by presently available IR
techniques. By monitoring the emitter-base
junction with an oscilloscope, one can trace
the cooling curve of the transistor after
removal of power. If the transistor has
reached t h e r m a l equilibrium prior ,to
interruption of power, its cooling curve will
be identical to the heating curve except for
the sign of the slope.
It is interesting to note that most RF and
n~icrowave transistors are not adequately
represell ted by single exponential time
constant. For example, the E 10-28, a I OW, 2
GH, transistor reaches 63% (+)
of its
steady state valve in 370 microseconds. If a
single e x p o n e n t i a l time constant were
adequate, we could say that in four time
constants, the transistor would have reached
within 99% of its steady state temperature
risc. In fact, the E 1 C!-28 has reached only 80%
o f i t s final temperature rise in 1,500
microseconds. Figure 12 is a plbt of the
t r a n s i e n t thermal characteristics of the
E 10-28.
With the advent of suitable infrared
measuring equipment, it is now possible to d o
thermal scans of transistor under a variety of
steady state operating conditions including dc
and RF into matched and mismatched loads.

Two practical difficulties arise in using IR

equipment. First, the emissivity of the
transistor surface must be accilra tely known.
This generally involves heating the transistor
to a known temperature and adjusting a gain
control so that the indicated temperature
corresponds to the known temperature. The
'emissivity of a typical emitter structure varies
significantly f r o m device t o device,
particularly where a glass passivating layer is
used, so it is necessary to make an emissivity
measurement on every transis tor to insure
accuracy.

achieve comparable performance. As the area

over which power is dissipated becomes
smaller. the ternpcrature in that area rises, all
other things being equal.
One must take advantage of t h e r m a l
spreading to keep thermal resistance to a
minimum at higlzer frequencies. This is best
accomplished by 1) having a very high base
periphery to area ratio 2) reducing tile width
of the base so that it is comparable to the die
tllickness. Thus, CTC's l o w , 2GH, transistor
has a base whose dimensions are 3.2 X 80mils
with a die thickness of about 4mils.

% RISE IN JUNCTION TEMPERATURE VS TIME AFTER APPLICATION OF

POWER FOR EIO-28 (IOW. 2GHz TRANSISTOR)

Figure 13 shown on next page.

FIGURE 12
Second, when RF power is applied to the
transistor, the electronic instrumentation used
t o detect the IR radiation is generally
sensitive to any radiated RF. To minimize the
RFI problem, it lzas been found that well
shielded R F circuits are required. If input and
output ~natchingnetworks including chokes
a r e b u i l t o n alumina substrates using
transmission line techniques, the fields are
largely contained within the substrates such
t h a t a d d i t i o n a l shielding is usually
unnecessary. Figure 13 shows a thermal scan
of a 75W power transistor.

Designing a Tra~zsistorfor Low Tlzcrinal

Resistance. Some degree of incompatibility
exists between high performance RF and
microwave transistors and low thermal
resistance. For a given power level, the higlzer
the intended frequency of operation, the
smaller the collector-base area must be to

Requirements for collector .isolation from

the heatsink normally dictates the use of Be0
as t h e i n t e r f a c e lnaterial between the
transistor die and underlaying copper stud or
flange. T h e nlost serious problem
ln ai 11tailling the low thermal resistance
ilfllerent in a properly designed transist~ris
caused by voids occurring in the interface
between die and luetalized Be0 and between
Be0 and the stud or flange. Elimination of
brazing and die attach voids is a mzjor step in
the ability to produce reliable microwave
transistors.

At CTC, all package lots are inspected

using die penetrant, X-ray and various other
techniques to insurc void-free die attach and
b r a z e . C o n t r o l s o n wafer backside
111etalization, die attach tcmperature and
environment and packages arc mandatory to
eliminate voids. Figure 14 shows an X-ray of a
transistor with a good die attach and one with
voids.
The remaining thermal problem to be
solved is to prevent hot spots from being
generated under various operating conditions.
Hot spots are normally regenerative and may
ultimately lead to device failure. Emitter
ballasting with thin film deposited resistors

provides whatever degree of ruggedness that

may be desired. For transistors intended to be
used in a Class A or Class AB opera tion, fairly
high resistor values are used to insure
adequate thermal stability. In Class C
operation, lower resistor values are generally

used without sacrificing ruggedness. This is

due mainly to the fact that the emitter leads
going to the various base areas provide a
significant impedance at RF frequencies and
help to distribute current.

FIGURE 14
X-Ray of Die Attach Area
The larger transistors made by CTC are all
ballasted by grading the resistors with higher
values in the center of the die to lower values
near the edge. Thus, the power density in the
center of the chip is slightly lower than
around the edge. The net effort is to maintain
a uniform temperature over the entire chip.

Thermal Resistance Under RF, DC, and

High VSWR Loads. Generally speaking, the
quoted values of thermal resistance given on
data sheets represent the maximum expected
value under normal operating conditions. For
RF transistors this would be at rated power
and frequency with a matched load. The value
may be "hot spot" or "average" thermal
resistance. The value given on CTC data sheets
represents hot spot thermal resistalice as
measured by IR scanning techniques.
The difference between hot spot and
average temperature rise on a chip is
insignificant on a properly designed and
fabricated transistor. Manufacturers who are
not able t o make void-free die attaches may
find considerable differences. between hot
spot and average junction temperatures.

Generally, the thermal resistance will

ipcrease under mismatched load conditions or
under certain dc operating condi ti0ns.r The
increase is caused by two distinct but
different mechanisms. First, the thermal
conductivity of silicon and Be0 have positive
t e In p e r a t u r e coefficients. The thermal
conductivity of silicon and Be0 are shown in
Figure 15 over the temperature range of
25-300C.
If under normal operating conditions the
junction temperature reached 12SC, one
would expect an increase in thermal resistance
of the order of 20% at power levels which
elevate the junction temperature to 200C due
to the decrease in thermal conductivity of the
silicon and BeO.
An increase in power dissipation by the
transistor will normally occur under
mismatched loads. Depending on the power
dissipated, one can estimate the junction
temperature by using the normal value of
thermal resistance and then make and
adjustment upward to take into account the
increase i n thermal resistance due to

temperature. This partially explains the curves

shown by RCA (1) which show a two times
increase in thermal resistance under high
VSWR loads. One can see that at 300C
junction temperature the thermal resistance
would go up by a factor of about 1.5.
Hot spot formation accounts for the
remaining increase in thermal resistance that
can occur under certain dc or high VSWR
operating conditions. Devices at CTC are
normally designed to operate into severely
mismatched loads without generating hot
spots. Thermal mapping has been performed
on 40W UHF transistors operating into
matched loads and then into a 30:l VSWR
load. The phase angle of the mismatched load
was adjusted t o give t h e maximum
temperature rise which occurred near the
shorted load condition. Aside from the
increase in temperature, no significant shift in
temperature distribution or hot spot
formation occurred.
r

25Oc

1.5

2.9

125'~

1.05

1.9

.85

1.5

.65

1.0

200c
300'~
<

Be0

Si

Temp.

FIGURE 15
Thermal Conductivity of
Silicon and Beo (W/cm " C)

Under dc operating conditions, devices

optimized for Class C operations generally
have a very limited operating range in which
no hot spots will occur. If transistors are
operated well within their dc safe operating
area, the temperature profile across the chip
will be very nearly the same under dc or RF
as shown in Figure 16. Large increases in
thermal resistance as a function of voltage and
power can normally be traced to hot spots.

r R F IR SCAN (2GHz)

EIO-28
DIE BASE
AREA=3.2 X 80 MILS
DATA TAKEN BY IR
t.SCAN

-1

-/

20

Oo

20

70

60

80

100

DISTANCE ALONG ACTIVE AREA I N MlLS

FIGURE 16
Any R F transistor can be ballasted
sufficiently to prevent hot spot formation
under any dc operation conditions within
the maximum voltage and power limits. The
RF performance is so severely degraded that
this compromise is rarely desirable. The
tradeoff between dc safe operating area a,pd
RF power gain and efficiency depends on the
a
desired mode of operation.
Since nearly all RF and microwave
transistors are optiniized for Class C
operation, the designer using Class A or AB
operation is required to use the dc safe
operating area curves presented by the data
sheet or, if not so specified, contact the
manufacturer. CTC has many special
transistors that differ from its standard
products only by virture of the degree of
ballasting. Many transistor types have been
ballasted for Class A or AB operation with
significant improvements in linearity and bias
point stability, but with some sacrifice in RF
gain and efficiency.
Designing for Relaibilitj) - Long term
reliability and low operating junction
temperature go hand in hand. To make any

reasonable predictions on system reliability ,

the operating junction temperature of the RF
and microwave transistor must be known. The
graphs and formulas on interface thermal
resistance and heatsink design provide the
necessary tools to go from ambient to case
temperature. To get from here to the final
junction temperature, the designer can now
appreciate that he must use data sheet
thermal resistance information with some
q u a l i f i c a t i o n s . By consulting t h e
manufacturer if interested in conditions other
than matched load, CW Class C operation, a
safe and reliable design is achievable.

REFERENCES
1. RCA Designer's Handbook, SOLID

STATE POWER CIRCUITS. 1972

2. Jakob, Max and Hawkins, George A.,
ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1957.
3. Johnson, J. and Mallinger, M., "You can
Depend on Today's RF Transistors,"
ELECTRONICS, September 13, 1971.

4. Black, J.R., "Electro Migration Failure

Modes in Aluminum Metalization for
Semiconductor Devices," IEEE, Volume
57, No. 9, September, 1969.
5. Reich, B. and Hakim, E. "Hot ~p&t

T her ma1 Resistance in Transistors,"

I E E E T R A N S A C T I O N S ON
ELECTRON DEVICES, Volume ED-16,
No. 2, February, 1966, pp. 166-17 11.

Chapter 5
RF Components

I t i s i m p o r t a n t t h a t y o u get an
understanding. of transistor impedances in the
very beginning. Transistors are low impedance
devices. Designing with low impedance
devices requires special considerations:
0

With a low impedance circuit you have

to be more concerned with current flow
as opposed t o high voltage in a high
impedance circuit. This means that
ground current paths and the current
handling capability of components have
to be watched carefully.
S t r a y inductances are extremely
important. Of particular importance is
the transistor lead inductance and any
series inductance in a shunt con~ponent
in a matching network. Don't forget that
t h e inductance associated with the
ground path is also very important.

Agin the main concern is current handling

capability and lead inductance. Any
capacitors used at low impedance points in
VHF or UHF circuits at the 40W level or
higher should have ribbon leads or no leads at
all [chips). The best capacitors for use at low
impedance points are the uncased mica and
porcelain ceramic types. These capacitors
have low series resistance components for
very low loss and are therefore capable of
operating at high RF 'currenb. At higher
impedances or lower frequencies, NPO chipg
or NPQ leaded capaqitors with very short
l e d s will work.
*

Some of the RF compnenls used in CTC

test amplifiers are listed in figure 17.

The key point to remember when designing

at low impedance is that when you need a
matching component, like a 152 capacitor,
make sure you do not forget about series lead
impedance and possibly the ground return
impedance. It ,does not take much stray
inductance to equal the 1 Ll cpacitive
impedance you are seeking, only about 1 nh
and 150 MHz! That is about 1/16" of a
stripline transistor's lead!

1. Johnson,

Since the impedance levels are so low,

components used in the circuits must be
selected carefully. Of particular importance is
the selection of capacitors. (See reference 16).

2. American Technical Ceramics, "The RF

Capacitor Handbook," 1972

REFERENCES
J.H., And Artigo, R.,
"Fundamentals of Solid State Power Amplifiers Design," QST

Component Type

Application

Manufacturer or Equivalent

Capacitors
Electrolytic
Hi-K Ceramic
My1ar
NPO Ceramic
Dipped Mica
Uncase Mica
NPO Chips
Porcelain Chips
Piston Trimmers
Compression Mica

Low frequ. bypass

H F Bypass
H F Bypass
VHF Bypass & Matching
VHF Coupling
VHF & UHF Matching &
Bypass
VHF Bypass & Matching
UHF & Microwave Matching
UHF & Microwave Matching
VHF & UHF Matching

Distributor item
RMC- J F Series
Distributor item
Distributor item
Distributor item
Underwood Electric
ATC 700 s e r i e s
ATC 100 series
Johanson
~ l e c t r o m o t i v eMfg. Co.

Matching Transformers
R F Chokes
R F Chokes

Ferroxcube
Indiana General
Micrometals

R F Choke
Low Value Resistor
Matching transformerg
Heatsink
Oscillation Supression
Teflon Glass P.C.B.
Epoxy Glass P.C.B.
Adhesive backed conductor

Nytronics
IRC div. of TRW
Precision tubes
Wakefield
Distributor Item
Minnesota Mining & MFG.
General Electric
Minnesota Mining & Mfg.

Cores
Ferite Cores
Ferite Beads
Powered Iron
Other
Molded RFC
Wire Wound Res.
Simi Rigid Coax
Heatsink Material
Carbon Resistors
Board Material
Board Material
Copper Tape

FIGURE 17
Components and Component Manufacturers used in
CTC T e s t Amplifiers

RMC - Radio Materials Corp.

4242 W. Bryn Mawr
Chicago, 111. 60646

Micrometals Inc.
228 N. Sunset
City of Industry, CA. 9 1747

Tel. 3 12-478-3600

Tel. 2 13-968-47 18

UNELCO - Underwood EIectroiucs

148 - 8th.
Maywood, Ill. 60153

Nytronics Inc.
Orange St.
Darlington, S.C. 29532

Tel. 3 12-68 1-2970

Tel. 803-393-542 1

ATC - American Technical Ceramics

Norden Lane
Hunting Station, N.Y. 1 1746

IRC - Burlington Div. TRW, Inc.

Box 887
Burlington, Iowa 52601
t

Tel. 5 16-27 1-9600

Tel. 3 19-754-849 1

Electromotive Mfg. Co. Inc.

South Park & John St.
Willimantic, Conn. 06226

Precision Tube Co. Inc.

Church Rd. & Wissahickon Ave.
North Wales, Pa. 19454

Tel. 203-423-923 1

Tel. 2 15-699-5801

Johanson Mfg. Corp.

P.O. Box 329
Boonton, N.J. 07005

Wakefield Engr. Inc.

Audubon Rd.
Wakefield,Mass.01880

Tel. 201 -334-2676

Tel. 6 17-245-5900

Ferrox Cube Corp.

Saugerties, N.Y. 12477

Minnesota Mining & M fg. - DM&SDiv.

5 178 Crookshank Rd.
Cincinnati, Ohio 45238
c

Tel. 914-246-28 11
Tel. 5 13-922-094 I
Indiana General Electronic Prod.
Crows Mill Rd.
Keasbey, N. J. 08832

General Electric
Laminated Products Dept.
Coshocton, Ohio 438 12

Tel. 201-829-5 100

Tel. 6 14-622-53 10

FIGURE 18

Chapter 6
W Measurements, Power and Impedance

Power Measurements. - Given an RF

power amplifier circuit in input and load
matched to 50 ohms, the measurement of
power gain as well as absolute output power
deserves some comment. The reason is that no
one has yet developed an ideal wattmeter

WATTMETER
TYPE

ACCURACY

Calorimeter
Thermoelectric or
Bolometer mount
Termination
type with
diode
detection
reading RF
peaks

< 1%

which combines all the properties of high

accuracy, fast responses, insensitivity t o
harmonics, and insensitivity to radiated RF
power. The table below is a summary of the
present state of the art for wattmeters:

HARMONIC
INSENSITIVITY

INSENSITIVJTY
TO RADIATED
RESPONSE

Excellent

Very slow

Excellent

Good

Poor

Fast

POWER
Totally
insensitive
Very sensitive,
Poor
Good

wattmeters of the thermoelectirc type. These

wattmeters and associated heads are mounted
in a shielded enclosure along with the
associated switches, directional couplers
attenuators and loads. A typical measurement
set-up is illustrated below:

At CTC, we have and regularly use all these

wattmeter types, taking care t o adequately
compensate for the individual limitations.
For accurate measurements of input and
output power, CTC uses a pair of electronic

I
I

I
I
1I

RF
SOURCE

6 db

I
0-10 db
PAD

1
1

3 db
PAD

OUTPUT
WATTMETER
1

DIRECTIONAL
COUPLER (20 db)

POWER ATTENUATORS
6 db

100 WATT

----PA,
_I
SHIELDED ENCLOSURE
TEST

'

AMPLIFIER

FIGURE 19 - Typical RF Power,Measurement Set-Up

The source is isolated from the test

anlplifier with a 6db attenuator in fig. 19. If
more isolation is required, a circulator nlay be
used.
The outpdt attenuator is adjusted to be
exactly 30.0db over the frequency range of
interest. A calorimeter wattmeter is used to
calibrate the output measurement system.
The input can be calibrated at each
frequency to agree with the reading of the
output power meter. CTC. has constructed a
number of such systems and found them
very satisfactory.

CTC uses both the thruline and termination

t y p e w a t t m e t e r s i n s i t u a t i o n s where
wattmeter shielding is not convenient and
absolute accuracy is less important. The
sensitivity of these meters, particularIy the
termination wattmeter t o harmonics makes i t
necessary to use low pass filters in many
applications.
Impeduncc Meastfrcinent 2 CTC measures
input and load impedance data on all its
transistors. The input impedance data is the
scrics input impedance of the transistor. The
input matching network presents the complex

conjugate of the device input impedance

under condition of zero reflected input
power. The load impedance data is the series
load impedance presented by the output
matching circuit. It is tlze impedance the
transistor wants to work into for optimum
performance. Unless otherwise specified, the
load impedance given to CTC transistors is
that which results in maximum power gain at
the specified power level.

achieve maximum gain at rated output

power.
The transistor is removed from the
circuit, and the input and load are
terminated in 50 ohms. Looking back
into the circuit from the location of the
transistor, the input circuit and load
circuit impedance are measured. An HP
Vector voltmeter model No. 8405A is
used to measure the magnitude and
phase of tlze reflection coefficient.

For all R F transistors characterized for

operation below IGH, the impedance data is
obtained as follows:

A conversion to series input and load

impedance is made with a Smith Chatt.
T h e device input impedance is the
complex conjugate of the measured
i n p LI t circuit impedance. The load
i m p e dance is the directly measured
impedance.

A test circuit is constructed with a

considerable range of tuning for both
input and load. With the device mounted
i n the circuit, the desired collector
voltage and RF input power are applied,
and the input and load are tuned for
z e r o i n p u t reflected power and
maximum output power. The input drive
is adjusted and the circuit retuned to

RF
POWER

50n

SOURCE

MIN

3db

The block diagram for the measurement

systelil is given below:

FWD/REF
)
POWER

, TEST

CIRCUIT

50 fl
30db

TO VECTOR VOLTMETER

FIGURE 20
Block Diagram of Impedance Measurement Set-Up

POWER
MESR

Construction of the test circuit. The test

circuit consists of three separate parts which
are bolted together as shown in Figure 2 1.
MEASURING
SECTION

MOUNTING SECTION

I
----------- --- - - - - -

-------------------'I
I

REFERENCE
PLANE

FIGURE 2 1 - Test Circuit Construction

The matching networks are constructed on

printed circuit board using a combination of
transmission lines, lumped elements,
occasionally transmission line transformers.
The printed circuit boards are bolted to
copper plates which afford the necessary
rigidity as well as form a solid ground plane
for the bottom side of the PC Board. The
center section is used to mount the transistor
flange (or stud in the case of stud devices).
When the circuit has been bolted together
and tuned for maximum gain at rated power
and the frequency of interest, the assembly is
then taken ?part. The center section is
removed and is replaced by the measuring
section which is alternately connected to the
input board and then t o the load board. The
measuring section is a 50 ohm coaxial to
stripline adaptor identical to the ones used on
the input and load boards.
One additional stripline to coax adapter is
needed to establish the reference plane. On
this adaptor the center conductor is shorted
to the outer conductor at the reference plane.

This is used to initially set up the vector

voltmeter to establish the correct phase
relations between reference channels A and B.
This whole procedure is described in the HP
manual on the Vector voltmeter.
b

To get accurate values of the input and

load impedances, the elements used in the
matching network should provide a minimum
of loss. ,Power gain should be within a few
tenths of a db of the data sheet curves.
As a starting point, the input impedance is
estimated to be of the order of 1.2 ohms +
52-3 ohms. The parallel equivalent load
impedance is estimated by assuming:

The series load is then calculated and a

matching network of the following form is
constructed.

50n
LOAD

son
SOURCE

FIGURE 22 - Matching Network

L1 a n d L2 a r e intentionally made
somewhat higher values than would be ideal
so as to have adequate tuning range with the
variable capacitors. C1 and C, are placed next
to the body of the transistor. The total
impedance should equal the parallel inductive
impedance of the transistor. (See Chapter 9)
C1 & Cz may not be required for low
frequency or low power transistors.
If after applying RF power and tuning the
input and load, the gain is within a few tenths
of a db of the data sheet curve, the circuit is
disassembled for measurement. If the gain is
well below the anticipated gain, it is likely

that the matching network is introducing too

much loss, and an additional matching section
may be required on the input or load or both.
Impedance measurements on Microwave
transistors are made in a similar fashion
except that a network analyzer is used in
place of a vector voltmeter and triple stub
tuners are used in the input and load
matching.
A test fixture for applying dc bias is
constructed with constant impedance lines fop
inpy t and output as shown:
&

FWD

50n
SOURCE

REF

OUTPUT

- DIRECTIONAL - 3 STUB

-COUPLER

TUNER

DC
BLOCK

FIGURE 23 - Microwave Test Set-Up

Duplicate lines are created for the input
and load.

FIGURE 24 - Measurement Lines

3 STUB - DIRECTIONAL
TUNER
COUPLER

- .

OR
LOAD

After tuning the devices for optimum

performance, the circuit is removed along
with the input triple stub tuner and the

lNPuTb'OAD

TUNER

TO I N W T
OF
NETWORK
ANALYSER

output dc block and output triple stub tuner.

The tuners and reassembled on the duplicate
input and load sections as shown.

-4

'OAD
BLOCK

TUNER

LOAD

FIGURE 25 - Impedance Measurement

For greatest accuracy, the characteristic

impedance and length of the line going from
the transistor to the tuner should be chosen
to provide as low a VSWR as possible to the
tuners. Most tuners become too lossy if the
VSWR is greater than about 5: 1.

REFERENCES
1. Motorola Application Note AN-282,
"Systemizing R F Power Amplifier
Design."

Chapter 7
Precautions For
RF Power Transistors

S o m e p recau tions are necessary when

designing with RF power transistors in order
t o assure o p t i m u m reliability. Some
precautions have already been discussed and
some have not. A review of the important
ones may save you some costly buraouts.

Itzitial Amplifier Ttlrtz-or2 - The life or

death of your transistor in a newly completed
amplifier design may depend 0x1 how it is f i s t
tested. Always begin at a low collector voltage
and mirnirnum drive. Watch collector current,
power output and the spectrum analyzer
carefully. Both I, and P 0" T should come
u p smoothly. Tune the amplifier while
watching the spectrum analyzer for spurious
response. Spurious responses below 1 or 2
MHz are the most lethal. Use the techniques
explained in Chapter 1 1 to get rid of spurious
responses before full collector voltage or drive
is applied. Any spurious response that will
occur in an amplifier can be seen at a very low
collector voltage. Good starting voltages are 9
Volts for 12 Volt amplifiers and 15 Volts for
24 to 28 Volt amplifiers.
O p e r a t e T h e T r a n s i s t o r Within
Specifications - Do not sacrifice reliability to
achieve a little extra power output or gain by
excluding specifications! Voltage breakdowns,
maximum drive, and power dissipation are
very important; but, three other specifications
are most often abused:

Load VSWR - Most manufacturers specify

a maximum load VSWR for safe operation.
This maximum VSWR must never be
exceeded! Also the maximum VSWR is
specified at a particular power output and
frequency. The maximum permissible VSWR
is less at lower frequencies. Example: a
transistor which is safe with an- VSWR load
at 400 MHz may be capable of withstanding
only a 5: 1 VSWR at 225 MHz. Also, the
maximum VSWR specification on a data sheet
is usually for a transistor-circuit combination.
Some circuits presegt higher VSWRYsto the
transistor than others. See Chapter 9.

Frequency Range - A transistor should be

used within its intended frequency range if
possible. If a transistor is used at a lower
frequency it will be more fragile and more
susceptible to oscillation. If operated a t
higher frequencies, lower gain and poor
efficiency can be expected.
Safe Operating Area - A typical area of a
transistor is shown in the curve below. This
specifies t h e maximum DC p o w e r
dissipation permitted at various voltages.
Transistors are capable of dissipating less
power at higher voltages. Some transistors are
capable of dissipating much less DC power
than RF power! If you are operating Class B or
Class A, check the safe operating area

carefully. If not specified on the data sheet,

call the manufacturer and check.

16

24

3235

Vcc SUPPLY VOLTAGE- VOLTS

Spikes and Power Supplies - The source of

DC power for an RF ,amplifier is very
important. Spikes and high voltage kill
transistors! For example, an automotive
electrical system which supplies a nominal 12
volts usually runs at 13.6 volts and can go to
16 Volts or have spikes even higher. Watch
your supply voltage carefully, get rid of the
spikes and make sure the transistor you use
can handle what is left.
An o f t e n overlooked supply voltage
problem occurs in the electronically regulated
power supply. Many of the finest laboratory
power supplies are sensitive to radiated RF.
While the RF amplifier is being tuned or being
subjected to a load mismatch, the power

supply may suddenly add several volts on its

own. Always watch your voltmeter to make
sure this does not happen to you.
Another often overlooked voltage spike
problem envolves driving the emitter-base
junction into breakdown with too much
reverse bias. When using bias resistors in
either the base return or emitter, a high peak
reverse bias is generated by the peak currents
flowing through the resistor. These peak
currents can be quite high. If a reverse bias is
generated which exceeds the emitter-base
breakdown, n o obvious degradation in
performance will appear. However, after\
several hundred hours op$ration the transistor
will die. The predeath symptoms are a slow
decrease in HF and increased emitter-base
leakage.
Mecharzical - Proper mounting techniques
were covered in Chapter 2. If these are
observed then things like broken studs, Be0
separation or broken leads are easily avoided.
Thermal - Various thermal problems were
covered in Chapter 4. If the transistor is kept
cool it can operate reliably for severah
hundred thousand hours. If you are not sure
of 'your heatsink, then measure the actwal
temperature at maximum ambient.

FIGURE 26
Reverse Bias Due to Resistor in Base Return or Emitter

Chapter 8
Common Base
Versus
Common Emitter

Until recently there was a very nice

separation between common base and
c o m m o n e m i t t e r applications. Common
emitter was used for low frequency to UHF
amplifiers and common base was used for
microwave. Today, devices intended for
common base operation at low frequencies
and common emitter operation at microwave
are available. Which way should you go?
Which configuration is the best?

Gaia - Common emitter and common

base have very different gain characteristics.
The curve in Figure 27 shows relative gain
of a typical transistor. Gains shown assume
zero feedback due to any common lead
inductance. If common lead inductance
is added the common emitter gain will go
down since any emitter inductance produces
negative feedback. Common base gain
increases if any base inductance is added
because it produces a positve feedback. If
more base inductance is added to common
base the gain will continue to increase until
the device-circuit combination oscillates. All
common base transistors have some positive
feedback. If the positive feedback is kept very
small the transistor will be very stable.
Another gain characteristic of interest is
the low frequency gain. A common base
transistor's gain increases of a 6 dbloctave
slope until the frequency reaches the o:
cutoff. Below the a cutoff frequency the
gain flattens out at approximately 12 to 15

db and remains at this level down to dc. With

common emitter the gain continues t o
increase on a 6 dbloctave slope until the
frequency reaches the P cutoff. The gain at
this point may be as high as 40 db.

COMMON
EMITTER IS
NORMALLY
USED IN
THIS
FREQUENCY
RANGE

COMMON
BASE IS
NORMALLY
USED IN
THIS
FREQUENCl
RANGE c

BASE

I
I
I
I
I

I
I
I

W#
FREQUENCY

Frequency MHz

FIGURE 27
Common Emitter and Common Base Gain

Saturated Power Output - The saturated

power output is greater with the common
emitter configuration. This is due to the drive
feeding through to the output with common
emitter. In common base the drive power
does not feed through. An approximate
relationship is:

Input Impedance - The approximate real

part of the input impedance for common base
and common emitter at high frequencies is
given below:
Common Emitter

Saturated Power Out CE - Drive. =

Saturated Power Out CB

Ruggedizess - The ruggedness or the

resistance to high VSWR loads is much better
with common base. Two possible reasons:

Common Base

The instantaneous voltage from collector

to base is less with common base due to
the phase relationship of the input and
output voltages.

There are several interesting points related to

these expressions:

T h e maximum current with a high

VSWR i s less with common base
probably due to the drive feed through.

C o m m o n lead inductance (LE) in

common emitter adds a very significant
term to the real input impedance.

Another important difference is that a

common base transistor does not lose its
ruggedness as rapidly as frequency is
decreased especially in the frequency range
where the common base gain is flat.

Stability - Common base and common

emitter have very different stability problems.
Common emitter tends to oscillate at the low
frequencies where its gain is very high.
Common base does not tend to oscillate at
low frequencies because its gain remains at a
reasonable level. With common base the only
real stability, problem is regeneration due to
the positive feedback. If the positive feedback
is minimized by keeping the base inductance
very small, common base can offer much
better stability.
Lirzearity - As a linear amplifier, common
emitter is far superior. I t is easier to bias and
negative feedback can be added to improve
the linearity. Common base is inherently
more non linear due to the regeneration. If
the regeneration can be minimized, common
base can be reasonably linear; but, due to no
phase shift from input to output, negntjve
feedback cannot be used to improve linearity.

C o m m o n lead inductance (LB) in

common base subtracts from the r e d
input impedance. It is easy t o see that if
LB is very large the input resistance will
be negative. This means regeneration.
b

, The real input impedance for common

emitter can be lowered by as mubh as
50% by the WT RL CO B term.
When making the decision between common
base and common emitter, remember the
package and the common lead inductance
must be good before the common base
configuration is even useable. If you decide t o
use a common base device, some special
precautions must be taken with the circuit t o
maintain minimum common lead inductance.
(See Chapter 19)

*
REFERENCES
1. D. L. Lohrmann, "Parametric oscillations
in VHF transistor power amplifier,"
Proc. IEEE, Vol. 54, pp. 409-4 10 March
1966

2. J.F. Gibbons, "An analysis of the modes

of operation of a simple transistor
oscillator," Proc. IRE, Vol. 49, pp.
1382-1390. September 196 1.

10. J. Lindmayer and C.Y. Wrigley,

Fundamentals of Semiconductor
Devices, Princeton, N. J. : Van Nostrand,
1965.

3. T. Ohkuho and I. Takenaka, "Dynatron

negative characteristics of VE-IF power
transistor," Proc. IEEE, Vol. 54, p.
20 16, December 1966.

11. T . G . T a t u m , "VHF-UHF p o w e r
transistor amplifier design, Part 111:
Circuit considerations," ITT Application
Notes, AN-1-3, 1967.

4. W.W. Gartner, Transistors, New York;

Van Nostrand, 1960.

12. E.O. Johnson, "Physical Limitations of

Frequencies and Power Parameters of
Transistors," RCA Review, Vol XXVI,
No. 2, (June, 1965), pp. 163-173.

5. J. Tatum, "RF large-signal transistor

power amplifiers." Electronic Design
News, Vol. 10, May-July, 1965.
6. A.P. Stern, "Stability and power gain of
tuned transistor amplifiers," Proc. IRE,
Vol. 45, pp. 335-343, March 1956.
7. R. Minton, "Design trade-offs for r-f
transistor power amplifiers," Electronic
Engineer, Vol. 26, pp. 68-73, March
1967.
8. T.M. Scott, "Design of class C transistor
amplifiers," Ph.D dissertation, University
of Wisconsin, Madison, 1962.
9. R.D. Thornton, D.L. Searle et al.,
Multistage Transistor Circuits, Vol. 5,
New York; Wiley 1965.

13. D.M. Smith and G.D. Vendelin, " ~ i &

F requency Silicon Power Transistor;
Characteristics and Applications," Texas
Instruments Seminar Bulletin.
14. Vincent, B.T. : Large-signal operation of
microwave transistors. IEEE Trans.
MTT-13 (Nov. 1965) No. 6, pp. 865 to
866.
15. Lee, H. C. : "UHFIMicrowave Power
Generation using RF Power Transistors,"
RCA Application Note, ST-385 7, 1969.
16. Hilbers, A.H., "On the input and load
impedance and gain of R F Power
Philips Application
Transistors,"
4
Informatio~l,524, March 19, 1968.r

SECTION II

GENERAL CIRCUIT
TECHNIQUES

Chapter 9
Basic
Circuit Design

With today's more rugged RF power

transistors solid state PA design is really a
great deal easier than design with tubes:
Fewer parts are required.
Power supplies are often not required.
(12V Mobile)
The sheet metal work for the total
amplifier is usually less.
Wideband performance with transistors
means no tuning is possible.
Along with ease of construction transistors
offer some advantages tubes cannot match:

If a transistor is selected with care and

used properly it will probably last
100,000 hours or more.
Wideband amplifiers can be easily
constructed with transistors. Octave and
even decade bandwidths are possible.
Small size of solid state PA's is at times
attractive.
The basic idea behind this chapter is to
convince you that solid state power amplifier
design is easy, show you how, and illustrate
the design principles. The emphasis is on VHF
and UHF circuit design at relatively high

power levels (40 to 150 watts). Solid State

power amplifier design at lower frequencies or
lower power levels does not require near the
care or many of the precautions prescribed
here. Special t e c h n i q u e s required for
microwave design is covered in Chapter 15.
Another important aspect of solid state
power amplifier designs is the cost. For
amplifiers in the 100 watts output and under
class, you no longer pay a premium to use
transistors. Of course, you must still consiqer
the total cost, including that of the power
supply when making a valid comparison.
L

Wllicl~Class 0f Operation - The "normal"

operating mode for an R F power transistor is
zero bias class C. The class C solid state
amplifier is useful for FM o r CW as is a class C
tube. It is the easiest to design and most
efficient. Most data on a manufacturer's data
sheet is for class C. If linear amplification is
desired the transistor must be biased for class
B operation. Usually a quiescent current of
50-100 m a is allowed t o flow. See
Chapter 17 for an excellent bias technique.
When class B is used both the power output
and efficiency are degraded. Class A operation
would be used for ultralinear amplifiers
requiring -40 to -50 db intermodulation.
Linear amplifier design is covered in
Chapter 17 . A low level amplifier may
require class A if the drive power is too low to
turn on a class C stage.

The Concept of Low Impedance - A

transistor is usually a low impedance device
and in many cases a very low impedance
device. Designing with low impedance active
components requires that the designers have
the proper concept. He must think in a way
that is opposite in many cases from previous
design work :
C u r r e n t is critical, n o t voltage.'
Components must be capable of carrying
high R F currents with low loss.
Lead inductance is important - Any
lead inductance associated with the
transistor or capacitors may severely
degrade the amplifier performance.
Ground paths must also be considered In high impedance circuits the ground
path is carried from component to
component on a printed circuit run. This
cannot be done with low impedance
c i r c u i t design! A continuous
groundplane on the back side of a PC
b o a r d is a n i d e a l arrangement.
Remember parasitic inductance in the
ground path is of equal importance to
the signal path.

Components in the matching networks

have critical grounds also. The ground
for C1 and C2 in Figure 30 is perhaps
the most critical. Remember the shunt
capacitance required here is often 1 or 2
ohms and therefore the total inductive
impedance in the ground return to the
emitters must be extremely small. For
this reason, 2 capacitors in parallel, one
back to each emitter lead, are usually
required.
Capacitors in the matching networks,
like C3, even though at a slightly higher
impedance point, still require a good\
ground. A direct connection to the
continuous back side ground using a
strap through a hole in the board is the
best technique.
Grounds for components and connectors
at higher impedances near 50 L2 are not
so important and do not require as much
care.
DOUBLE SIDED PRINTED
CIRCUIT BOARD

The important thing to remember when

working with low impedances is t o keep all
parasitic and loss terms an order of magnitude
below the element being used.

Grounds - When designing R F power

amplifiers, the technique used to ground the
various componets is so important that it
deserves additional attention. Several tips
listed below will h e l p optimize your
amplifiers. REMEMBER GROUNDING
BECOMES MUCH MORE CRITICAL AT
EITHER THE HIGHER POWER LEVELS
OR HIGHER FREQUENCIES!

FIGURE 28
Ground Both Emitter Leads At
the Body of The Transistor

Ground the transistor emitter leads, or

base leads for common base, at the body
of the transistor. Not at the ends of the
leads! Not 1/8" away from the body!
See figure 28.
The back side of the PCB should be
nearly a continuous ground plane. The
top side ground should be connected to
the bottom side ground using straps
under each emitter lead. Plated through
holes could also work. See figure 29.

GROUND STRAPS

FIGURE 29
Connect the Topside Ground to the
Continuous Back-Side Ground Using Straps

FIGURE 30 - Typical Circuit

Circuit Design - Transistor power

amplifier circuit design primarily involves
impedance matching networks and dc feed
networks. See figure 31. The impedance
matching networks are usually constructed of
L matching sections. See figure 32. In
addition to matching these L sections provide
a low pass filter for input and output to keep
harmonics down. If the Q of each matching
step is kept low (2 to3), the bandwidth of the
resulting amplifier will be wider. The Q
referred to here is the loaded Q of the
matching network rather than the unloaded Q
of any individual component. Keep the
component Q high, of course, t o minimize
loss. In addition to wide bandwidth, low Q
matching networks have low loss (because
circulating currents are lower) and require less
critical component values. The values for the
L, C, and Q 'may be quickly determined using
the Smith Chart once the impedances to be
matched have been determined. See reference
20, 15, and 22 on the Smith Chart. If a more
optimum network for very wide bandwidth
(octave or greater) is desired, see chapter 12.
The input and load impedances are usually
given on the manufacturer's data sheet.
These impedances may be either the series or
parallel equivalent. E i t h e r is readily
transformed into the other. When comparing
data sheets, make sure you know whether
series or parallel equivalents are specified.

son
WAD

50n
WWT MATCHING
NEWOAK

SOURCE

INWT MATCHING

COLLECTOR mD

FIGURE 31
Typical Transis tor Amplifier
Stage

HIGH

FIGURE 32
L Matching Network

LOW

In designing a matching network, always

w o r k from the transistor to the 50 52
termination. If the first matching component
is a shunt element the parallel equivalent

impedance should be used. Use the series

equivalent when the first matching
component is a series element. See figure 33.

PARALLEL FORM

SERIES FORM

Conversion Formulas for Series and

Parallel Equivalents

XP
#

FIGURE 33 - Series and Parallel Equivalents of an Impedance

A typical input matching network is

shown in Figure 34 with some typical
impedance values shown also. The following is
a step by s,tep method for calculating the
component values required for this kind of
network:
The transistor input impedance is usually
inductive due to lead inductance inside
the package. In order to maintain the
lowest loaded Q for the first matching
step, the first component used should be
a shunt capacitor equal in impedance to
b.This makes the impedance at that
point purely real and equal to Rp. If the
impedance of C, is less than about 852,
it is often best to use two capacitors in

parallel, one back t o each transistor

emitter lead t o minimize inductance and
equalize ground currents.
If R, is high (like 15a) then the
matching network may require only one
L section. If R, is low (like 2 t o
552) then two L sections probably will
be required. The larger the impedance
step the higher' the Q. Remember,
keeping t h e Q l o w improves the
bandwidth and lowers the loss. If two L
sections are required then select an
i n t e r m e d i a t e impedance point
approximately as given below:

ZM =

,/X'

L2

SOURCE

'-1

.'

7 - -

,['

i.

PARALLEL
TRANSISTOR
INPUT
IMPEDANCE

FIGURE 34 - h p u t Matching Networks

Ll

COUPLING
CAPACITOR

L2

IMPEDANCE

\
0

FIGURE 35 - Output Matching Network

IMPEDANCE

'S

FIGURE 36 - Interstage Matching Network

If the minimum Q possible is desired

Using the values in Figure 3 4

16.2
Zm 15 $2 rounded to a convenient number
=

Both the intermediate impedance point

and the number of L sections is not
critical unless maximum band width is
required.
A f t e r selecting t h e intermediate
impedance point L1 and Cz can be
calculated using the Smith Chart. The
best choice of stripline impedance for
easiest calculation is equal to Zm
(1552). Use a Smith Chart normalized
to 15S2 to make the calculation. Start
at Z1 ( 5 a ) on the chart and progress
clockwise on a circular path, with the
chart center the origin, until you reach
an admittance circle which also passes
through the desired output impedance
(Zm, 15Q). See Figure 37. Note
that the value of L,, C,, and Q can be
read directly.
If one wishes the length of L1 to be
shorter, then a higher value of stripline
impedance can be chosen with a slight
sacrifice in Q. Always normalize the
Smith Chart to the stripline impedance
value.

then the stripline impedance chosen

should be Zo = J Z, z m . The
transformation would then be made with
a h 14 line. See Chapter 10.
Additional L sections can be calculated
in the same manner.

An output matching network might look like

the one shown in Figure 36.
T h e transistor manufacturer usually
specifies the series load impedance
required to obtain rated specificatior$
(like 4+ 52). The impedance to start
from on the Smitli' Chart is the complex
conjugate of the load (4 - J2). When
working on the Smith Chart, always
begin with the load that the network
sees on that end. The final value you
obtain at the other end of the network is
the impedance you see looking into the
network. Otherwise the calculations are
the same as the input network. See
Figure 38. 50S2 microstrip is used.
Another interesting matching situation is
the i n t e r s t a g e network between two
transistors. A typical network is shown in
Figure 35. This network is plotted on tHe
Smith Chart in Figure 39. The optimum line
impedance for L1 and L2 is quite low? At
some sacrifice in Q a higher impedance is used
to obtain a more practical line width.

FIGURE 37 - First L Section for Input Match

FIGURE - 38 - Output Matching Network

FIGURE 39 - Interstage Matching Network

INPUT
MATCHlNO
NETWORK

. .. . -. ....-

NETWORK

L
OUTPUT
MATCHING
NETWORK

I/

INPUT
MATCHING
NETWORK

L
RFC

FIGURE 40 - Collector and Base Loading

FIGURE 41 - Collector --*,Base Feedback

There are several other interesting ways to

provide impedance matching using striplines
(See chapter 10 for details):

discussed parametric modes. The input and

o u t p u t impedance required t o sustain
oscillation is provided by the dc feed
networks, not the matching networks. There
are two techniques to prevent these unwanted
oscillations:

Quarter wave matching transformers Two real impedances can be matched

using X/4 stripline with Zo calculated
as follows: Z0 = ,/ R~
R2

Eight wave stubs - A h/8 stub may be

used as a shunt capacitor or inductor. If
the end of the stub is open, the stub
looks like a capacitor with a reactance
equal to Zo of the stripline used for the
stub. An inductive reactance of Zo is
obtained when the end is shorted. Using
stubs in matching networks provides
excellent harmonic suppression.
Quarter wave stubs - A X/4 stub which
is shorted on one end looks like an
infinite ililp~danceon the other. This is a
good way to make an RF choke at VHF
and above.

j
fi

Thc next problelu in the circuit design

involves the dc feed networks. The networks
must be designed carefully in order to prevent
low frequency spurious genera tion. Low
frecl uen cy spurious signal generation in
common emitter RF power amplifiers is due
primarily to the extremely high (30-40 db)
low frequency gain. Generally the transistor is
merely oscillating in one of the classical
modes rather than the more con~n~only

1)Present the device a source and load

impedance which will not sustain any
oscillation.
2) Lower the low frequency gain of the
transistor.
1) The best source and'load impedance to
prevent low frequency spurious is a low pur%
resistance. The following circuit provides this
termination. (See Figure 40).
L1 and L3 need to be small RF chokes
at the carrier frequency. L2 and L4 need
to be as large as possible and still be able
to handle the required current. ( l o p h
is a good value). C, is a small bypass at
the carrier frequency and should be as
small as possible without cutting into the
output power. C2 arid C3 must provide a
solid bypass at all frequencies including
the very low ones. (.22p f and 10 p f
are good choices). At low frequencies
the base will see R1 and the collector
will see R2. R, and R2 should be some
low value like 10S2 to 5052. In less
stubborn cases, the base feed network
may be used w i t h the simplified
collector network shown in Figure 41
with good results.

2) The second method involves using negative

collector base feedback to lower the gain
below s o m e selected frequency. See
Figure 41. The values of the feedback
network are selected as follows:
L-make large enough so that the
feedback network has no effect at the
carrier frequency. The lead inductances
of R and C are often enough without
any additional L.
C - make large enough for good
coupling down to the lowest frequency
of interest.

R - a small value of about 1 0 8 to 10 0 8

is usually selected.
Both base collector RFC's must be small to
get the maximum benefit from the feedback.
If either of these techniques is used, most
transistors can be stabilized. However, a
transistor can have several features which
make it easier to stabilize:
The low frequency gain of the transistor
needs to be as low as possible. This is
controlled mainly by ~ F E .
Any resistance or inductance in the
t r a n s i s t o r emitter provides negative
feed back which decreases gain and
makes the transistor more stable. A
transistor with large emitter resistors
(like CTC devices) is easier t o stabilize. A
transistor with very low emitter lead
inductance (the best stripline packages)
is slightly more difficult to stabilize.
(But it has more gain)

A transistor built on higher resistivity

material will have a higher collector
resistance and seems to be more stable.
Parallel Operation - Often the only way to
achieve a high power requirement is to use
two or more transistors in parallel. While this
is not a difficult task, two problems desewe
special concern:
Power Sharing - each transistor must
provide its share of the output.
Stability - stability problems are a little
more difficult with parallel operation.

Let's take a look at a typical parallel stage

as shown in Figure 42 to see how the
power sharing and stability problems are
solved.
Note that each transistor has an impedance
matching network on the input and output
before they are paralleled. No attempt is
made to tie the transistors together at a low
impedance point (close to the body of the
transistor). Both input and output impedance
are stepped up to an intermediate level (like
2 5 8 ) and then the transistors are paralleled at
that point. Because of the paralleling, the
impedance of the intermediate tie point vill
now be one-half the value for a single stage
(12.5i2). If the transistors are paralleled in
this manner; if very strict symmetry with
respect to the individual stage is used and if
t h e t r a n s i s t o r s - a r e t i g h t l y thermally
coupled, the: power sharing problem will
disappear. If the circuit is designed carefully,
as above, there will be no need to have tightly
matched transistors to achieve proper power
sharing.
The other key point of the typical circuit
is that each stage is isolated from the other a t
low frequencies and at dc. Individual dc feed
and return networks are used for eaeh
transistor. Small coupling capacitors are dsed
+ t o achieve this' isolation. Because the
transistors are isolated at low freqdencies
where oscillations usually occur, the stability
problem is no worse than with a single stage.
The push-pull low frequency oscillations,
common to some parallel circuits, cannot
occur.
Another good reason for having separate
dc feed is that the collector current in each
transistor can be monitored. This is very
helpful in checking power sharing and looking
for a blown device in case of failure.
Figure 42 shows the circuit diagram of a
70 watt, 12 volt, 470 MHz two transistor
amplifier using this technique. This amplifier
provides a total power output which is within
5% of the sum of two single stage amplifiers.
Push-pull operation is discussed in chapter
12. Other combining techniques are discussed
in chapter 16.

IMPEDANCE
MATCHING

-INPbT

IMPEDANCE
MATCHING

IMPEDANCE
MATCHING
A

COUPLING CAPACITORS

MATCHING

-4

IMPEDANCE
MATCHING

IMPEDANCE
MATCHING

vcc
TYPICAL PARALLEL CIRCUIT

FIGURE 42 - Parallel Operation of Two RF Power Transistors

-- C 8

C1. C15 7pf UNDERWOOD

C2, C3. C13. C14, C16 25Opf UNDERWOOD
\
C4. C5. C6. C7. C8. C9. C10,C1'1 33pf UNDERWOOD
C12 5pf UNDERWqOD
C17 l p f ELECTROLYTIC
RFC1, 3 , 5 , 6 - PRINTED ON BOARD
RFCP. 4 15ph MOULDED CHOKE
RI. R Z Isn 112 WATT CARBON
LI
son STRIP LINE
L2, L 3 25 f l STRIP LlNE
L4, L5 - 25 S l STRIP LlNE
L 6 50 STRIP LINE

FIGURE 43 - 70 Watt
12 Watt 470 MHz
Two Transistor Amplifier

Conclusion - There are several key points

which you should remember:
Keep lead inductances as small as
possible.
Make sure all ground paths are short and
low inductance.
Use quality components a t low
impedance points.
Use printed circuit board, stripline
construction if possible.
Keep the matching network Q low for
minimum loss and maximum bandwidth.

REFERENCES
1. Black, J.R., "Electro Migration Failure
Modes in Aluminum Metalization for
Semiconductor Devices" IEEE, Volume
57, No. 9 September, 1969.
2. Reich, B. and Hakim, E., "Hot Spot
Thermal Resistance in Transistors" IEEE
Transactions on Electron Devices,
Volume ED-16, No. 2, February, 1966,
pp. 166-171.
3. Steffe, W. and Moutoux, T., "Avoiding
S e c o n d B r e a k d o w n s i n Power
Transistors" The Electronic Engineer,
December, 1967, pp. 65-69.

4. Gri, N., "Microwave Transistors - From

Small Signal to High Power" Microwave
Journal, Volume 14, No. 2 February,
1971, pp. 45-62.
5. Gundcach, R., "Rx for RF Power
Transistors" Electronics, May 26, 1969,
pp. 84-90.
6. L e e , H.C., "Microwave .Power
Transistors" Microwave Journal,
February, 1969, pp. 51-65.

Megahertz Ratings
7. Magill, L., "Watt
Run Second to High Reliability in
F o r e i g n R F Power Transistors"
Electronics, April 27, 1970, pp. 80-89.
8. Tatum, J. "Fingers in the Die"
Electronics, February 19, 1969, pp.
93-97.
9. Carley, D., "A Worthy Challenger for RF
'The Overlay Transistor" Electronics,
August 23, 1965, pp. 71-84.
10. Carley, D. "A Worthy Challenger for RF
Power Honors" Electronics, February
19, 1968, pp. 98-102.
11. Johnson, J.H. and Mallinger, M. J., "You
Can Depend on Today's RF Transistors"
Electronics, September 13, 197 1, pp.
90-93.
12.Nelson, D., "Higher Power From
Transistors on Six Meters" Ham Radio,
October, 1968.
13. Hej hall, P.C., "Solid State Power

Amplifiers for SSB Service" QST, March,

1972.
14.Franson, P., "How to Use RF Power
Transistors" Ham Radio, January, 1970.
15.Linvil1, J.G. and Gibbons, J.F.,
"Transistors and Active Circuits", Ch. 14,
McGraw Hill, 1961.
16.Perna, V.F., "Dont't Let the Wrong
I n p u t Q Wreck Your R F Power
Amplifier" EDNJEEE, November, 1971.
17. Schultz, D., "Solid State lOOW Amplifier \
Operates from a 12 Volt Source"
EDNJEEE, March, 1972.
18. Pitzalis, 0. and Gibson, R . k , "Tables of
I m p e d a n c e Matching Networks
w h i c h A p p r o x i m a t e Prescribed
Attenuation Versus Frequency Slopes"
IEEE Transactions on Microwave
Theory and Techniques, April, 197 1.
19. Hejhall, R.C., "Solid State Linear Power
A m p l i f i e r Design" M o t o r o l a
Semiconductor Applications Note, 1971.
20. Smith, P.H., "Electronic Applications of
the Smith Chart" McGraw Hill, 1969.
I*

21. Wheeler, H.A., "Transmission ~iri$

Properties of Parallel Strips Separated by
a Dielectric Sheet" IEEE Transactions
on Microwave Theory and Techniques,
March, 1966.
22. "Solid State Power Circuits" RCA
Designer's Handbook, 1972.

Section I1 Chapter 10
Microstrip Design

The design of matching networks at VHF

frequencies and above is nearly always
simplified by using microstrip techniques. For
this reason, virtually all RF and microwave
transistors introduced within the last three
years have been constructed for stripline
insertion. The advantages of using microstrip
can be stated as follows:
Reproducibility of p h o t o etched
transmission line sections is excellent.
Very small inductance values can be
realized by using low impedance lines

available in numerous references, among them

t h e Micro wave Engineers Technical and
Buyers Guide Edition of Microwave Journal,
February 1969.
The solution to Wheeler's equations are
given in Figure 47 & 48 for the most
commonly used dielectrics. One note of
caution; the effective dielectric constant is a
function of the width to height ratio of the
stripline. The effective dielectric constant is
used to determine line lengths as follows:

*-f

The availability of a ground very close to

the circuit elements reduces unwanted
inductances.
The use of microstrip is generally the
most economical approach.
Because of the availability of ground and
the small inductances possible, multistep matching networks can be easily
fabricated with the associated increase
on bandwidth and lower losses.

X 14 and h /8 matching sections are

readily fabricated.
The dimensions of the microstrip for a
given immpedance depend on the dielectric
material and height of the line above the
ground plane. Wheeler (' ) has calculated the
characteristic impedance for striplines as a
function of the width to height ratio for
various dielectric constants. Curves are

-- C

C = Velocity of light =
3 x 10 cm/seb
h = wavelength in cm

effective dielectric constant

For wide lines with high width t o height
ratios, the effective dielectric constant is
nearly equal to the actual dielectric constant
of the material. Most computer programs for
circuit optimization require the effective
dielectric constant to be specified.
c

eff

The quarter wave matching section - One

Of the simplest matching networks makes use
of a quarter wave transmission line whose
characteristic impedance is given by:

Where Z1 and Z2 are the impedances t o be

matched. The restriction is that both Z1 and
Zz must be real, with no reactive component.

In the case of matching the input of a

transistor to 50 ohms, this technique is used
as followsi

son

The additional useful properties of an open

terminated eighth wave line is that it appears
as a short at the second harmonic. This
harmonic rejection simplifies filtering. It also
can be used to great advantage in the
colllector circuit in relatively narrowband
circuits (less than 10% BW) to improve
collector efficiency. Second harmonic loading
has been found to be most effective when:
The frequency of interest is less than f/z
the fT of the transistor.
The impedance that the collector wishes
to see is inductive.

FIGURE 44
X/4 Transformer Used for Input Match
The complex impedance of the input is
transferred to a pure real whose value is equal
to the equivalent parallel input resistance. X,
is parallel resonant with the parallel
equivalent input inductance.

The bandwidth is narrow.

The first matching step of a typical output
circuit is as shown:
OPTIMUM LENGTH FROM COLLECTOR
EXPERIMENTALLY

DETERMINED-7
/e
O-

Eighth wave matching sections - A X/8

wave line has useful properties when used as a
s h u n t matching element. If the line is
terminated in an open, the reactance is
capacitive; if terminated in a short, the
reactance is inductive. The reactance value is
equal to the characteristic impedances of the
line. One use of an eighth wave line is to
replace the shunt capacitor on the input of
the transistor as shown:

FIGURE 46
X Stub used in Output Match

-8-

The eighth wave strip is located typically

a b o u t XI16 from t h e collector of the
transistor.

FIGURE 45
X and h stubs
8
4
The entire input matching network can be
printed. Even the dc feed can be supplied by a
relatively high impedmce h/4 line if low
frequency stability considerations are met.

The probable explanation for how such a

matching step improves efficiency is that the
second harnlonic load is an open at the
physical collector. The transistor is then
switching in a more or less square wave
fashion. Actual efficiencies of greater t h a n
80% have been achieved at CTC at 400 MHz,
28V. 25W, using this technique.

.2

.3 -4 .5

3 4 5

10

MICROSTRIP W/H

FIGURE 47

- Microstrip Impedance

v s W/H

20 30 40 50

100

FIGURE 48 - Effective Dieyectric Constant

FIGURE 49 - Effective Dielectric Constant

REFERENCES
\

1. Wheeler, 'fTransmission-Line Properties

of Parallel Strips Separated by a
Dielectric Sheet," IEEE Transactions on
Mi crow ave Theory and Techniques,
March, 1966.

'

lines in microwave IC's." Microwave

Journal, Vol. 12, No. 5, May 1969, pp.
79-82.
4. C.W. Gerst, L.J. Paciorek: "Stripline
m i c r o wave integrated circuits."
Microwave Journal, Vol. 12, No. 5, May
1969, pp. 43-54.

2. G.L. Matthaei, L. Young, E.M.T. Jones:

"Microwave Filters, Impedance-Matching
Networks, and Coupling Structures."
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1964. 1100
Pages.

5. M.V. Schneider: "Microstrip lines for

microwave integrated circuits." Bell
Syst. Tech. Journal, May-June 1969,
pp. 1421-1444.

3. A . Schwarzmann: "Approximate
solutions for a coupled pair of microstrip

6. Presser, A., "RF Properties of Microstrip

Line," Microwaves, March 1968.

Chapter 11
Stability

Many papers have been written about RF

power transistor stability. Most blame the
various spurious responses on parametric or
v a ~ atco r mode oscillation. Actually the
sub-harmonic (112 frequency) and harmonic
(2 x frequency) spurious responses are due to
parametric, varactor, or other non linear
effects in the transistor. However, We many
low frequency. spurious responses that occur
are due to classical osdlation modes. These
oscillations depend on the transistar's low
frequency gain and the input and transistor
load impedances at low frequencies, It is
interesting to note that common base
transistors (common base .low frequen~ygain
is much lower than common emitter) have
almost no problem with low frequency
spurious oscillations. .
The best way ta observe any spurisus
response is with a spectrum analyzer. Always
use a spectru,m analyzer when looking at a
new amplifier design. A typical low frequency
spurious will modulate the carrier and sum
and difference frequencies will appear on the
spectrum analyzer. A carrier at 170 MH, is
observed lnFigure 50 .

FREQUENCY (MHz)

FIGURE 50

A 10 MHz oscillation is causing the

spurious responses, not indivudal oscilIations
a t 140,150,160,180,190 and 200 MHz
Therefore a good look at the circuit loads at
1 0 MHz may reveal the source of the
problem. Usually the transistor is looking at
either a short or a very high impedance at the
frequency of oscillation. The dc feed
networks usually provide such loads. Chapter
9 describes feed network design techniques t o

avoid such loads. Chapter 9 also describes

ways to use negative feedback to lower the
transistor low frequency gain to prevent
oscillation.
Another stability problem occurs when a
transistor with very high gain or too much
positive feedback (common base) is used.
Here the transistor will tend to maintain a
power output at or near the carrier frequency
.when drive is removed. The best way to
handle this problem is to use lower Q
matching networks or a lower gain transistor.

RF POWER TRANSISTOR
REFERENCES
rn

1. D. L. Lohrmann, "Parametric oscillations

in VHF transistor power amplifier,"
Proc. IEEE, Vol. 54, pp 409-41 0,-March
1966.

2. A.P. Stern, "Stability and power gain or

tuned transistor amplifiers," Proc. IRE,
Vol. 45, pp. 335-343, March 1956.
3. T . G . T a t u m , "VHF-UHF power
transistor amplifier design, Part 111:
Circuit considerations," I?T Application
Notes, AN-1-3, 1967.

In addition t o the above, common base

transistors which have excessive common lead
inductance tend to snap on. That is, as the
drive is applied no output will appear until
some particular drive level will cause the
output to jump up to some power level. In
extreme cases the output will jump all the
way to rated output. This problem may be
solved by minimizing the common lead
inductance in both the circuit and the
transistor package. Many microwave circuit
designers consider some snap action
acceptable. Once the transistor is .on it will
continue to operate in a stable mode.

4.Mueller, O., Figel, W.G.: Stability

problems in transistor power amplifiers,
Proc. IEEE 55 (August 1967), pp. 1458
to 1466.
5.Linvil1, J.G., and Gibbons, J.F.:
Transistors a n d Active Circuits;
McGraw-Hill; 1961.
6. Ace, H.C. : "UHF/Microwave Power
Generation using RF Power Transistors,L'
RCA Application Note, ST-3857, 1969.

7. Choma, J. "Frequency Domain Stability

C r i t e r i a f o r Large-Signal T u n e d
Common Base Amplifiers," IEEE
Transactions on Circuit Theory, May,
1972.

Chapter 12

WIDEBAND CIRCUIT DESIGN

Short-step Chebyshev transformers.

form, a means of designing the necessary

broadband network given the frequency band,
the transformation ratio and the amount of
tolerable passband attenuation ripple.
This technique may be useful for frequencies
up to 500 MHz. The short-step Chebyshev
transformer teclmique would prove better
suited to use above 500 MHz. Reference
number 2 offers an excellent design aid for
this type of transmission line network. The
design information in this reference is also
offered in tabular form. Both sets of tables
relate t o matching one real impedance td
another. In the actual design of wideband
transistor amplifier, one is either matchifig a
complex impedance to a real impedance or
one complex impedance to another complex
impedance (such as on in terstage matching
network). As a result, the references
mentioned above can realistically only offer a
starting point design which may or may not
provide adequate amplifier performance. To
improve the design, one can use the initial
network as a starting point for further
refinement using a computer optimization
program, or for trial and error circuit
modifications. It should be mentioned that
any theoretical network analysis is limited by
the accuracy with which one can describe the
behavior of the network components and the
accuracy of the input and the load impedance
values used.

The first type mentioned is constructed of

lumped elements and can be used with
transformation ratios as high as fifty. An
excellent design aid for these networks is
reference number 1. It offers in "cookbook"

References 3 and 4 provide detailed

discussions of the analysis of broadband
transmission line transformers. The basic 4: 1
impedance transformer is shown in Figure 5 1,

Wideband solid state transmitters are being

produced at ever increasing power levels.
System designers are seeking to achieve the
widest possible bandwidths. For example, the
recent emphasis on ECM shows a need for
octave bandwidth power amplifiers up
through 1 GHz The desirability for wideband
high power amplifiers has existed for a long
time. However, only recently have high power
broadbandable RF power transistors become
available. Solid state transmitters are now
being built and tested at output power levels
through one kilowatt. The two key elements
required for a successful wide band amplifier
design are:

A transistor designed for wideband

o p e r a t i o n . T h e i n p u t a n d load
impedances need to be high and the Q's
as low as possible.

W i d e b a , n d I m p e d a n c e Matching
Networks. Stripline, lumped elements or
transformers can be used.

CHEB Y S H E V MATCHING NETWORKS.

Two types of Chebyshev matching networks
very commonly used are:
Networks of low- pass filter form.

Transmission Line Transformers

and the basic 1:1 impedance transformer is

shown in Figure 52.

TWISTED PAIR
TRANSMISSION

~~~

TRANSMISSION
LINE
COAXIAL

r--w

- '',!%, '1

<

FIGURE 51 - 4:l Impedance Transformer

T h e transmission line transformer can

provide bandwidth ratios in excess of 100: 1.
The following are general guidelines for the
use of transmission line transformers:

UNBALANCED

BALANCED

FIGURE 52
1: 1 Unbalanced to Balanced
Impedance Transformer

Upper frequency limit is the frequency

at which the electrical length of the
transmissiod line is equal to h/8.
The optimum characteristic impedance
of the transmission line is determined
by:

I f t h e desired transmission line.

impedance is near 50S2 a twisted pair of
wires may be used. Multiple wires may
be paralleled for a twisted pair lower
than 508. A coaxial cable is generally
preferred at impedances much below
50S2, Semi-rigid coax is excellent.

The series inductance of the transmission

line c o n d u c t o r s affects t h e low
frequency cutoff of the transformer.
High permeability material placed close
to the transmission conductors:
a)

Increases the series inductance of

the transmission line conductors
and t h u s e x t e n d s the low
frequency performance of the
transformer.

b)

Does not alter the characteristic

impedance of the transmission
line.

c)

Allows the electrical length of

the transmission line to remain
relatively short.

d)

I s not the medium used t o

couple power from input t o
output; thus small cross section
ferrite can accommodate larger
power levels and still remain
unsaturated.

The smaller the transformation ratio, the

larger the bandwidth that can be achieved. A
very common use of this technique is to
match a SOL? system down to approximately
12.552 over an octave bandwidth by using a
2552 transmission line that is a quarter wave
long at the center frequency of the band.

I n t e r c o n n e c t i o n s such as that in
Figure 51 between terminals (2) and
(3) should be kept as absolutely short as
possible.

ZIN "SRL

i-

FIGURE 54 - X/4-Transformer

RL
(I

:-I-

Another very clever impedance matching

teclmique is to use a quarter wave transformer
as a means to achieve push-pull amplifier
operation. Figure 55 shows this application.

9: 1 IMPEDANCE
TRANSFORMER

16: 1 IMPEDANCE

FIGURE 55
Matching Networks for Push-Pull

TRANSFORMER

The input quarter wave section provides:

FIGURE 5 3
Other Common Matching Transformers

Q u a r t e r W a v e Tra~zsnzission Lirre
Transformers - A comnlon method of
impedance matching in VHF and UHF
applications is through the rise of quarter
wave transmission ,line transformers. The
following relationship applies:
A real impedance R, can be transformed
to a value R2 at a frequency f by
using a length of transmission line such
t h a t the characteristic impedance is
equal to Zo = ,
/=
and the line is
electrically a quarter wave at the
frequency - f (see figure 54 ).

180" phase shift between input signals to

amplifiers A, and A,.

12.552

between

A,

and

A2, or

6.25i2 for each amplifier and ground.

The output quarter wave section provides:

In phase combining of signals through
the entire amplifier system (180" phase
shift between output signals of A, and
A2 1.
12.5i2 between A,
and A2 or
6.25Q from each amplifier and ground.

Special HF/ VHF Transformers - Very

successful use has been made of some special

transformers that operate in the classic

transformer m o d e of operation. The
transformers are constructed using ferrite
beads, hollow brass tubes (some silver plated)
and formvar wire. *Two parallel sections are
constructed where the brass sleeves fit snuggly
through the center of a length of ferrite
beads. A copper strap is used to interconnect
the two brass sleeves at one end of the
transformer. This serves as the primary
winding of the transformer. The secondary
winding is formed by winding the appropriate
number of turns of formvar copper wire
through the center of the follow brass tubes.
Use of the largest possible wire size improves
performance. This construction places the
current carrying surfaces very close to each
other, and also very close to the ferrite
materials, thus minimizing the amount of
leakage flux which tends to limit upper
f r e q u e n c y performance of a classic
transformer. The impedance transformation
ratio is equal to the square of the turns ratio.
This technique works very well up through 30
MHz and has actually been used successfully
in wideband amplifiers up to 90 MHz. A
further advantage of this technique is that it
provides a means to construct push pull
amplifier modules that can be very easily
reproduced. One very common use is for a 28
volt 100 watt, 2-30 MHz, push pull, two
transistor linear amplifier module.

Equal Delay Transformer - Most types of

broadband transmission line transformers,
have a severe limitation in that the electrical
length of line used should not be greater than
1/8X. This restriction can present significant
problems if extreme bandwidths are desired.
T h e r e is ? class of transmission line
transformers which has no theoretical line
length limitation. 'Tt this time, there is no
known published hterature describing this
class of transformer, so we can not
acknowledge the originator or the name used
f o r t h i s class of transformer, and
consequently, have coined our own.
T h e basic principle of operation of
transmission line transformers is that a
t e r m i n a t e d transmission line has a
well-defined impedance to any differential
signal applied to it and a much higher
impedance to any common mode applied t o it
(which may be enhanced by coiling the
transmission line or using a ferrite core).

Consequently, one end of the line can be

considered as "floating" or "elevated" relative
to the other end.
T o illustrate what we are discussing,
consider Figure 57:

FIGURE 57

T h e 5 0 a transmission i s correctly
transmitted a t all frequencies down to where
the common mode impedance of the 2552 line
is approaching 2552. The operation of the
network is as follows:

The 25Gl line is terminated at one e ~ d

with 2 5 a .
4

Then at the other end of the 25S2 line,

we have a "floating" 25G impedance.

Consequently, if we connect a 25Gl load

from one conductor (it can be either) to
ground, we now have a total impedance
of 50S1 from the other conductor to
ground.
If points 2 and 3 are connected together,
we now have the classic 4: 1 impedance ratio
transmission line transformer. From our
description of how Figure 1 works, it should
be immediately apparent that the 4 : l
transfonncr will only work well at frequencies
where the phase shift between the voltages at
2 and 3 is small. This is true only at
frequencies whose wave length is large
compared to the length of the 2552 line or
frequencies where the length of the line is
exactly one or more wave length.
Consider now the network shown in Figure 58.

2. George L. Matthaei, "Short-step

Ch ebyshev Impedance Transformers",
IEEE, Transactions on Microwave
Theory and Techniques, Vol. MTT-14,
No. 8, August, 1966.

son LINE

FIGURE 58 - Equal Delay Transformer

The two 25Q lines are exactly the same
length. The circuit in Figure 2 behaves exactly
the same as that in Figure 1. However, there is
no phase difference between the voltages
across both 25Q loads at high frequencies.
Consequently, if we connect points 3 and 4
together, we have a 4: 1 impedance ratio
unbalanced to unbalanced transformer whose
high frequency cut-off is essential unrelated
to the electrical length of the 25C2 lines.
The transformer, as represented by Figure
2 with points 3 and 4 interconnected,
represents the very simplest of this class of
transformers. With suitable ingenuity and
more lines and cores, transformers can be
configured which will have different
impedance ratios, and/or balanced output, or
act as hybrids with similar high frequency
properties. This class of transformer should
prove most useful when it is necessary to
achieve extremely wide bandwidths.

REFERENCES
1. George L. Matthaei, "Tables of
Chebyshev Impedance-Transforming
Networks of Low-Pass Filter Form",
Proc. IEEE, Vol. 52, pp. 939-964,
August, 1964.

3. C.L. R u t h r o f f , "Some Broad-Band

Transformers", Proc. IEEE, Vol. 47, pp.
1337-1342, August, 1959.
4. 0 c t a v i u s Pitzalis, Course, T.P.,
"Broadband Transformer Design for RF
Transistor Power Amplifiers", 1968
Electronic Components Conference
Proceedings, May, 1968.

5. Schultz, "Solid State lOOW Amplifier

Operates from a 12-Volt Source,"
EDN/EEE, March, 1972.
6. E.F. Sartori: "Hybrid transformers."
IEEE Trans., Vol. PMP-4, No. 3, Sept.
1968, pp. 59-66.

7. E. Schwartz: "Broadband matching of

resonant circuits and circulator^.'^ IEEE
Trans., VoL MTT-16, No. 3, March
1968, pp. 158-165.
8.

E. Lampert: "Transmission line

transformers with an integral number*

,transformation ratio." AEU, Vol. 23,

No. 1, Jan. 1969, pp. 49-59.

9. H. Stegmeier: "Design of pulse

transformers with nanosecond risetime."
(in German). AEU, Vol. 19, No. 5, May
1965, pp. 25 1-262.

10. R.E. Matick: "Transmission line

transformers - theory and applications."
Proc. IEEE, Vol. 56, No. 1, Jan. 1968,
pp. 47-62.
11. J.R. Brown: "The use of BALUNS in
magnetic memories." Electronic
Components Conference Proceedings,
May 1968. Washington, D.C.
12. H. K h a k z a r : " R e a l i z a t i o n of
transformers for wideband feedback
amplifiers." AEU, Vol. 20, Jan. 1966,
pp. 27-32.

13. E.G. F u b i n i and P.J. Sutro: "A

w i d e - b a n d transformer f r o m an
unbalanced to la balanced line," Proc.
IRE, Vol. 35, pp. 1153-1 155, October
1947.
14. W.K. Roberts: "A new wide-band
balun," Proc. IRE, Vol. 45, pp.
1628-163 1, December 1957.
15. C.N. Winningstad: "Nanosecond pulse

transformers, " IRE Trans. Nuclear

Science, Vol. NS-6, pp. 26-3 1, March
1959.
16. G. Oltman: "The compensated balun,"
IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory and
Techniques Vol. MTT- 14, pp. 112-1 19,
March 1966.
17. "Solid State Power Circuits" RCA
Designers Handbook, 1972.

Wideband 225 to 400 MHz, 100 Watt,

Push-Pull Amplifier Using Two CTC
C2M60-28's.

Wideband 225 to 400 MHz Amplifier,

40 Watts Power Out, Using CTC
CD1716.
&

Wideband 70 to 170 MHz Amplifier,

80 Watts Power Out Using CTC
BM80-28.

minr*

2*%*

b-

FIGURE 59 - Some Wideband Amplifiers

Chapter 13
Computer Aided Design

There are only two classes of programs readily

available which are of potential interest to a
circuit designer:

( 5 ) Examine the final analysis given and

decide whether it is acceptable. If not,

figure out a new network configuration
and back t o Step 2.

Network analysis programs

Network analysis programs with
optimization capability
The first kind can be used to check out a
design made by some other technique but
otherwise are of very little use. Network
design programs with optimization capability
a r e invaluable for designing broadband
matching networks.
The approach used is to design one matching
network at a time using impedance data from
the data sheet. The systematic procedure is as
follows:
(1) Decide on the network configuration
you wish to try

(2) Do a rough calculation of component

values at band center using Smith Chart
or whatever.
(3) Feed this network and starting values
into the optimizing program and let it
vary whatever values you can make
variable.

(4) Let it optimize for optimum match

across the band.

(6) When you have acceptable networks for

input and output build the stage and
evaluate.
(7) "Tweek" component values so you do
get performance that approximates what
the computer says you would get. .
(8) If (7) can not be done, obtain more

accurate impedance data and back&to

Step 1.
This approach allows you to find out what
the optimum network configuration is very
quickly and gives a first sample that should be
fairly close to the final design. What network
configurations are best has to be learned by
experience. It should be remembered that in
broadband design, networks that are duals in
narrowband design are no longer duals. Also,
the transformer action of transmission lines
becomes much more difficult to understand
instinctively and surprising line lengths (e.g.
112) might be quite useful. Also, it is
generally desirable to have as the first element
immediately adjacent to the transistor, a
shunt reactance that is capacitive if the
network should have a capacitive reactance at
that point and inductive if the network
should appear inductive. Also, it is often
desirable to use broadband transformers to

drop impedances part of the way. The reasons

why amplifiers do not perform entirely as
expected from the above approach are:
Accuracy of the impedance data
Even if. the impedance data is accurate,
the output network never presents the
exact impedance specified to the device
and this deviation from ideal effects the
power gain, power output, efficiency
and i n p u t impedance in a totally
unknown fashion.
The physical realization of the circuit is
not exactly the same as that specified in
the design, e.g. we do not know what
really happens at junctions between
various network elements and the true
equivalent circuit of lumped elements,
in particular, is generally quite complex.
Generally, losses in the networks were
not taken into account in the design.
Not following good RF construction
techniques and stabilization techniques.
Harmonic loading is not taken into
account in the design procedure and may
be quite significant.

There are only three programs known to us

with distributed elements. All of these
programs are available by time-sharing or
remote batch operation nation-wide or may
be purchased:

PROGRAM

SOURCE

COMPACT

Les Besser
165 1 Jolly Court
Los Altos, CA. 94022
(41 5) 968-7025

MAGIC

Scientific System Technology Inc.

3530 Forest Lane
t
Dallas, T-X 75234
(2 14) 357-8449

OPTINET

Dean Hall Associates, Inc.

200 Third Street
Los Altos, CA 94022
(4 15) 948-0877

All these programs are capable of doing what

is required. There are considerable differences
in overall capabilities, flexibility, ease of use
and cost. Also, these change quite rapidly so
we would suggest that you investigate all
programs before deciding on the one to use?

SECTION Ill

SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS

Chapter 14
Very High Power
Amplifiers

Very high power single stage amplifiers

require some special circuit techniques. This is
primarily due to lower transistor impedances,
higher current, and more heat t o get rid of.
Lower impedances mean ,more care must
be given to the impedance matching netw-ork
design. All parasitic elements such as
i n d u c t a n c e o r resistive loss must be
considered. The selection of con~ponentsfor
use in the matching networks is critical. Only
capacitors with very low series inductance
should be used. They should be low loss even
at the very high RF currents they must be
subjected to. Uncased mica capacitors are
good for HF and VHF where porcelain chips
are better for UHF and up. Where possible, a
transistor which has one matching step, for
the base, inside the package should be used.
Here the most critical first shunt capacitor is
taken care of by the transistor manufacturer.

The placement of shunt capacitors is also

critical. The first shunt capacitor should
usually be placed against the body of the
transistor on the input lead side. This
minimizes the series inductance, keeps the
loaded Q low and reduces the RF current
through the first shunt capacitor.
The ground path for all the components
and especially the transistor common leads
requires special care. The inductance in the
ground path must be minimized in order to
achieve good gain and saturated outpuf
power. See Chapter 9 ' for details.
C

A high power transistor must have a good

thermal path. Usually this requires that the
transistor is bolted t o a heatsink using a good
thermal compound. See Chapter 4 .
Some examples of good design for high
power stages is shown in Figure 60 .

75 Watt, 12 Volt Wideband Amplifier

for the 450 to 512 MHz Land Mobile
Band.

70 Watt, 12 Volt untuned amplifier for

the two meter Amateur band using a
CTC BM70-12, driven by a B12-12.

140 Watt, 175 MHz Narrow band tuned

amplifier using two CTC B70-28
transistors.

FIGURE 60 - Some High Power Amplifier Circuits

Chapter 15
Microwave
Power Amplifiers

Designing w i t h microwave power

transistors deserves a special note of caution if
for no other reason than the cost of the
device. Actually in the initial bread boarding
and design you will want to observe the same
precautious and techniques that apply to any
R F power transistor at any operating
frequency. Where as lower frequency (less
than 1.0 GH, ) power transistors can be made
very rugged and therefore are able to
withstand severe mismatch, the larger
microwave power devices do not possess this
same tolerance to mismatch.

COMMON
EMITTER IS
NORMALLY
USED IN
THIS
FREQUENCY
RANGE

COMMON
BASE IS
NORMALLY
USED IN
THIS
FREQUENCY
RANGE

z
u

(3

*
r

Built in ruggedness is sacrificed in order to

o b t a i n high frequency performance. In
general there are no short cuts in arriving at
the final circuit. The wise engineer will
proceed carefully, keeping in mind that time
spent on producing a high quality breadboard
or prototype will mean fewer proble~nsin
transferring the design to production.

Common Base - Most high power (greater

thatn I w) microwave power transistors are
produced for common base operation. One of
the reasons is the eyhanced power gain due t o
package parasitics. An added advantage is that
burn outs due to low frequency oscillation are
minimized. The low frequency unilateral
power gain of a common base microwave
transistor will be substantially lower than the
same device mounted as a common emitter
amplifier.

I
I

I
I

wz

"0

FREQUENCY

FIGURE 6 1
Common Base and Common
Emitter Power Gain
Therefore it is generally not necessary t o
decouple base and collector bias leads to the
extent t h a t common emitter devices are.
(Compare typical circuits of various device
manufacturers for common emitter' and
common base devices). The above comments

do not apply t o small signal linear devices

where in the common base devices are
potentially unstable (Conditionally stable) up
to a p p r o x i m a t e l y ft (Common emitter
potentially unstable up to approximately:

Distributed circuitry (transmission lines) is

a convenient way to take into account the
series inductance and shunt capacitance of a
particular kind of structure.
The input impedance of a transmission line
is given as:

Circuit Tecltniques - It is also important

that proper high frequency circuit technique
be used in physically assembling an amplifier
stage. If external coupling is introduced
around the transistor, it may oscillate and
destroy itself. Separate input and output coils
or microstriplines and make sure supply leads
are decoupled. The reverse transmission loss
of t h e circuit (with a dummy package
inserted) can be measured. This should be less
than the calculated reverse parameter of the
device.
A particularly important point when using
microstrip circuitry is that there be a positive
R.F. ground right under the input and output
matching circuitry. This can best be realized
by soldering the microstrip board down or by
phsyical pressure as close as practical to the
device. (Nylon screws may be helpful here.) If
grounding is not adequate at these points, it is
possible t o introduce a common lead
impedance into the circuit which tends to
make the stage unstable.

Lzrnzped Versus Distributed Circtritry The choice of whether to use lumped or

distributed circuitry depends on factors such
as physical space available for circuitry, and
type of construction one is geared to do.
Actually, unless the matching eletneilts are
physically smaller than 0.01 h at the operating
frequency, you are working with distributed
elements. If you choose to ignore the series
inductance of a lumped capacitor or the shunt
capacitance of a lumped inductor, you will
probably suffer in bandwidth. If circuit
volume is fixed and quite small, you may be
forced to work with lumped elements. The
smaller these elements are physically, the
closer to optimum design you will be. If your
company is capable of working with M.O.S.
capacitors and thin film luniped inductors,
these techniques may be used up through 4.0

21,

ZL + z0 TANH (. Y+jp-6
20 Zo + ZL TANH (a/+ j pR)

This can easily be handled by a computer

to compute Zin for various length (1) and
load impedances (ZL).
For a lossless line:

ZIN

20

ZL COS p;4+ j Zo SIN p l ' 20 cos P

j ZL SIN
I
PL
+

S h u n t i n d u c t o r s may be realized in
microstrip circuitry by a short circuited stub
of length less than h/4. With ZL = 0:

I-- 1 4
2

21,-j Z0 T A N 8 y - j z oT A N L R
Ao

IN

S h u n t capacitors may be realized by

open-circuited stubs of length less than 114.
With ZL =
,
a
n
,A0

10-0

2 IN

R.F. Chokes may be made by using a short

circuited length of high impedance line of
length h/4. If it must be D.C. isolated, the
short can be a bypass capacitor.
In some instances, the transmission lines
must be folded or bent t o conserve space. It is
important to know something about the
e f f e c t i v e length around a corner. The
following is used by some engineers for low
reflection corners and effective length:

GH,.

FIGURE 61A

- Microstrip

Corners

Initial turn-on of microwave transistors:

When tuning up a microwave power device for
the first time, it is a good idea to work at a
reduced collector supply voltage. For a 28V
device, 18 volts is a good place to start. The
lower voltage increases the ruggedness and
make the device more forgiving when working
into a mismatched load. As optimum tuning is
approached, input drive can be increased and
supply voltage increased. Power output
should always increase as supply voltage is
increased. If it does not, check output tuning;
also check the collector efficiency. A lower
than normal efficiency indicates incorrect
tuning.
I f t u n i n g is still n o t progressing
satisfactorily, another safety factor that may
be applied is to work on a pulse basis at some
low duty cycle. The average device dissipation
will then be reduced by the duty cycle.
Output power may then be read on a
calibrated detected scope presentation.

T h e cu t-off
waveguide is:
fnm

There have been instances when using

electronically regulated power supplies where
in the RFI filtering of the regulator is poor
and during tune-up the supply is liable to do
anything. If abnormal voltage and/or current
readings are noted on the supply meters, you
may have t o switch types o r , supply
manufacturers.
A word of caution is in order about the box
or enclosure that the circuitry is placed into consider a metal enclosure as a cavity.

C Jay+(%)$ ( ~
2d
2b
2a

12

Where I , n and m pertain to the number of

standing wave interference maxima occurring
in the fields.
If a TE or TM wavi is excited in the box
above at a frequency above f,, ,the amplifier
response will exhibit a notch, or if phasing is
correct between input and output terminals,
the amplifier will go into oscillation. Th
lowest frequency wave that can be supporte
will be for the dominant TE,, mode:

If there is a dielectric in the box of

e = ere,, then:
CUTOFF
f CUTOFFcr

Vzfor an example, suppose a = 6 ", b

d

Whenever possible, initial characterization

or breadboard tuning should be done while
observing the output on a spectrum analyzer.
Spurious responses can alert you to improper
tuning or poor decoupling.

frequency of the above

6.0")

cr =

1.0",

then the lowest resonant frequency that can

be supported will be:

* I f t h e amplifier operating frequbncy

includes 2.0 GH,, we could have a problem.

REFERENCES
1. Hewlett Packard Application Note 95 "S
P a r a m e t e r s - Circuit Analysis and
D esign"

2. C.G. Montgomery, R.H. Dicke, E.M.

Purcell '"Principles of Microwave
Circuits" M.I.T. Radiation Lab Series,
Vol. 8, Boston Technical Publishers,
Inc., Lexington, Mass., 1964
3. S. Ramo, J.R. Whinnery "Fields and
Waves in Modern Radio" John Wiley and
Sons, Inc. New York

FIGURE 62

4. RCA "Solid-State Power Circuits"

Technical Series SP-52.

5. 1971 Wescon Technical Papers Session

2 3 A . Presser, H.C. Huang, R.W.
Paglione, and H.C. Johnson "Hybrid
Integrated Wideband Linear Power
Amplifiers for S and C Band"
6. Klein, C.F. "Designing with Microstrip is
Easy" Electronic Design, January 4,
1970
7. Daly, D.A.; Knight, S.P.; Caulton, M.
"Lumped Elements i n Microwave
Integrated Circuits" IEEE Transactions

on Microwave Theory and Techniques

Vol. MTT-15, December 1967.

8. Ma tthaei, L; Young, L. and Jones,

E.M.T. "Microwave Filters, Impedance
Matching Networks, and Coupling
Structures" McGraw Hill, New York
i 964.
9. Mumford, W.W. "Tables of Stub
Admittances for Maximally Flat Filters
using Shorted Quarter Wave Stubs".
IEEE MTT Vol MTT-13, September,
1965

10 Watt, 2 GHz test amplifier for the

CTC E10-28

3 Watt, 2 GHz test amplifier for the

CTC E3-28

3 Watt, 1 GHz test amplifier for the

CTC E3-28

FIGURE 63 - Some Mic:rowave Amplifiers

Chapter 16
Combining Techniques

b5 m@St fl'i%~l#!Sn~
fWI@Z3*

ma*^^

output power E V S U ~ ~ I B f a m a
transistar is pr@:9&n%/y
in thd nei&borhoad 4%
106 wattsd &my sya%&rm
a$g;licatims muir ire
wlid &t@ trafism1ws with cwtgat p ~ w m
levels np thraugh a l & ~ w z t tTo acH;eve
hs,gk power s y & t ~~rn'oifdng
t&aiqu~$
mwgt ba uad %og u m tB@ en@$@ham ICVWJ
giiggle f r8nsl~tor arnplifim b i ~ a : h me
f ~ f l ~ *~.&Bh g@p'%gi ~f C Q ~ E ~ ~ ~ &u
I T S b1&
&a'

The basic system design approach using

each requires the construction of a group of
modular amplifiers designed for the system
characteristic impedance (typically 50G).
The system goals using any of the combiners
are :

$OW, a lang~aports 2 and 3 are Pemhabd in

kh~
bTl~W!t%~~fil~
a@h ~ d t U l ~@f
f 3pOsa 1
will be a B P Eran.
~ Xn othsx W&; no l a a m
Bop bad & mh&& ezxists an the input
VOdR to reach arnptlfier, as long a t h e t
m
m p i i f i ~ r&c'uit@br& th&smf~e,&@
itnpdanm
1o~kmginto p@t 1 will s t 3 appam ,as5.W.
The ref2oc%dpaww F m tBe mpfifiea will
be dump& into the 90&3tmn3naci~oof pwt
4. AD a m~uIf, c ~ b i f i g m8 , idenfid
~ p U f " r ewith
n 9b Immbinmsgiklds a system
W d i q block which hag a 8aUd hpt md
antpu t Irnpr;damcs,of 50Q, Thts type
mfh bin^ 51g pmddw i~ohticsnbtwaasn&he
two arnpIlfl@n, The typical m o m t of
isslatian IB 25 dB (de.mn-@
on tfred
tsrrniit&tion af pmdh 1 % P 4
B1~,

Maximize isolation between amplifier

modules
Minimize combining losses
Minimize uneven load sharing
Maintain the system characteristic
impedance

90" Combiners - A typical application for

the 90" combiner is shown in Figure 64. The
m a j o r advantage to using this type of
combiner is that if port 4 is terminated in

180" Colnbiizers - Two advantages of using

180" combiners are that:

They generally provide slightly more

isolation between the two amplifiers
being combined than the 90" combiners.

They provide a means of achieving the

p u s h - p u l l a f f e c t ; t h u s virtually
eliminated the even harlnonics which
m i g h t b e generated by the single
amplifier.
Figure 65 shows a system block diagram
where both 90" and 180" combiners are used.
The philosophy used for the system was:
Design a reproducable single transistor
power amplifier module.

C o m b i n e t w o m o d u l e s w i t h 90"
~ombinersto create a solid 50tZ double
building block.
Combine these 50tZ blocks with 180"
combiners to achieve a push-pull affect
and further reduce even harmonic levels.
Both 90" and 180" combiners can be
purchased as "off-the-shelf" items from
several manufacturers.

50
INPUT

30w

FIGURE 65 - Using 180" Combiners

Wilkinsorz
N - W a y Corn bincr - The
Wilkinso n N-way combiner consists of
N-quarter wavelength lines which will split a
signal in N equiphase, equiamplitude parts, or
c o m b i n e N coliere~~tsignals. Difference
resistors between output/input ports are used
to provide isolation. The isolation and VSWR
of the Wilkinson N-way combiner depends
primarily on the phase characteristics of the
quarter wave lines. Hencc, this class of
c o m b i n e r s i s basically narrow-band.
Wide- band applications require cascading
q u a r t e r - w a v e s e c t i o n s with s t e p p e d
characteristic impedance for an optimum
design with a Chebyshev response.

Figure 66 shows the equivalent circuit of a

five-way power divider. A source with a
characteristic impedance of R is shown being
split into five parts, each with a source
impedance of R. The relationships among the
cllaracteristic impedance of the transmission
lines, the source ilnpedance, the terminating
load impedance, and the number of outputs
(N) are:

A single section Wilkinson N-way combiner

can typically operate over a 25% bandwidth
with 25db isolation between output ports,

and input and load VSWR values better than

2.0: 1. An example of a 2-way, single section
Wilkinson combiner is shown in Figure 67.

Ro=EXTERNAL INPUT AND OUTPUT LOADS

Zo=ACTUAL CABLE IMPEDANCE
Rx=INTERNAL TERMINATING LOADS
A/4=EQUIVALENT QUARTER-WAVE CABLE LENGTH '
OF FREQUENCY OF MAXIMUM ISOLATION

FIGURE 66 - Equivalent Circuit of a Five-Way Power Divider

PA/^

AT 160 MHz

--i

k14 AT I60 MHz

zo=son-

FIGURE 67
144 t o 175 MHz %way Singlc Section Conlbiner
Note: For a 2-way con1biner, the internal
load resistors (R,) can be replaced by a single
resistor equal to 2 R,.

Tlle Wilkinson N-way combiner can be

constructed with either coaxual transmission
lines or stripline techniques. It offers a
relatively low cost method for combining any
number (the number does not need to be a
power of 2) of signals, with a substantial
amount of isolation between ports. For
b a n d w i d t h s in excess o f 2 5 % , t h e
c o n s t r u c t i o n o f multiple sections does
become more difficult. Another difficult
aspect of constructing an N-way Wilkinson
combiner is the fabrication of high-power low
reactance load resistors. Some values with
high dissipation capabilities are commercially
available.

REFERENCES
1. Ernest J. Wilkinson; "An N-Way Hybrid
Power Divider", PGMTT Transactions, p
I 16-118, January 1960.
2. James A . Benjami11; "Use Hybrid
J u n c t i o n s f o r More VHF Power",

Electronic Design 16, p 54-59, August 1,

1968.
3. Anaren Microwave, Inc.; Catalog
4. Merrimac Research and Development,
Inc. ;Catalog.

Chapter 17
Linear Amplifiers

Definition - An ideal linear amplifier is

one whose output signal is a magnified copy
of t h e i n p u t signal. If t h e transfer
characteristics of the amplifier were perfectly
l i n e a r , t h e amplification would be
distortionless. However, in real world
situations, this is never the case. Two types of
distortion produced by the non-linear transfer
function are:
Harmonic distortion
Intermodulation distortion
When a single frequency signal is applied to
t h e i n p u t , f r e q u e n c y components
harmonically related in the input signal
(harmonic distortion) will appear at the
output. When a signal of more than one
frequency is applied to the input;higher order
harmonics of both input signals will appear on
the output. Al!o, components at the sum and
difference, frequencies will appear on the
output. The type of distortion that is
produced by sum and difference products of a
multi-frequency i n p u t is called
intermodulation distortion.
The design goallof a linear amplifier is to
minimize the intermodulation distortion.
Harmonic distortion is generally much easier
to eliminate (using low-pass, or band-pass
filtering) than intermodulation distortion,
where the undesired frequency components
appear very close to the desired frequency
components. The remainder of this section
will be directed at large-signal, class AB
solid-state power amplifiers.

ID"

Applications - The two most common

applications for large-signal linear amplifiers
are in high power transmitters of systems
using single-side-band transmission, or
multi-tone data transmission to . convey
information. In each case, simultaneous
multifrequency signals are present in the
desired signal. Intermodulation distortion
products appearing close to the desired signals
can not be filtered out and would thus distort
the information content of the transmitted
signal. For these systems, it is essential to*
minimize the intermodulation distortion by
u s i ~ glinear amplifier stages in the transmitter.

Special Circuit Considerations - In

evaluating the characteristics of a large-signal
power transistor, it can be seen that the
r e g i o n s m o s t 1ikel.y t o introduce
non-linearities in an amplified signal are
voltage or current saturation regions and the
turn-on region where cross-over distortion is
produced. These problem regions should be
considered when designing any high-power
linear amplifier.
Selecting the right load impedance will
keep the signal swing of the transistor clear of
the saturation regions of the transistor. A
general rule used for selecting the effective
load impedance to present to the transistor
chip is:

K (Vcc - V sat)'
2 Pout

R~

Where K is generally 0.8, depending o n the

efficiency constraints of the amplifier. When
a c t u a l l y designing the output matching
network, the effective output capacitance of
the transistor and the package lead inductance
should also be considered as in Figure 68.

FIGURE 68
Effective Load Impedance
It is also important that the effective
impedance presented t o the transistor chip be
real, or as nearly real as possible.
Cross-over distortion can be minimized by
slightly D.C. Forward biasing the transistors.
The exact amount of static collector current
depends on the amount of linearity required
and the minimum power level of interest.
Typically, 50 to 100 ma will suffice. The
voltage between the base and emitter (VBE )
which produces the desired static collector
current should be noted. The value of the
D.C. voltage ( V B E ~ froin
)
base to emitter
t h a t produces the best linearity at the
maximum desired power output should also
be noted along with the total D.C. collection
current (I,,), at this output power level.
Knowing these values and knowing the value
of the D.C.0 ( H F E ) of the transistor, the value
o f o p t i m u m effective D.C. bias source
impedance can be approximated by the
following equation:

Typical values run on the order of 1 ohm.

The very real problem of D.C. thermal
stability must now be solved. The D.C. base
to emitter voltage of a transistor decreases
with increasing temperature. As a result,
holding a fixed D.C. voltage on the base of a
transistor and heating it up will cause the

transistor to draw more and more D.C.

collector current; thus, heating it u p even
more, drawing more collector current, etc.
and sending the transistor into D.C. thermal
runaway. Therefore, the D.C. bias circuitry
must also provide temperature compensation
to avoid D.C. thermal runaway which can
drive a transistor to destruction.
References describe several bias circuit
techniques; however, these circuits are either
complicated or have difficulty maintaining
D.C. stability when used with RF transistors
w h i c h e x h i b i t high values o f h F E
Communications Transistor Corporation has.\
introduced a new semiconductor device,
called a Byistor, to be used as the key element
in a transistor bias network for linear
amplifiers. The advantages of using a Byistor
are the excellent temperature tracking for
D.C. stability and the significantly simplified
bias c i r c u i t . Furthermore, supplemental
emitter resistance is not needed to insure D.C.
stability.

FIGURE 69 - Basic Design of a BYISTOR

Design of tlze Byistor - Figure 7 1 shows

the basic design of a BYISTOR. By inserting a
constant current in the injector terminal, the
d i o d e a c t s a s a v o l t a g e source with
approximately 0.3Q source impedance. The
addition of a silicon resistor (approximately
0 . 7 a increases the apparent source impedance
of the BYISTOR t o approximately IQ.
The silicon resistor increases in resistance,
a n d t h e d i o d e voltage decreases with
increasing temperature. As a result, the source
impedance of the BYISTOR increases, and
the bias voltage decreases with inereasing
temperature (see Figures 70 and 7 1). Thus, by
mounting the package on the same heatsink as
t h e R F t r a n s i s t o r , the BYISTOR will

5.
.a+

6
?

thermally track the transistor and compensate

for the reduction in VBE. The result is
improved D.C. stability of the amplifier and
elimination of D.C. thermal runaway of the
RF transistor.

* # '

CLASS 48 BYISTO?ClKWlT AFRWTlh

(NOTE M J W T BItSTOl ONTHE HEAT SINK AS aOSE

RF m . w s ~ mAS FUSWLEI

mm

FIGURE 72,

Tcs U S E TEMPERATURE (INCl

EWNALENT OUTPUT CIRCUIT OF A
BnSTOR AS A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE

FIGURE 70

Circuit Applications - To effectively use a

BYSITOR, mount it on the heatsink as
physically close to the RF power transistor as
possible. Connect the bias circuit as shown int
Figure 72 for class AB operation. Insert
approximately 3 5 0mA from any convenient
voltage into the injector terminal. Then,
adjust R2 until the desired static collector
current is achieved (increasing R2 increases
V B and increases the static collector
current). No further effort is required. The
bias circuit using the BYISTOR will now:
Provide the appropriate static collector
current;
Provide a low impedance D.C. voltage
source;
Thermally track the RF transistor and
compensate for increasing temperaqes;
eliminating D.C. thermal runaway
problems.
The BY ISTOR can also be used for class A
circuit operation. All terminals of the
BYSITOR a r e isolated from the case;
therefore, a bias circuit such as the one shown
in Figure 5 call be used for class A operation
with the BYISTOR still mounted t o the
heatsink.
*

Is = SJPRlER m

cnmmmisnc

T (IN mA)

PERR)RMAME

OF A B Y B T ~

FIGURE 7 1
The key elements of a BYISTOR are:

A diode fabricated like an RF power

transistor (same material, geometry, and
diffusion process) f o r improved
temperature tracking;
An internal silicon resistor to further
improve temperature tracking;

A package that can be physically

attached to the same heatsink used for
the RF amplifier transistor (available in a
variety of stud, flange or flangeless
packages).

RI

IKECtOR

SUPPLIER

IS

CZ
-- --

CI
REFERENCE

+
"BE

CLASS A BnSTOR ClKUK APPLICATIW

INOTE MWNT BYISTWi W T H E HE41 SINK
ASaDGETOTUERFW5XRAS
POSSIBE t

FIGURE 73.

The initial setting of the bias point is

achieved by varying R2 (increasing R,
increased I,) until the desired value of I, is
reached.
The flexibility of the BYISTOR makes it
attractive for most bias problems. It also
makes the circuit design easy for either class
AB or A. Since it is specifically designed for
use in a bias network, all key performance
parameters are consistan tly maintained. This
means more consistant operating results and
improved reliability.
Negative feedback, either collector to base,
or emitter degeneration, can be used to trade
amplifier efficiency, gain, and stability for
improved linearity.
The input impedance should either be
transformed u p t o t h e characteristic
impedance desired f o r system cable
connections, or to the desired impedance used
for loading the previous stage, depending on
system requirements.

Meastlrement and Evalrratioiz of Linearity

- The most common method for obtaining a
q u a n t i t i v e value of linearity is to input two
equal signals very close in frequency and
observe t h e level of the higher order
inter-modulation distortion products on the
output signal. Measurement levels are usually
made in dB below the two equal signal tone
To obtain any amount of accuracy, the
amplifier under test must be driven by a
source that is at least lOdB better than the
levels to be measured and the drive source
should be isolated from the amplifier under
test by at least 1OdB. See Figure 74 for a
typical test set-up.

I
LINEAR
AMPLIFIER

SOURCE

( I F REQUIRED)

POWER

SPECTRUM
ANALYSER

OUTPUT
WATTMETER

INPUT
WATTMETER

FIGURE 74 - Linearity Test Set-Up

*
REFERENCES

1. Solid S t a t e Power Circuits, RCA

Designer's Handbouk, 1972.
2. Motorola Application Note AN-5 46

3. Hej hall, "Solid State Linear Power

A m p l i f i e r Design," Motorola
Semiconductor Application Note, 197 1.

4. S chultz, "Solid-State 100-W-Amplifier

O p e r a t e s from a 12-Volt Source,"
EDNIEEE, March, 1972.
5. Pilzalis, Horn, Boronallo, "400-Watt
Broadband HP Linear Amplifier," ECOM
s
Report-3338, 1970

6. S n e l l i n g , " F e r r i t e s f o r Liitear
Applications," IEEE Spectrum, January,
1972
7. Anderweg, Thea, Hurk, "A Discussion of
t h e Design and P r o p e r t i e s of a
High-Power T r a n s i s t o r f o r Single
Sideband Applications.''

8. Bruene, "Linear Power Amplifier

Design," Proceedings of the IRE,
December, 1956.

Chapter 18
High Efficiency
Amplifiers

:-i

I t is possible to construct very high

effici,ency amplifiers using transistors if a few
simple suggestions are followed. The curve in
Figure
7 5 transistors shows the
state-of-the-art in efficiency for R F power
transistors today.

Circz~its- The input and output circuits

must present a good lnatcll with minimum
circuit loss for high efficiency. This usually
means ~lsinga multistep matching network on
both input and output. The output match
must be adjusted for maximum efficiency.
Figure 76 shows the difference between
various load impedances. The load impedance
which is specified on most manufacturer's
data sheet is the load required for maximum
power gain, not maximum efficiency!

FREQUENCY MHz

FIGURE 75

State-of-the-Art Efficiency for

R F Power Transistors
Device Selectiorz - The best choice in
device parameters for optimum efficiency is:
High fT
'

Thin epitaxial layer

REAL LOAD
% OF IDEAL RL

FIGURE 76
Gain & Efficiency for Different
Load Impedance

Low resistivity

Large emitter periphery

The selection of a device of this type means
some sacrifice in ruggedness and stability. In
general the best device is usually one which
was intended for operation at a higher
frequency and at a power output slightly
higher than required. Never operate a device
near saturation for maximum efficiency.

Both input and output matching networks

should be designed with the second harmonic
in mind. For the input, a short at the second
harmonic located next to the body of the
device is best. This can be in the form of a
low inductance shunt capacitive element o r a
h/8 (at fundamental) microstripline stub. The
h/8 stub with an open end looks like a
capacitor with an impedance equal to Z, of
the line. At the second harmonic the stub will
be h/4 and look like a short.

The first shunt element in the collector

matching network should be a XI8 open stub.
Use the appropriate Z, to achieve the desired
capacitance. Use two stubs in parallel if
required to achieve the capacitance. The best
location for this shunt element is best
determined experimentally. Typically about
XI16 from the collector of the transistor is
best. One additional series inductance and.
s h u n t capacitance element is generally
required to get t o 50Q.

I
-

n o t j us t collect or efficiency. Collector

efficiency can be optimized to the point
where a lot of the output power is feed
through from the drive. This may mean the
overall efficiency is beginning to decrease.

REFERENCES
1. D.M. Snider, "A theoretical analysis and
e x p e r i m e n t a l confirmation of the
optimally loaded and overdriven RF
power amplifier." IEEE Trans., Vol.
ED-14, No. 12, December 1967, pp.k
85 1-857.
.%

A/B OPEN STUB

FIGURE 77
Collector Matching Network Stub
The probable explanation for how such a
matching step improves efficiency is that the
second harmonic load is an open at the
physical collector. The transistor is then
switching in a more or less square wave
fashion. While improving the efficiency, the
s t u b s also lower the output harmonics.
Typically the second harmonic will be down
45 db.
Additional improvement is sometimes
possible by using a stub to short the third
harmonic. This is not typically worth the
effort.
Improvements that are quite significant can
be achieved by adding a small inductance to
the emitter lead for a common emitter
amplifier. This, of course, decreases the gain.
It is very interesting to note that some of the
latest internally matched transistors have very
low common lead inductance for a high gain
and poor efficiency.
It is important to emphasize that designing
for maximum efficiency is a compromise
situation. You must sacrifice parameters such
as ruggedness, gain, and bandwidth. Also
remember to look at overall efficiency and

2. D. R. L o h r m a n n, "High-efficiency
transistor CW R F power amplifier."
USArmy, ECOM-2836, May 1967.
3. 0. Pitzalis, T.P. Course, "Broadband
transformer design for RF transistor
p o w e r amplifiers." Electronics
Com ponents Conference, May 1968,
Proceedings, pp. 207-2 16.

4. E.G. Cristal, "Tables of maximally flat

impedance-transforming networks of
lowpass-filter form." IEEE Trans., VoJ
MTT-13, No. 5, September 1965, pp.
693-695.
&
5. B.T . Vincent, "Microwave transistor
a m p l i f i e r design." 1 9 6 5 G-MTT
Symposium, Florida.
6. V. Gelnovatch: "Design of distributed
t r a n s i s t o r amplifiers at microwave
frequencies." Microwave Journal, Vol.
10, No. 1, Jan. 1967, pp. 41-47.
7. G.L. Matthaei; L. Young and E.M.T.
Jones, "Design of Microwave Filters,
I m p e d a n c e Matching Networks and
Coupling Structures." McGraw Hill, New
York, 1964.

8. H.C. L e e , " M i c r o w a v e power

transistors. " Microwave Journal, Vol. 12,
No. 2, February 1969, pp. 5 1-65.
9. C.L. R u t h r o f f , "Some broadband
transformers." Proc. IRE, Vol. 47, No.
8, August 1959, pp. 1337-1342.

10. H. J. Peppiatt, "Distributed transformers

and hybrids." GE-CPD, Seminar Notes,
July 1964.
11. E. Lampert, "Transmission line
transformers with an integal-number

transformation ratio." A.E.U., Vol. 23,

No. 1, January 1969, pp. 49-59.
12. C. Kamnitsis, "Broadband matching of
UHF micro-strip amplifiers." Microwaves
Vol. 8, No. 4, April 1969, pp. 54-56.

Chapter 19
Common Base
Amplifiers

ADDITIONAL
COMMON LEAD

SHUNT

SHUNT

PDUCTANC

SHUNT
CAPACITORS

FIGURE 78 - Effective Common Lead Inductance May be Reduced by Proper

Component Placement

DC Feed Networks - The DC feed and

return networks are much less complicated
with common base. Since there is little
tendency toward low frequency oscillation
with common base a simple low inductance
RF choke for both input and output, with
minimum decoupling, will work fine.

Remember that the full collector current

flows through each RF choke. Make sure they
can handle the current without excessive
voltage drop. A small resistor is series with the
input choke will increase the reverse bias and
improve the ruggedness of the amplifiertransistor combination.

'7

MATCHING
NETWORK

MATCHING
NETWORK

1
.

I
I
0

FIGURE 79 - Typical DC Network For 400 MHz

Chapter 20
Pulse Circuits

'It

5:.

Ptilse Circrrits - In some applications, a

lugll-pulse power is required with the pulse
width much less than the thermal response
time of the transistor chip (on the order of
several h u n d r e d microsecs) and at a
sufficiently low duty cycle so that average
dissipation in the device is not a problem.
Under these circumstances, the peak output
power of a device can be 2-3 times the c.w
power output. This is obtained by increasing
the collector supply voltage from 28V to
40V.
t -100

Pulse Droop - If the detected output pulse

starts to droop, as shown below.

SEC

TIME

SINGLE
1-1

FIGURE 8 1 - Pulse Droop

SEC

L V ~ ~ "CBO
O

vce

FIGURE 80 - Typical Pulse Operation

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , at these high supply
voltages, even under pulse conditions the
devices are still sensitive to mistnatch and in
general, will n o t tolerate Iligh VSWR
mismatches. Initial tuning should be done at
lower supply voltages with re-tuning as the
voltage is increased. Do not increase supply
voltage is output power does not follow.

it could mean that your filter capacitor across

the power supply is not large enough. It may
be calculated by the following:

c =-

1A

A
If 1 = 2A

I = Peak current drawn during pulse

A, ='Pulse width
A, = Change in supply voltage
A, = 100 p see; A, = 2,

Pulse droop may also be a sign of thermal

effects. You are more likely to see this on
long pulses and it indicates that the die is
heating up appreciably during the pulse.

Measurement of Pulse Peak Power - If

pulse width is long compared to the pulse rise
time, it probably. is safe to measure average
power with a power meter and multiply that
by the reciprocal of the duty cycle to obtain
peak power output.
With short pulses, it becomes desirable to
read peak power from a detected output
displayed on a calibrated scope. This allows
you to measure the peak power even though
the rise and/or fall time of the pulse is an
appreciable part of the pulse width.

Circuit instabilities will show up on a

detected presentation as a rise in the base
line between pulses or as modulation 011 top
of the pulse. Both may be caused by improper
output timing.

FIGURE 82 - I~lstabilitieson Pulse

Chapter 2 1
Oscillators

Transistor oscillators call be divided into

two basic types:

,--.

One port oscillators

Two port oscillators

In the one port oscillators, the parasitic

reactances of the packaged device and its
mounting account for the necessary feedback
to cause oscillation. Generally, at microwave
frequencies, the circuit is referred t o as a
modified colpitts, and can be analyzed as
such. The tuning and matching circuitry must
be comprised with stability since 'you are
tuning and matching at the same port. A
typical circuit of this kind is shown below and
can be analyzed as a Colpitts.

LOOKING BACK INTO THE

DEVICE EQUIVALENT IS
-R AND SOME SERIES
REACTANCE

CI I S A BYPASS

FIGURE 83 - Colpitts Oscillator

The emitter capacitance affects tuning and

depending on the device, may or may not be
necessary.

A reffmtian type asfillator in whhh fh&

matching fw power mtput has been &cEud&

con be cofiddefed a@a one-post oscillator.

FIGURE 84 3RdL~ct;tisnType Q&ciItator

m this &am, L c we tha ~ r ~ u d i ~
determining slmenh and the mnditiom for
~scillatisn~ ~ u f't;hitt'l',
f e Bin I.

a t%&port ot4Cfllatw can, in ~rleraIt

optimized far Bath paw@- wtput wad
frequency ~tabi1t.y~
4 novel appxsa,acll k o m
in ~ h i e hihc dwiw @in and pawm *autputL

61hegEhgd d: an mp1iEer 9a =&A~ E J " W B SBUWUP

~
mtitxhing h optimbed at tha f r ~ u ~ a cofy

Interagt. The device h then fsiamd fof

asci~latbrop&izationand thw feedba~kpath &
d w ~ dwith an output ~oaplm wPrEeh is
deslrig-d far a coupling value erf" the gain of
the dewiw minus matching laws,

The phase shifter is adjusted to provide in

phase power t o the amplifier input. For
frequency stability, you will want t o use some
sort of HiQ tuned circuit in this path.
One of the dangers of microwave power
oscillator design is that of loading down the
circuit to such an extent that it stops
oscillating. Unless the device is extremely
rugged, it will probably be destroyed. More
reliable operation may be obtained if the
device is allowed to oscillate at a supply
voltage and current which is in the dc safe
o p e r a t i n g r e g i o n specified by t h e
manufacturer. If oscillation should stop, the
device will just idle away at the quiescent
point. The trade-off involed is less oi~tput
power due to the lower supply voltage. If this
can not be tolerated, the tuning can initially
be done in the dc safe bias area and then the
supply voltage increased.

REFERENCES
1. Hewlett Packard, Application Note 95
"S. Parameters - Circuit Analysis and
Design"
2. RCA "Solid-S ta te Power Circuits"
Technical Series SP-52.

3. K . M. Johnson, "Microwave Varactor

T u n e d Transistor Oscillator Design"
I E E E MTT Vol. MTT-14, No. 11,
November, 1966.
4. G . J . Palladino, K.A. Richter, "End

Precatltio 12s in Oscillator Design -Observe

output on spectrum analyzer, if squegging is
present check feedback and bias circuits.
Never increase supply voltage or current t o
the oscillator if output power does not
follow.
One type of lumped coupler that may be
constructed and used with the directional
coupler oscillator is the following:

t
-

FIGURE 86 - Lumped Coupler

G u e s s i n g i n Oscillator Design:'
Microwaves October, 1970.
Z

5. Gartner, W.W. "Transistor Principles

Design and Applications" D. Van
Nostrand 1960.
6. Gibbons, J.F. "An Analysis of the Modes
of Operation of a Simple Transistor
Oscillator" Proceedings of the I.R.E.
September, 196 1.

7. Utunoglu, V. "Sen~iconductor Network

Analysis and Design" McGraw Hill, Inc.
1964