Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
GRAMMAR
(THEORY AND PRACTICE)
To get to the station you go straight on to the traffic lights, then you turn left
First I take a bowl and break two eggs into it; next I fry the eggs
- Sport commentaries:
The player hits and the ball goes straight into the audience.
- Performatives imply the fact that the uttering of the sentence is the doing of an
action Austin (1975: 5).
I do (take this woman to be my lawful wedded wife). [uttered by the bridegroom
during a marriage ceremony]
I name this ship Lady. [uttered by the captain when smashing the bottle against
the stem]
- Stage directions involve the theatrical quality of the instantaneous present in stage
rhetoric:
George enters the room and draws the curtain.
- Special exclamatory sentences (with initial adverbials: here, there, up, down, etc.):
Here comes the winner!
There goes our train!
h. with future reference, the action fixed in advance is supposed to happen in the future:
- officially planned actions (timetables, statements about the calendar) that refer to
events regarded as immutable:
The train for London leaves at six.
School starts in September.
Tomorrow is Tuesday.
- planned activities where the idea of certainty is implied:
We leave London at 11:00 next Monday and arrive in Paris at 14:00.
She returns tomorrow morning.
-subordinate clauses of time and condition:
My son will look after his little sister while I am away.
If your cousin comes here tomorrow, well go to the cinema.
i. in story-telling with a past reference
Clarissa Dalloway goes out to buy flowers for a party she is to have at her
house. She prepares for her party when she is interrupted by Peter Walsh
(V.Woolf)
- in newspaper headlines in order to draw the attention of the reader:
Plane crashes in Paris. [Avionul s-a prbuit n Paris./ Avion prbuit n Paris.]
III. Ways of translating
a. indicativ prezent:
Ice melts in the sun. = Gheaa se topete la soare.
We drink coffee every morning. = Bem cafea n fiecare diminea.
b. perfect compus (historic present verbs of linguistic communication):
I hear she lost her baby. = Am aflat/ am auzit c i-a pierdut copilaul.
c. viitor sau prezent (adverbial clauses of time and condition):
I will pick up the cherries if he asks me. = Voi culege cireele dac m va ruga/
m roag.
Ill phone you when I get home. = i voi da telefon cnd voi ajunge/ ajung
acas.
He is continually finding fault with me. = Permanent arunc vina pe mine. (the
emotional use linked to the progressive is rendered into Romanian by an
emphasis on the adverb rather than on the verb)
b.
viitor/ prezent
What are you doing tomorrow? = Ce vei face/ faci mine?
B. EXERCISES
I. Put the verbs in brackets into the Simple Present or Present Progressive Tense:
1. My friend (come) to see us next month.
2. Apricots (ripe) in early summer.
3. I (walk) to school every day, but today as I am late I (go) by bus.
4. I (see) what you mean! You cant join us today as you (feel) ill. (See) the doctor
this afternoon?
5. How he (feel) now? You (think) of going to see him at the hospital?
6. She always (complain) about something.
7. We constantly (see) you outside the cinema.
8. I (love) the roses you sent me, and they (smell) wonderful.
9. I (doubt) if they (understand) what you (talk) about.
10. He (work) very hard at the moment and (deserve) to succeed.
II. Choose the correct form of the verb:
1. How many cups of coffee every day?
a) you drink; b) you do drink; c) do you drink
2. Even if Phil is a serious person, he comedy.
a) doesnt like; b) is liking; c) likes
3. I can keep an eye on your children till your husband back.
a) will get; b) is getting; c) gets
4. Can you tell me how often your dentist?
a) you visit; b) do you visit; c) are you visiting
5. I the answers to the test we are going to take tomorrow, trust me.
a) know; b) do know; c) dont know
6. true that Julia speaks four languages fluently?
a) It is; b) Does it; c) Is it
7. It is well known that rice in Britain, but in China.
a) grows; b) is growing; c) doesnt grow
8. We live in Manchester and I dont understand why my daughter to London so
often.
a) is going; b) goes; c) does not go
9. He to be a little stupid, isnt he?
a) appears; b) is appearing; c) does appear
10. Look at these pictures! Why buy one for your father?
a) dont we; b) we do; c) arent we
III. Rephrase the following sentences so as the meaning stays the same:
1. Im annoyed because you lose your pocket money every time I give it to you.
You are always
2.
There is a smell of roses in this room.This room
3.
My younger brother keeps on bothering me. My younger brother
4. Whats your opinion about the new book published by the University? What
do?
5.
Bread costs 10 000 lei in Romania. How much ?
6.
I like watching football matches and so does my girlfriend. Both of us
7.
In case of accident call the police. If
6
8.
Sunrise is at 5:30 tomorrow morning. The sun
9.
Diana and her grandmother are exactly alike. Diana
10. The number of people who own expensive cars is increasing. More and more
people
IV. Correct the mistakes in the following sentences:
1. Does his brother knows that you are going to leave the town without paying the
debt?
2. He is always going to work at 7 oclock in the morning.
3. Here is coming your husband!
4. He usually plays tennis after breakfast, but today he plays football.
5. You cook lunch right now and then you rest.
6. I cant answer the phone. I write a letter to Mary.
7. They are saying the earth is going round the sun.
8. Are you liking coffee or tea?
9. Christmas is coming in December.
10. Can you give me your pen? Or do you use it?
V. Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the verbs:
1. I ... the water for coffee in a special pot. (to boil)
2. Dont shout that loud! I ... you very well. (to hear)
3. Dont interrupt them! They ... to a scientific broadcast. (to listen)
4. Come and make the coffee! The water ... (to boil)
5. Wait a minute, will you? I ... them off. (to see)
6. A man ... with his nose. (to smell)
7. I ... these lovely flowers. (to smell)
8. Usually she ... a very quiet child but now she ... naughty. (to be)
9. She ... all right. (to feel)
10. She ... the silk to see how soft it is. (to feel)
VI. Fill in the blanks with the following verbs, using Present Tense Simple or
Progressive: to start, to look, to write, to live, to deal, not to seem, to stay, to rent, to
move, to do, to rain, to answer, to come, to get, to suppose, to begin.
Dear Sally,
I . just to let you know that Ive arrived and that everything is fine.
At the moment I . at a hotel in Athens and I . quite a lot of sightseeing. Next
week I . to the island of Crete which is where most of the people in the company
. . I . a villa there for the summer, which should be nice.
The weathers not particularly good as a matter of fact, it . at the moment.
Still, it . better slowly, and Im sure itll be fine when you . in the summer. I .
forward to it already.
The job . to be too demanding. Most of the time I . with bookings and .
inquiries. But I . itll be different when the tourist season . next month. Even
now the restaurants . to get busier.
See you soon,
Love,
Jenny
VII. Ask questions about the underlined parts of the following sentences:
1. I have my English lessons at school.
2. You feel thirsty on a hot day.
3. I brush my teeth three times a day.
4. We read only critical books.
5. You come to school on foot, dont you? Yes, but I occasionally take the half
past seven tram.
6. We sit on this bench two hours every Sunday.
7. We clean our car before leaving for a picnic.
8. You are a reliable person, for all I know.
9. You watch all the matches on TV.
10. I am free this afternoon because I dont have to work on holidays.
VIII. Translate the recipe and comment upon the uses of the verbs:
Southern Grilled Barbecued Ribs
INGREDIENTS:
4 pounds baby back pork ribs; 2/3 cup water; 1/3 cup vinegar; 1 cup ketchup; 1 cup
water; 1/3 cup Worcestershire sauce; 1/4 cup prepared mustard; 4 tablespoons butter;
1/2 cup packed brown sugar; 1 teaspoon hot pepper sauce; 1/8 teaspoon salt
DIRECTIONS:
1. Preheat oven to 175 degrees C. Place ribs in two roasting pans. Pour water and
vinegar into a bowl, and stir. Pour diluted vinegar over ribs and cover with foil. Bake in
the preheated oven for 45 minutes. Baste the ribs with their juices halfway through
cooking.
2. In a medium saucepan, mix together ketchup, water, vinegar, Worcestershire sauce,
mustard, butter, brown sugar, hot pepper sauce, and salt; bring to a boil. Reduce heat to
low, cover, and simmer barbeque sauce for 1 hour.
3. Preheat grill for medium heat.
4. Lightly oil preheated grill. Transfer ribs from the oven to the grill, discarding
cooking liquid. Grill over medium heat for 15 minutes, turning ribs once. Baste ribs
generously with barbeque sauce, and grill 8 minutes. Turn ribs, baste again with
barbeque sauce, and grill 8 minutes.
IX. Translate into English:
1. Tatl meu rareori se uit la televizor duminica.
2. ntotdeauna mi arde pantalonul cnd l calc!
3. Ce faci zilele acestea? Vruiesc buctria.
4. n vreme ce musafirii vorbesc despre vreme, noi, copiii, le turnm ceai n
pantofi.
5. Se simte mult mai bine acum.
6. Mergi la petrecere duminic?
7. Totul este bine cnd se termin cu bine, nu-i aa?
8. Noi nu mergem aproape niciodat la oper din pcate.
9. Maina mi face figuri astzi. Nu pot s-o pornesc. Mai bine lum autobuzul.
10. De ce deschizi ua cuptorului de attea ori? Las prjitura s se coac!
He would spend all his childhood in Lodon. [the implicature is that he was still a
child at the moment of speaking, so a possible future interpretation]
c. it is related to the speakers attitude rather than to time, being most often associated
with politeness. It occurs in everyday conversation and the Simple Past Tense has
present time reference.
It is used with verbs such as hope, think, want, wonder It is considered to be
more polite than the present tense.
The same polite use can be rendered by past modal forms with present or future
reference (Could you help me for a moment? Would you come this way, please?)
Did you want to see me now?
I wondered if you could help me.
III. Ways of translating the Past Tense Simple into Romanian
a. perfect compus/ perfect simplu
He rang the bell and opened the door. = A sunat la sonerie i a deschis ua/
Sun la sonerie i deschise ua.
b. imperfect (with habitual past, attitudinal past or if the verb is lexically durative)
He often went fishing when he was a child. = Mergea adesea la pescuit cnd era
copil.
I thought we might go and see a movie. = M gndeam poate mergem s vedem
un film.
She stood there motionless. = Sttea acolo nemicat.
c. mai mult ca perfectul/ perfect simplu (to show sequence for past perfect value)
She knocked, entered and slammed the door. = Btuse/ btu, intr i apoi trnti
ua.
d. indicativ prezent
Irene told me that she wrote a poem. = Irene mi-a spus c scrie o poezie.
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a. The progressive form of a verb can function as a time background when the speaker
feels that the actions are framed (Poutsma, 1926) thus making the simple forms more
precise:
I was buying a shirt when I first met my wife [the meeting was completed within
the framework of shirt-buying]
It is used with adverbial structures such as: this time last week/ month/ year or with
adverbial clauses of time
This time last week I was flying to Paris.
When I saw him he was running away.
b. it shows duration of an event
It happened while I was living in the countryside last year.
c. it shows annoyance, criticism of a habit
My husband was forever getting into trouble.
d. it has a polite use with verbs such as hope, think, want, wonder it makes a request
sound more polite but less definite
I was wondering if you'd like to come out with me one evening.
e. it marks a gradual progress without any temporal marker
The car was getting worse. One of the headlights was gradually falling off, and
the engine was making more and more funny noises.
f. it has a future reference in the past
He thought he was seeing her in the evening. [It is a case of Indirect Speech in
direct object clauses. The progressive changes the meaning of the physical
perception verb to see into to visit. The paraphrase could be He thought he
would see her in the evening.]
III. Ways of translating into Romanian
a. imperfect
I was sleeping when he came in.= Dormeam cnd el a intrat.
b.
viitor (in direct object clauses)
He thought he was seeing her in the evening. = Credea c o va vizita desear.
c. prezent (in direct object clauses)
She told me she was writing a novel then. = Mi-a spus c scrie un roman acum.
Appendix I
A. Pronunciation of -ed
- it is pronounced /d/ after vowels and voiced consonants (except /d/): /b/, /g/, /m/, //,
/l/, /v/, /z/ etc.
- it is pronounced /t/ after unvoiced consonants (except /t/): /p/, /f/, /k/, /s/ etc.
- it is pronounced /id/ after /d/ and /t/
B. Spelling rules of regular verbs (Past Tense affirmative)
most verbs add -ed
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to visit visited
to help helped
to gain gained
verbs ending in -e add just -d
to dance danced
to hope hoped
one-syllable verbs ending in a single consonant (except c, w, x) preceded by a single
vowel, double the consonant when adding -ed:
to hop hopped
to pat patted
verbs of more than one syllable ending in a single consonant preceded by a single
vowel double the consonant when adding ed only if the final syllable is stressed.
Compare: to prefer preferred
and
to visit visited
to omit omitted
to listen listened
Exceptions: a. to kidnap kidnapped
to handicap handicapped
b. in British English l is doubled after a short vowel even if the vowel
is not stressed: to travel - travelled
verbs ending in -y preceded by a vowel add -ed with no other change:
to play played
to stay stayed
verbs ending in -y preceded by a consonant change -y into -i when adding -ed:
to try tried
to study studied
verbs ending in c have ck before -ed:
to picnic picnicked
B. EXERCISES
I. Put the verbs in brackets into the Past Tense Simple:
1. When (you/ meet) the company accountant?
2. The company (not/ disclose) how much it expects to gain from the two deals.
3. You (feel) out of place in your suit and tie.
4. The discussion (take place) in a famous villa.
5. The smell of the roses (creep) into the room.
6. They (wind) up the evening with a song.
7. One day an idea (strike) Mary.
8. Our blood almost (freeze) in our veins.
9. He (stick) to his opinion.
10. This (teach) him a bitter lesson.
II. Continue the following sentences using the Past Tense Progressive:
1. My neighbour burnt his hand while he ...
2. The TV was on but nobody ...
12
13
14
15
shirts is completed, but not the action of washing shirts because the day is not
over, so the Present Perfect denotes an incomplete period of time. The emphasis
is on achievement.]
My mother washed three shirts today. [washed = the Past Tense Simple. The
action of washing the three shirts is completed, and so it is the action of washing
for today because the day is almost over.]
My mother has been washing my brothers shirts today. [has been washing = the
Present Perfect Progressive. The emphasis is on duration.]
e. in adverbial clauses of condition:
John will go home if his wife has cooked dinner.
f. in adverbial clauses of time in order to express a future action, prior to the one
represented by a future tense in the main clause:
We will paint the fence after we have had lunch.
We will ring you as soon as/ after he has come back from work
g. in newspapers and broadcasts - to introduce an action which will then be described in
the simple past tense:
Abi Titmussi has admitted she is smitten with hunky Lee Sharpe. The curvy
blonde revealed she has fallen head over heels for the ex-Manchester United
Star. (Online Star 21 Jun 2005)
III. Ways of translating
a. indicativ prezent:
Weve been here since the beginning of the show. = Suntem aici de la nceputul
spectacolului.
The Romanian indicativ prezent is the translation both for the Present Tense Simple/
Progressive and the Present Perfect Simple and Progressive. Compare the following
sentences:
We drink beer every evening.= Bem bere n fiecare sear.
We are drinking beer now. = Bem bere acum.
We have been drinking beer for ten minutes. = Bem bere de zece minute.
b. perfect compus:
They havent seen me since 1983. = Ei nu m-au vzut din1983.
II. USES
The Present Perfect Progressive is used:
a. to show duration from the past until now. It can be used with habits (recurrent
events):
She has been teaching this class since Christmas.
Ever since I was a child, I have been living in the same house. [they are still
living in London]
- non-durative activities (processes) used in the progressive get an iterative
interpretation, whereas used in the Simple Present Perfect describe rather one single
instantaneous situation:
Someone has knocked at the door. [the activity of knocking stopped]
Someone has been knocking at the door. [the activity of knocking is still going
on]
It can be used with:
- Since and for - to express more temporary actions and situations, but for more
permanent actions the simple forms are preferred:
She has been living in my flat for the last month. - My parents have lived in
Bacu all their lives.
He lived in London for two years. [lived - the Past Tense Simple. He doesnt
live in London anymore.]
- Observe the use of the progressive aspect with how long and of the simple aspect with
how many:
How long have you been waiting for her?
How many hours have you waited for her?
- the adverbs of time recently and lately. The Present Perfect Progressive can be used
without a duration such as for ten minutes, and since morning. Without these precise
durations, this tense offers a more general meaning of lately in order to enhance this
meaning.
She has been lying about her whereabouts lately.
Recently, we have been feeling rather tired with his haughtiness.
b.
to suggest that one can see, smell, hear, or feel the results of an action that has
recently stopped.
You have been fighting again. [I can tell from your black eye.]
She has been crying. [Look, her eyes are red.]
c. to show that the action is not completed.
Who has been eating my dinner? [Some of my dinner is left.]
Who has eaten my dinner? [All my dinner is gone.]
d.
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B. EXERCISES
I. Complete the conversations using the present perfect simple or the past simple
of the verb in brackets.
1. I know Mr Robinson. Really? How long (you/ know) him? Oh, for quite a
long time now. When (you/ first/ meet) him? I (meet) him at Christies eight
years ago.
2. (Its 10 oclock in the morning) (you/ see) Mrs Carter this morning? Yes, I
(see) her when I (arrive) in the office, but she (go) out soon afterwards.
3. (you / ever/ visit) Switzerland? Yes, I (visit) it twice. I (visit) it two years ago,
and once when I (be) a child.
4. (Its the middle of the afternoon) Im really hungry. I (not/ have) any breakfast
this morning and I (not/ have) time to go out for anything to eat this afternoon.
II. Give an alternative for the following sentences:
1. It's years since we went to a movie.
2. It's over a month since I went to their place.
3. It's a long time since we had diner at the Decebal.
4. It's over a fortnight since he went to the barber's.
5. She went shopping twice last week.
6. They went to the park once last week.
7. Elizabeth II became queen in 1952.
8. The window got broken last week.
9. She began wearing glasses a month ago.
10. They began eating Chinese food several years ago.
III. Complete the following sentences with for or since.
1. It's a long time . you last quarrelled with anybody!
2. .. the past ten days , she's had nightmares every night.
3. . they came, ten days ago, I've been feeling rather depressed.
4. They don't think much of him as a policeman: he hasn't caught a burglar
at least seven years.
5. It seems like years . you cooked a really delicious meal.
6. you brought me that dog my cat hasn't turned up yet.
7. We haven't seen a good film . at least two months, in fact not we went to
see The Titanic together.
8. Petrol has become more and more expensive . the end of last year.
18
9. I am sitting for my portrait the last six months but the artist hasn't finished it
yet.
10. You must wake him. He's been sleeping soundly ten hours!
IV. Use the present perfect simple or progressive for the verbs in brackets:
1. She (cough) a lot lately. She ought to give up smoking.
2. You (hear) the news? Cynthia and Paul are engaged!
3. That's not new. I (know) it for ages!
4. They (walk) ten miles.
5. They (walk) for three hours.
6. You (walk). That's why you are tired.
7. She (sleep) on every bed in this house and she doesn't like any of them.
8. Why you (be) so long in the garage?
9. The tyres were flat. I ( pump) them up.
10. It (rain) for two hours and the ground is too wet to play on, so the
match (be) postponed.
V. Choose the correct variant:
1. How long .. you. your own house? A) did you paint B) do you paint C)
have you been painting D) are you painting.
2. He .. his fiance four times this week. Its Sunday evening and he gave up
calling her. A) has called B) has been calling C) called D) is calling.
3. Since his wife died, he .. .. A) has been grief-struck B) is grief-stricken C)
has been grief-stricken D) was grief-stricken.
4. The hen .. just an egg on the straw of the stable. A) laid B) has lain C) lay D)
has laid.
5. He .. his leg last week and since then he . in bed. A) has breaked B) has
broken C) broke D) breaked / A) lay B) has lain C) has been laying D) has been
lying.
6. ..... he ever . how to play chess? A) does he ever knows B) has he ever known
C) did you ever know D) does he ever know.
7. It was a terrible earthquake a few minutes ago. The tree in front of our house ..
down with a sudden crash. A) fell B) has fallen C) has falen D) felled
8. Its three weeks since I last spoke with my brother, so I .. in touch with my
brother for three weeks. A) was B) dont be C) havent been D) have been .
9. Its the first time in our family when a woman .. twins. A) bears B) has born
C) has borne D) bore.
10. After the clock .. eight, the police will start searching the thieves. A) will
strike B) has been striking C) strikes D) has struck.
VI. Put the verbs in brackets into an appropriate tense:
1. How old is your sister? Shes 20. She (read) Shakespeare as a child?
2. You (read) ever Shakespeare in the original?
3. He (lie) under that nut-tree for ages. He must have fallen asleep.
4. He told me that his elder brother (dig) a hole for three hours in order to find the
treasure.
19
5. Im quite upset. He always (ask) for my advice, but up to now he never (follow)
it.
6. She will be glad after her marriage (take) place.
7. We (get) a phone call 15 minutes ago and a man (yell) that there (be) a bomb in
our building. The police (search) for it since then but no bomb (find) yet.
8. He always (love) by women. He may be 50, but he still (have) a way of
attracting the opposite sex.
9. The table (lay) 20 minutes ago. I (not know) what you (wait) for. Why you (not
help) yourselves?, my mom asked.
10. How long you (put up with) this chatterbox? Since I (get) married.
VII. Translate into Romanian and identify the verbs underlined:
1. To the uninitiated, making a speech carries with it a certain glamour. After
having heard (you have heard) an expert, you may think, Thats as easy as
falling off a log.(The Sunday Post)
2.
But for three years, a panel of drug experts working for the US Food
and Drug Administration has been analyzing the ingredients of these patent
medicines to see if they really live up to their advertising. (Newsweek)
3.
Since the legendary Prometheus first stole the fire of heaven, virtually
all energy consumed by man has been fathered by the sun. (National
Geographic)
4.
Already the suns energy is being put to limited use in homes and
buildings around the world. (National Geographic)
5.
The blame for this situation has been laid at the door of the current
status and mood of society. (National Geographic)
VIII. Translate the following sentences into English:
1. 'De cnd se ntlnesc?' - 'Nu tiu nimic. ntreab-o pe Maria'.
2. i dau ntlniri pe holurile universitii de cnd sunt n anul I.
3. 'De cnd nu se mai neleg?' 'De vreun an, cred, se tot ceart mereu.'
4. N-am but cafea azi diminea i m doare teribil capul.
5. A muncit, srcua, toat ziua: a adunat beioare, pene i frunze s-i fac un
cuib unde s cloceasc oule.
6. Ce fata harnic eti! Ai terminat toat treaba aa c te odihneti acum, pe cnd
eu, ct mai am de lucru!
7. Niciodat n-am mai ntlnit un om aa de generos ca el!
8. Acest castel era nu de mult o ruin, dar de cnd se amenajeaz parcul parc arat
altfel.
9. Ce drum plin de gropi!' - 'Pi, n-a mai fost reparat de vreo doi ani.'
10. Nu mi-ai adresat nici un cuvnt de cnd am pit pragul acestei case.
20
Mr. Woods (had) heard the news before I reached the company.
In adverbial clauses of time in order to express a future action that takes place
before another action expressed by a Future-in-the-Past:
She told me1/ she would pay me a visit2/ after I had come back from the city3/.
In adverbial clauses of time introduced by restrictive adverbs such as hardly/ barely/
scarcely/ no sooner, the past action is shown to be finished a little time before
another past action. Each adverb triggers inversion in the subordinate clause and it
has a correlative in the main clause.
No sooner had the curtain fallen than they rose to go.
Hardly / scarcely had I entered the door when the telephone rang.
d.
The Past Perfect is common in reported/ indirect speech to express a Present
Perfect or a Past Tense from Direct Speech.
I have already read the report. (DS) - She told me that she had already read
the report.(IS)
They left the Stock Exchange a few months ago'. (DS) - I was told that they had
left the Stock Exchange a few months before / earlier / previously. (IS)
III. Ways of translating the Past Perfect Simple into Romanian
a. perfect compus/ mai-mult-ca-perfect:
I knew Romeo but I hadn't seen him since my marriage. = l cunoteam pe
Romeo dar nu l-am vzut/ nu-l vzusem de cnd m-am cstorit.
b. perfect simplu:
He started the car after he had checked the engine. = oferul porni maina
dup ce verific motorul.
c. viitor:
He said he would give her a gold brooch after they had got married. = A spus
c-i va da o broa de aur dup ce se vor cstori.
To underline the continuity of a past action up to a past moment or just before it. It
does not express a frequently repeated situation (habit meaning) in the past, as the two
sentences above::
I had been waiting for her for half an hour when she finally arrived.
They had been working since eleven oclock.
b.
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B. EXERCISES
I. Starting from the information given, complete each sentence with a suitable verb
in the Past Perfect Simple or Progressive.
1. Maggie worked in the garden all afternoon. Then she took a hot bath.
Maggie took a hot bath because .. in the garden all afternoon.
2. Mary came top in the final examination. Her father bought her a car as a reward.
Marys father bought her a car because she . top in the final exam.
3. Henry came home from work early. He cooked lunch. His family were very
impressed.
Henrys family were very impressed to discover that he . lunch when he
came home from work early.
4. I lost my watch. We had looked for it for hours. I was very pleased when my
son found it.
I was very pleased when my son found my watch because we . for it for hours.
5. Ann worked very hard all morning. Her boss gave her an extra half hour for
lunch. She boasted about it.
Ann boasted that her boss . her an extra half hour for lunch because she
. very hard all morning.
6. Patrick went to the disco. He came home very late. His mother was worried and
she told him off when he got in.
Patricks mother told him off when he came home late because she . about
him all evening.
II. Put the verbs in brackets into a suitable past tense (Past Tense or Past Perfect):
1. We (try) to find new services which (be) sophisticated and (have) added value.
2. When (you/meet) the company accountant?
3. When (you/be) in this house last?
4. I (look) everywhere for ideas since I failed to hand in that project.
5. Yesterday, at the party he (feel) out of place in your suit and tie.
6. He (always / look) so young, but he (seem) to have aged in the last weeks.
7. Mary (discover) an addiction to housework which she (never/feel) before.
8. They (have) no money because they (spend) everything on duty free whisky.
9. I (realise) someone (use) my camera because there were finger marks on the
lens.
10. They (say) heavy industry (pollute) our rivers with noxious chemicals for ages.
III. Read the situations and write sentences ending with BEFORE. Use the verb
given in brackets.
1. The man sitting next to me on the plane was very nervous. It was his first flight.
(fly) He
2. A woman walked into the room. She was a complete stranger to me.
(see) I ..
3. Simon played tennis yesterday. He wasnt very good at it because it was his first
game.
(play) He
4. Last year we went to Denmark. It was our first time there.
(be) We
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5. They concluded a contract two weeks ago. It was their first contract.
(sign) They ..........
IV. Fill in the blank spaces using the verbs in the brackets and paying attention to
the sequence of events in order to get meaningful events.
1. We arrived at work in the morning and found that somebody . the
office during the night. So we .. (to break into, to call)
2. I tried to phone Mr. Richards this morning but . no answer. He . . (to be, to
go out)
3. I met Jim a few days ago. He . just .. He .. (to come back, to look)
4. Yesterday Kevin .. He . very surprised. He . many times but
they .. (to get, to be, to write, to reply)
5. I arrived at the company for an interview at 12.30 as I .. the assistant
marketing manager the previous month. To my surprise I .. my husband in there
who .. (to apply, to find, to wait)
V. Choose the best alternative to complete each sentence:
1.
We.Netherlands last summer.
a) have visited/ - b) had visited/ the
c) visited/ - d) visited/ the
2.
After eight years Ithat all the time I..to my girl
friend her sistermy letters.
a) discovered/ was writing/ had read
b) had discovered/ had written/ had been
reading
c) discovered/ had been writing/ had been reading d) had discovered/
had been writing/ had been reading
3.
By the time we got home, Marys aunt.already. .
a) left
b) has left
c) will have left
d) had left
4.
The police officers.for the thieves for two days when they found
them near the village.
a) was looking
b) has been looking c) had been looking d)are looking
5.
Look, he has cuts on his legs. He ........ a lot during the football match.
a) had fallen over b) has been falling over
c) has fallen over
d) fell over
6.
He ..... never a princess in the flesh, but he hopes that he will have the
chance one day.
a) saw
b) was seeing
c) hasnt seen
d) has seen
7.
Its over a year since anyone ...... William.
a) has spoken withb) spoke with
c) had spoken
d) has been speaking with
8.
Last year when I was in France, I ....... a French princess in the flesh.
a) have seen
b) was seeing c) saw d) had seen
VI. Rewrite each sentence beginning as shown:
1. Id like to say sorry I missed your wedding, Joan said.
John apologised..
2. I met Mary as soon as I left home.
I had no sooner
3. I caught flu as soon as I had recovered from measles.
I had hardly
4. The train had left before we got to the station.
By the time
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7. The man sitting next to me on the plane was very nervous because it was his first
flight.
He
5. They got on the train and immediately it left.
Hardly..
6. Alice had no sooner sung a song than she began another.
No sooner..
7. I realised my mistake after Id handed in the test.
I didnt realise my mistake until..
8. I havent played football for two weeks:
Its two weeks
VII. Correct the following mistakes:
1. The train left before I arrived.
2. Almost all the guests left by the time we had arrived.
3. Scarcely Sandra had come in than she started work.
4. I just got into bed when somebody knock at the door.
5. The car changed its direction when it hit the tree.
6. The grass was wet because it had raining all day yesterday.
7. Why did you left when he call on you?
8. How long they go out together when they finally get married?
9. The telephone rang for almost a minute when I got into the room. I was
wondering why nobody hadnt answered it.
10. The minute he entered, a horrible idea had stricken me.
VIII. Translate into English:
1. Intrunirea tocmai incepuse cand am intrat.
2. In ianuarie am obtinut rezultate mai bune decat se asteptase oricine.
3. Familia Miller a locuit in casa aceea treizeci de ani, pana cand a distrus-o un
cutremur.
4. Baiatul arata ca asi cum nu s-ar fi spalat niciodata pe maini.
5. Proiectantul facuse patru schite inainte de a se apuca de proiect.
6. Nu-i de mirare ca nu am recunoscut-o ieri pe Judith. Isi vopsise parul.
7. Din pacate, vasul s-a scufundat inainte ca elicopterul sa ajunga la locul
dezastrului.
8. Mi-era asa de foame, ca am mancat florile pana sa vina chelnerul.
9. De cat timp se cunosteau cand Tina s-a casatorit cu Robert?
10. Am verificat preturile mai multor companii occidentale inainte de a incepe sa
importam aceste video-recordere din Singapore.
26
27
a present event ( FUTURE SIMPLE):Someone is shouting. Itll be
Marys daughter.
28
B. EXERCISES
I. Put the verbs in brackets into an appropriate tense:
1. How you (get) to the party tomorrow?
2. My friend (sit) for an exam on Monday.
3. He (sing) in Paris next week.
4. I (take) my parents to the ballet tomorrow.
5. They (play) some Beethoven next.
6. Its eight. Peter (call) for you at nine.
7. We (meet) him at the airport at five.
8. Hurry up! The train (leave) in a minute.
9. We (leave) as soon as it (cease) raining.
10. She told me she (see) the doctor at five p.m. the day after tomorrow.
II. Replace be going to by will / shall + be + V -ing (future progressive) and show the
differences in meaning (mention whether they are interchangeable):
1. Are you going to sleep in the armchair?
2. Are you going to take it with you?
3. Are you going to spend your money in a hotel?
4. Are you going to tell him the truth?
5. Are you going to make all the arrangements?
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31
32
33
34
COULD
FORM
a.Affirmative: could
b.
Negative:
could not; couldnt (used only in spoken and informal written
English)
c.Interrogative: could + subject + infinitive
USES
a. Could expresses ability (be able to)
Tom could run ten miles when he was young. (=was able to)
b. Could expresses condition:
I could buy you a book. (if I want)
Couldnt he fiind a better job? (if he wanted)
c. Could have done expresses:
i. an action which is not performed:
He could have helped you (but he didnt)
ii. an action which in our opinion has not taken place
She couldnt have overslept (it my opinion it isnt possible)
They couldnt have waited for two hours. (Its out of the question)
The patterns could + bare infinitive and could + have + past participle are used to talk
about possibility in the past.
I remember how it could snow in the mountains even in summer.
I cant find my keys anywhere. You could have left them in your office.
d. In conversation, could is used to mark a present or future possibility. .
Wheres Peter? He could be in the study. (=Perhaps he is in the study)
Note: with could in this use the degree of possibility is less sure than with may
or might.
e. Couldnt as an extinction of can be used in not-so-polite requests.
Couldnt you (wouldnt it be possible for you to) give me your phone number?
Could not and couldnt are used with comparatives to emphasize that someone
or something has as much as is possible of a particular quality (possibility or
impossibility).
Mary couldnt be happier. (=Mary is very happy indeed)
The news couldnt have come at a better time.
MAY
FORM
a.Affirmative: may
b. Negative: may not
c.Interrogative: may + subject + infinitive
USES
a. May expresses (a) asking for permission as well as in (b) granting permission.
Excuse me. May I have a look at your newspaper?
Could I make a suggestion? Of course, you may.
May also indicates that someone is allowed to do something or has the choice of
doing something, usually because of a rule or law. May not indicates that someone is not
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36
37
You must see the painting George has given me as a wedding present.
You must visit me. Come to dinner.
h. Must is used in remarks and comments where the speaker is expressing sympathy.
This must be a very difficult job for you.
You must be very worried by now.
i. Must is used in exclamations to express surprise or shock.
Go! Please go. You must be joking!
I really must be quite mad!
You must have gone out of your mind!
SHALL
FORM
a.Affirmative: shall
b.
Negative:
shall not
c.Interrogative:shall + subject + infinitive?
USES
a. Shall can be used with all persons to emphasize something which the speaker feels is
certain to happen or wants to happen.
I shall definitely help him to finish his work. (conversation).
I shall try to show that our political practices accept integrity as a distinct
virtue (academic prose)
b. In conversation, shall is typically used as a volitional modal in questions acting as
offers or suggestions. (Note that shall is associated with I and we in questions.)
Shall we post this letter for you?
Shall we play tennis tomorrow?
WILL
FORM
a.Affirmative: will
b. Negative: will not, wont (only in spoken English and informal written
English)
c.Interrogative:will + subject + infinitive
USES
a. Will expresses prediction of events or states not involving personal agents.
In conversation, will is commonly used to mark logical prediction as well as personal
volition (and prediction of ones own future actions).
I will say no more on these matters, important though they are.
He will be devoting more time to writing, broadcasting and lecturing.
I wont be here early enough to show you before school.
b. Will marking assumption
It wont be that difficult to do.
c. Will is used in questions in order to make polite invitations or offers
Will you stay for dinner?
Wont you sit down?
d. Will is also used in questions in order to ask or tell someone to do something
(volition).
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39
(Where* should appears, ought to is also possible. Should and ought to are very similar
in meaning, but we often prefer ought to to talk about authority which comes from
outside the speaker e.g. from laws.)
This restaurant* should really be very expensive.
2. Should + have + past participle is used to refer to something which was supposed to
happen.
It should have rained. (but it didnt)
3. Should is used for duty and advisability.
People* should let one know before failing to keep an appointment. (duty)
I think you* should check to see if our Austrian partners are coming
(advisability)
4. Should + have + past participle is used to express the non-fulfilment of a duty.
They* should have let us know that they werent coming.
5. In conversation, in questions should is used when the speaker is asking someone for
advice, permission, or information. (The speakers questions involve a degree of
uncertainty)
Should I or shouldnt I go to university?
What should I do?
Should we tell her about it?
6.. In writing, should can be used to express a strong obligation politely.
Guests should vacate their rooms by midday.
NEED
FORM
a.Affirmative: need
b.
Negative: need not, neednt ;do/does/did not need to, dont/doesnt/didnt need
to
c.Interrogative:need + subject + infinitive; do/does/did+ subject + need to+
infinitive
USES
a. neednt/dont need to express absence of obligation
You neednt do it now. (Its not necessary-according to the speaker)
You dont need to do it now. (Its not necessary-external circumstances do not
require the action to be performed)
Interrogative forms are the following:
Need I go there? No, you neednt. Yes, you must.
Does he need to go there? Yes, he does/No, he doesnt.
b. didnt need to expresses absence of obligation in the past:
I didnt need to wait (And so I didnt wait) N-a fost nevoie sa astept.
They didnt need to do anything (And so they didnt do anything) N-a fost nevoie
ca ei sa faca ceva.
c. neednt +have+ Past Participle expresses an unnecessary action which was
performed:
I neednt have waited. (but I did) Nu era nevoie sa astept.
He neednt have taken a taxi. (but he did) Nu era nevoie sa ia un taxi.
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HAVE TO
FORM
a.Affirmative: has/have/had to
b.
Negative: doesnt/dont/didnt have to
c.Interrogative: does/do/did + subject + have to+infinitive?
USES
a. Have to expresses the external obligation that has its origin in circumstance
(necessity) or in a person other than the speaker or writer.
I have to be home by 10 oclock. (My parents insist.)
We have to drive on the left in Britain. (That is the law.)
Note: that have to is used to replace must where the modal does not have
corresponding forms.
b. We normally use have to, not have got to, for things that happen repeatedly,
especially when we use one word adverb of frequency (always, often).
I always have to work late on Tuesdays evenings.
Ive got to work late this evening.
c. Have to + bare infinitive refers to a past obligation. (Note: have got to is not used to
talk about the past, we normally use had to.)
We had to go to Germany.
d. Dont have to and wont have to are used to express absence of obligation in the
present and future.
I dont have to leave for another conference.
I hope the plane leaves on time and that I wont have to wait at the airport.
e. Didnt have to expresses the absence of obligation in the past when the speaker did
not do anything because it was not necessary. (Note: neednt have is used when the
speaker did do something although it was not necessary.)
They didnt have to pay tax.
The last time you went you took Hong Kong dollars with you. Yes, but I
neednt have; its easy to change money when you get there.
II. There are a number of fixed idiomatic phrases with functions similar to those of
modals.
be able to; be bound to; would rathe; be supposed;would do well to;had best;be
going to;be liable to; would just as soon;be sure to;had better;be meant to; would
sooner;be unable to;
HAD BETTER
FORM
a. Affirmative: had better; d better
b. Negative: had better not
c. Interrogative: had+S+better+inginitive?
USES
a. Had better + bare infinitive expresses a strong recommendation in a particular
situation.
Im going to an interview tomorrow. Id better iron my shirt.
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B. EXERCISES
I. Replace the words in italics with a construction using a modal verb related to
ability/ inability, permission/ prohibition or possibility/ impossibility.
1. I was able to speak German quite well as a child.
2. Did you hear that sharp noise? I think its possible that one of the book shelves
has broken in the study next door.
3. The company say theyre able to keep pricing competitive.
4. Its possible to fool all the people some of the time and some of the people all
the time, but its impossible to fool all the people all of the time. (Abraham
Lincoln in this, his famous saying, used you, not one).
5. Would you allow me to use your laptop computer for a moment? Its possible
that my computer has a bug in the software.
6. They were able to work together very efficiently.
7. Would you allow me to make one small suggestion? she said.
8. It was impossible for anyone to get in because no one knew the password.
9. The children are not allowed to watch violent TV programmes.
10. Later, at a news conference, Mr. Peel was able to convince the competition that
it would be possible for them to become partners in that huge long-term project.
II. Read the situations and make sentences from the words in brackets. Use may or
might.
a. Why didnt Tim answer the phone? Im sure he was in the house at the time.
1. (he/ be/ in the bath).
2. (he/ not/ hear/ the telephone).
b. I cant find Helen anywhere. I wonder where she is.
1. (she/ go/ shopping).
2. (she/ play/ tennis).
c. I cant find my umbrella. Have you seen it?
1. (it/ be/ in the car).
2. (you/ leave/ in the office).
d. Im looking for Bob. Do you know where he is?
1. (he/ watch/ TV/ in his room).
2. (she/go/ out ).
III. Read the situations and use the words in brackets to write sentences with must
have and cant have.
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1. I was woken up in the middle of the night by the noise next door. (the
neighbours/ have/ a party)
.
2. Fiona did the opposite of what I asked her to do. (she/ understand/ what I said)
3. Ben passed the exam without studying for it. (the exam/ very difficult).
3. They knew everything about our plans. (they / listen/ to our conversation).
4. When he woke up this morning, the light was on. (he/ forget/ to turn it off)
7. I havent seen the people next door for ages. (they/ go away)
8. Peter cant find his umbrella. (He/ leave/ it in the restaurant last night).
9. The lights were red but the car didnt stop. (the driver/ see/ the red light)
IV. Fill the gaps in the sentences with must (nt), neednt or should( nt).
1. Weve run out of paperclips. I get some in the morning.
2. You finish that report tonight if youre too tired. Midday tomorrow is the
deadline.
3. What are you doing here? you be at the meeting downtown?
4. He really have told his brother about this deal. It was supposed to be
absolutely confidential.
5. You clean the office because we havent been using it today, but could you
tidy the shelves in the storeroom, please?
6. You make so much noise. Well be asked to leave otherwise.
7. Im going to be in trouble. I have posted these yesterday afternoon and I
completely forgot.
8. You have typed this a handwritten note would have been quite adequate.
9. The meetings finished. We find out whats been decided any moment now.
10. The diet be maintained unchanged for about a year.
V. Complete these sentences using dont/ doesnt/ didnt have to + one of these verbs:
arrive, be, climb, cook, get up, go, go, pay, shave, tell, wait, wear, work, work
1. Im not particularly busy. Ive got a few things to do but I them now.
2. Catherine isnt working tomorrow, so she early.
3. Weve got plenty of time. We yet.
4. A man was slightly injured in the accident but he to hospital.
5. The car park is free you to park your car there.
6. I went to the bank this morning. There was no queue, so I
7. Amy is extremely rich. She
8. Paul has got a beard, so he
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44
PASSIVE VOICE
was ironed
Predicate
by her mother.
Object (by + agent)
I. FORM
The active subject becomes the passive agent; the verb to be in the appropriate
tense (that of the main verb); the main verb is in the Past Participle; the direct object
becomes the passive subject, preceded by by:
a. Affirmative:
John sold the book.
The book was sold by John.
b. Negative: subject + be (the appropriate tense) + not + the past participle
It isnt known who made the mistake.
c. Interrogative: be (the appropriate tense) + subject + the past participle
Was the problem solved yesterday?
Has a doctor been sent for?
II. Changes form Active to Passive:
Active
Present:
writes
Present Progressive:
is writing
Present Perfect:
has written
Past:
wrote
Past Perfect:
had written
Future:
will write
Passive
is written
is being written
has been written
was written
had been written
will be written
45
would write
would be written
must do
must be done
might have done
might have been done
My sister loves to be admired by everybody.
She hoped her book to have been accepted by the publisher.
[perfect infinitive]
While being asked about his whereabouts, he felt a cold shiver
running along his spine. [present participle]
Before having been asked about the robbery, he was taken by t
he police. [perfect participle]
I enjoy being taken out to dinner.
Do you mind her having been arrested? [perfect gerund]
III. Constraints
a. Verb constraints
1.
verbs of being and having to have ( = to own) to be, to belong, to lack, to
seem , to become, to hold, to resemble, to suit require only an active construction:
Tom has a new Jeep. - * A new Jeep is had by Tom.
This dress doesnt suit you. - * You are not suited by this dress.
2.
verbs of wanting and liking] are used in the active voice:
She wanted me to be there. - * I was wanted to be there.
I like that car. - * That car is liked.
3.
the verb to let has no passive form; we use a passive of to allow/ to permit/ to
give permission:
He let me leave early . - * I was let leave
> I was allowed /given permission to leave early.
4.
passive only: to be born, to be drowned (when no agent is implied); in
Nominative + Infinitive constructions.
She was born after the war. - * Her mother bore her after the war.
He was thought to be honest. - * People thought him to be honest
5.
Phrasal verbs to look into, to go into, to arrive at can be used in the passive
only when the subject is an abstract patient, not a concrete one.
This delicate matter had been looked into. * This bag had been
looked into. [matter = abstract subject, bag = concrete subject]
b. Agent constraints
The agent by-phrase is generally optional. The omission occurs:
- when the agent is irrelevant or unknown: My car has been stolen.
- when the agent is left out as redundant: He had a cup in his hands a few seconds
ago, and now the cup is broken.
- when the agent is so obvious that there is no need to mention it: The thief will be
arrested.
- in impersonal statements: Passengers are asked not to enter this area.
IV. Causative have
- The verbs to have and to get can occur in the following construction: have/ get
+ direct object + past participle = somebody does something for/ to you.
I will have you arrested!
46
These constructions show semantically that the grammatical subject is not the
agent/ doer of the action, on the contrary there is another agent implied, one
that is not mentioned. The direct object is the sufferer:
She has her hair cut. [the auxiliary has is actually a causative verb, simple
present tense meaning: she will not perform the action of cutting her own hair,
but a hairdresser for example.]
B. EXERCISES
I. Turn into Passive Voice:
1. Father did not allow me to go to the party last night.
2. People strongly assume money brings happiness.
3. They are closing down a lot of factories nowadays.
4. Police had to break the meeting immediately.
5. No one talked about this at the meeting.
6. People don`t pay babysitters a lot of money.
7. The President denied access to the affected area.
8. Social workers were doing valuable work.
9. You should meet them at the airport tonight.
10. He has used this apparatus only once since that day.
II. Turn into Active Voice:
1. The murderer was arrested in less than two hours.
2. A speech to the nation was made by the Prime minister.
3. The building was being guarded by the police.
4. Both drivers will be taken to the hospital by the ambulance.
5. The watch has been repaired skilfully.
6. Someone will have to be found to take my place.
47
7.
8.
9.
10.
48
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
49
B. EXERCISES
I. Build up sentences with the following words using the Subjunctive:
1. He recommended that (I, some money, to lend, to his friend).
2. She orders that (to see, the vet, at once, her dog ).
3. I suggest that (immediately, to return, all of you, in the classroom).
4. The Prime Minister demanded that (to house, from USA, the delegates, at the
best hotel).
5. They insist that (John, to resign, tomorrow).
6. He urged that (to work, the employees, more efficiently).
7. I propose that (in the morning, to be, at six, in my office, you).
8. Mary required that (the diploma, the schoolmaster, her, to give).
9. The doctor insisted that (to take, before meals, the pills, every day, he).
10. The mayor demands that (to keep, all the citizens, clean, the town).
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II. Rephrase the following sentences using 'wish' to express regret for a present
action (the meaning must stay the same):
1. Its a pity you leave so soon.
2. I regret he doesnt know how to start the engine.
3. Im sorry the delivery comes come so late.
4. Its a pity you get only poor marks at the exams.
5. I regret the girls dont pay attention to the explanations.
6. Its pity I cant fix the car.
7. Im sorry they are fighting every day.
8. Its a pity you dont speak to each other.
9. I regret our teacher drinks so much coffee.
10. Its a pity you dont try to improve your pronunciation.
III. Rephrase the following sentences using 'wish' to express regret for a past
action (the meaning must stay the same):
1. I didnt meet her yesterday.
2. It was time for us to leave.
3. Mike failed all his exams.
4. He didnt bring the money for the dictionary.
5. We didnt study semantics last term.
6. They didnt know how to act under such circumstances.
7. She wasnt there at the right moment.
8. We didnt spend much time together.
9. They didnt have any children.
10. I didnt understand her real problems.
IV. Use the past tense and the past perfect forms of the Subjunctive after: as if /
though, suppose, even if/ though according to the meaning:
1. He looked as if he (see) a ghost.
2. He wouldnt solve the exercise even if he (try).
3. Suppose you (be) there, what would you have done?
4. The criminal behaved as though he (not know) anything about the murder.
5. He smiled friendly as if he (recognize) her.
6. I wouldnt sell my honesty even though he (give) thousands of dollars.
7. You treated those people as if you (not meet) them before.
8. You treated the girl as if you (not know) her.
9. Suppose you (have) a flat of your own, would you put me up?
10. I wouldnt invite him even if you (ask) me to.
V. Rephrase the following sentences using its impossible/ normal/ natural/
unbelievable with should according to the model:
Example: She cant be here at this hour. Its impossible (that) she should be here
She cant have been there at that hour. Its impossible (that) she should have
been there
1. This cant happen again.
2. Allan cant have lied to his parents.
3. You cant leave her alone after all she has done for you.
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4. Your best friend cant abandon you in the middle of the battle.
5. They cant have eaten all the food.
6. He cant go abroad this week.
7. You cant have done such terrible mistakes.
8. Peter cant ask Mary to marry him.
9. That wind cant have destroyed the whole city.
10. You cant utter such heavy words.
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TYPE CONDITION
I.
possible to
fulfill
MAIN CLAUSE
IF
IF/CONDITIONAL
CLAUSE
if
I study harder.
daca
in theory
possible to
fulfill
Present Form
if
I studied harder.
As trece examenul
daca
impossible to
fulfill
Past Form
if
As fi trecut examenul
daca
Type II
would/could/might+ infinitive
I would have a degree now.
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You can borrow her bike provided (that) you bring it back by 10 pm.
But for + a proper name/a noun/a pronoun = If it were not for/ if it hadnt been
for
My best friend has come to help me. But for him, I wouldnt get the diploma.
But for his trust, I wouldnt have succeeded.
Suppose/supposing = what if/ whathappen if?
Suppose he doesnt come on time? = What if he doesnt? = What will happen
if he?
Suppose I hadnt sent you the document? = What if I hadnt sent?= What
would have happened if I hadnt sent
In case usually refers to a future condition that may or may not arise:
In case I receive any news, Ill let you know.
If so and If not, used instead of complete clauses:
Is anybody feeling cold? If not, let's put the central heating off.
You may have some difficulty operating the machine at first. If so, do not
hesitate to telephone our service department.
On condition that = if
He will give you the day off on condition that you work on Saturday too.
As long as = if
Cynthia is welcome to stay with us as long as she shares the rent.
V. Inversion
The sentence must begin with the IfC where an inversion of the subject with the
lexical verb or auxiliary verb is performed.
Were I (If I were) the rector of the University, I wouldn't approve of this. [in
written language, in literary style]
Had she known (If she had known) about it, she would have come home at
once. [in written or spoken language]
Should it be necessary (if it should be necessary), I will leave by the 10 pm
train. [in written or spoken language, to express a polite suggestion]
VI. Ways of translating a Conditional structure
In English there is a dependency between the forms of the verbs in the two
clauses; they express the same kind of action, situated in the same period of time (past,
present or future), and yet, they have different forms (tenses), unlike the Romanian
language where we have the same forms in both the MC and IfC.
Type 1:
Viitor/prezent & viitor/prezent
I will leave if I have money. [Voi pleca/ Plec dac voi avea/ am bani]
prezent/ viitor + cumva & imperativ
If you should run into Paul, tell him he owes me an answer. [Dac cumva te
ntlneti cu Paul, spune-i c mi-e dator cu un rspuns.]
perfect compus & prezent/perfect compus/viitor
If I did that, I apologise. [Dac am fcut asta, mi cer scuze.]
If I said that, I was mistaken. [Dac am spus asta, am greit.]
If she made a mistake, she will try to correct it. [Dac a fcut o greeal, va
ncerca s o ndrepte.]
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viitor/ prezent + conjunctiv prezent (verb lexical) & prezentul (unei verb care va
reda sensul modal al lui will: a vrea sau a refuza)
If he wont do it, well have to do it ourselves. [Dac refuz s fac asta, va
trebui s facem noi singuri.]
Type 2:
condiional optativ prezent
I would leave if I had money. [A pleca dac a avea bani.]
Type 3:
condiional optativ perfect
I would have left if I had had money. [A fi plecat dac a fi avut bani.]
B. EXERCISES
I. Put the verbs in brackets in the correct form:
1. If he (meet) her, he will invite her to the theatre.
2. If the weather (be) fine, well go for a ride.
3. You (disappoint) your students if you dont come to the last class.
4. Unless he (study) economy, he will become an accountant.
5. You can make your dreams come true, provided you (work) hard.
6. Unless you have an interpreter, you (can) to understand each other.
7. Suppose she (not admit) she has made the mistake. What will you do?
8. If you take these pills, you (feel) much better.
9. Theyll blame you, if the plan (not to work).
10. Trevor (not to make) his decision, if he doesnt talk to his lawyer.
11. If you had made a good work, he (congratulate) you.
12. They wouldnt have lost if they (take) the map with them.
13. If you ( not to threaten) her , she wouldnt have told the police.
14. He (hurt) him if he hadnt been a well educated man.
15. Peter would have walked if he (repair) his car.
16. She (not to expect) so good results if she hadnt worked so much.
17. I wouldnt have made up my mind so quickly if it (be) for her.
18. You (have) your hair cut if your father hadnt asked you to.
19. She wouldnt have been so relaxed if she (pass) the exam.
20. She (not to expect) so good results if she hadnt worked so much.
21. I wouldnt have made up my mind so quickly if it (be) for her.
22. You (have) your hair cut, if your father hadnt asked you to.
23. She wouldnt have been so relaxed, if she (pass) the exam.
24. You would have caught the train, if he hadnt kept you so much.
II. Choose the most appropriate conjunction (unless, suppose, supposing, provided)
and fill in the blank spaces:
1. I will accept your invitation you send a car to take me.
2. You can go fishing tomorrow it rains.
3. I will repeat the requirementyou dont understand.
4. They will come with us on the tripwe invite them.
5. He cant pass the exam he sits for it.
6. What would you dohe doesnt give you the key?
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56
57
Anteriority
Simultaneity
Posteriority
Tense
clause
Past
Perfect
Past
Perfect
Past
Perfect
in
main
Tense/Past
Tense in
subordinate clause
Past Perfect
Tense/Past
Past Tense
Tense/Past
Future-in-the-past
He told me he had spent his early life in Sri Lanka before moving to England.
Peter thought he was right.
Walter said himself he would be satisfied with whatever he could get.
Note: It does not apply in the following cases for statements which are still valid in the
moment of speaking now have the verb in the present tense although it is also correct
to change the verb into the past or with verbs such as know, realise, believe, think, hope,
regret etc.
He explained that the population of London is around 9 millions.
I realised he is a South- American.
4. The subjunctive is used in direct object clauses after verbs like ask, demand, require,
order, urge, suggest, propose, arrange, recommend. Either subjunctive can be used.
Mr. Hill suggested that their candidate should be supported/be supported by
the Socialist too.
5. The use of the tenses in direct object clauses after the main verb wish
- wish + past tense (=past subjunctive) when the regret is related to the present reality
I wish(ed) John were/was here with us on this wonderful trip.
- wish + past perfect (=past perfect subjunctive) when the regret is related to the past
reality.
They wish(ed) she had joined their company two years ago.
- wish + would + bare infinitive to express a future action the speaker wants to happen
but which has less chances to fulfill.
Catherine wishes he would become a reliable person. (but she doesnt think he
will).
The above pattern is also used in polite requests
I wish you would be quiet.
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When the main verb is in the past the speaker has to apply the corresponding
sequence of tenses
a. Simultaneity :
past tense or should + infinitive
Our boss was disappointed we were/should be so late. (= eful nostru a fost
dezamgit c noi am venit aa de trziu)
b. Anteriority: past perfect or should + perfect infinitive
Daniel was sorry his father had sold/should have sold his car.
(=Lui Daniel i-a prut rau c tatl su i-a vndut maina)
c. Subject Clause
The speaker can use both the indicative mood or the subjunctive mood. The
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indicative mood shows the subject clause action is seen as being fulfilled while the
subjunctive indicates an assumption.
It is strange that Tim arrived at the office so early. (=E ciudat c Tim a sosit la
birou att de devreme).
It is strange that Tim should arrive at the office so early. (=E ciudat ca Tim s
ajung la birou att de devreme.)
There is no tense limitation in the subject clause when the main verb is in the
present tense.
It is unlikely that Ralph has signed/will sign the contract (=Este puin probabil
c Ralph a semnat/va semna contractul)
When the main verb is in the past the verb in the subject clause ought to be in
the past too.
It was a surprise that they had delivered the goods on time (anteriority)
that Ann behaved like that (simultaneity)
that the Prime Minister would deliver a speech. (posteriority)
When the main verb is in the Past Tense the following patterns ought to be used.
a. Simultaneity: past tense or should + infinitive
It was surprising that they worked/should work until midnight.
Anteriority: past perfect or should + perfect infinitive
It was splendid that they had cooked/should have cooked dinner before our
coming.
Note that the indicative mood relates to a fulfilled action while the subjunctive relates to
an assumption.
d. Predicative Clause
There is no tense limitation in the predicative clause when the main verb is in
the Present Tense.
The important fact is that he was sent abroad.
that Mr. Pitt has talked about it.
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B. EXERCISES
I. Complete the following sentences, using a clause:
1. Almost as soon as I entered the company .
2. that they might come across our letter.
3. The old woman who confronted me in the street
4. She was nicer than
5. He said that many years ago
6. They spoke English much better than
7. We arranged to hire a coach that
8. , the more I liked him.
9. He declared that
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dect n el.
6.
Ori de cte ori treceam prin faa colii m ntrebam ce or mai fi fcnd fotii
mei profesori i unde sunt oare colegii mei.
7.
Ori de cte ori te ntlnesc, simt nevoia s-i spun ct de mult a dori s fim
prieteni.
8.
l admir mai puin dect l-am admirat pe bunicul su care a fost un om
adevrat.
9.
N-a fost un secret pentru nimeni c reuita lui se datoreaz, n mare parte,
srguinei cu care a nvat n tot timpul care a trecut de la sosirea lui la facultate.
10.
Am sosit aici doar de trei zile, dar m simt de parc a fi venit de mult.
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PAST SIMPLE
The Second World War lasted nearly six
years, remarked Simon.
PAST PROGRESSIVE
I was still working at eight oclock
yesterday evening, confirmed Helen.
FUTURE SIMPLE
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TENSE
in
INDIRECT
SPEECH
PAST SIMPLE
Sue said that she wanted to
stop.
PAST PROGRESSIVE
John said that he was going
home.
PAST PERFECT SIMPLE
Will announced that Sally had
finished.
PAST
PERFECT
PROGRESSIVE
Robert said that they had
been working very hard at the
office lately.
PAST PERFECT SIMPLE
Simon remarked that the
Second World War had lasted
nearly six years.
PAST
PERFECT
PROGRESSIVE
Helen confirmed that she had
still been working at eight
oclock in the evening the day
before.
FUTURE IN THE PAST
Notes:
Verbs already in the past perfect, do not change.
Christine said, I had seen the film before. [DS]
Christine said that she had seen the film before. [IS]
After a past tense reporting verb, conditional sentences type 1 and zero
conditionals (= real situations) undergo backshift.
He said, Youll feel a lot better about yourself if you work on solutions to your
upsetting situations. [DS]
He said that they would feel a lot better about themselves if they worked on
solutions to their upsetting situations. [IS]
In reported hypothetical situations in the present (= conditional sentences type
2), if the event is clearly hypothetical and impossible, time changes are made.
If I had a map, I could find the way, he explained. [DS]
He explained that if he had had a map he could have found the way. [IS]
Hypothetical past conditional sentences type 3 do not change.
Peter said, If I had gone by bus to the office, I would have missed the
meeting. [DS]
Peter said that if he had gone by bus to the office he would have missed the
meeting. [IS]
If the reporting verb is in a past tense, modal auxiliaries change where there is a
past equivalent: can changes to could, will changes to would, shall changes to
should and may changes to might. Would, should, ought to, had better, might,
used to, could and must do not normally change. Must can be reported as either
had to or remain as must:
He said, I might not be back until next week. [DS]
He said that he might not be back until the following week. [IS]
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Wh-questions are introduced by the wh-word (when, where, what, who, why, etc.)
which begins the questions in direct speech.
She said, Where do you come from? [DS]
She asked (me) where I came from. [IS]
B. EXERCISES
I. Put the following statements into indirect speech:
1. The company believes that products will sell well in the run-up Christmas, he
explains.
2. Mr. Blake says, Its not a very good time to sell at the moment.
3. John warns, Throwing good money after bad may not be a good idea.
4. Ann says, My Marketing Director is hoping he can sell the idea to clients.
5. Experts have been discussing how to improve the fight against crime, he said.
6. Residents are advised not to put their rubbish bags on the pavement outside
their houses, said Ann.
7. The marketplace was jammed with a noisy crowd of buyers and sellers.
8. Ive lived most of my adult life in London, said Mr. Rankin.
9. Shes leaving the day after tomorrow, said Ken.
10. All the lights went off, and mass hysteria broke out, said Walter.
II. Report these sentences:
1. Would you like to join us to dinner? said Paul.
2. Stay away from me, said Mike.
3. Lets wait here!, she said.
4. Damn that map!, he said.
5. Can I help you? he said.
6. Would you like to come to my party? said Collin.
7. Can you lend me some money? Ken asked me.
8. Switch off the TV, she told David.
9. Happy Birthday, she said to Mary.
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10.
11.
12.
13.
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74
2. conjunctiv:
He is fond of listening to music. (i place s asculte muzic.)
3. infinitiv:
He had the chance of telling the truth. (A avut ansa de a spune adevrul.)
4. modul indicativ (prezent, trecut sau viitor)
Do you mind me smoking in here? (Te deranjeaz dac fumez aici ?)
Do you mind me having smoked in here? (Te deranjeaz dac am fumat aici?)
B. EXERCISES
I. Identify the Infinitival and Participial constructions and specify the verbs that
trigger them:
1. The boy noticed the dog running.
2. We named John to be our President.
3. I want him to listen to me.
4. They are supposed to be coming round tonight.
5. They felt the house shaking.
6. The house was announced to have been broken into.
7. I swear not to do this again.
8. He is unlikely to come at the meeting.
9. He seemed to be annoyed by the noise.
10. They cant allow him to be laughed at.
II. Choose the correct form:
1. This meat ....... awful! I think it has gone bad.
a) is tasting
b) tastes
2. They were .......their motorcars dangerously.
a) raising
b) racing
3. It was nice to see the kids ....... in the sun.
a) lying
b) laying
4. ....... typed the letters, the secretary put them into envelopes.
a) being
b) having
5. We regret ....... that we cannot accept your apologies.
a) to tell
b) telling
6. I remember ....... the door when I left the house.
a) to lock
b) locking
7. ....... furiously, I led the dog out of the room.
a) as it barked
b) barking
8. He was always ....... mistakes in his translations.
a) to make
b) making
9. Can you remember what you were doing .......?
a) usually at that time of the day b) that time of the day
10. .......being very tired, the swimmer finished the race
a) in spite of
b) despite
III. Use the Gerund or the Infinitive of the verbs in brackets:
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1. (talk) about the first item on the agenda, the chairman went on (discuss) about
the unemployment problem.
2. You should (try) settle the dispute between them; Im sure youll find a solution.
3. Ill have the mechanic (check) the battery while hes here.
4. Its no good. The car is broken down and I cant make it (go).
5. (Judge) from recent events, people will stop (complain) about loss of jobs.
6. I hate (think) sometimes that he might find excuses for everything he does.
7. I didnt remember (post) the letter, so I still have it.
8. Ill never forget (walk) on the beach with her and (enjoy) the morning sunshine.
9. I invited her (come) out with me.
11. I tried (go) to bed immediately after lunch but I couldnt sleep.
IV. Finish the sentences using Gerund or Perfect Gerund:
1. The answer to the employment problems seems to lie in .......
2. I would never think of .......
3. He sees no harm in my .......
4. Why dont you stop ....... if you dont like .......?
5. He was so happy he succeeded in .......!
6. Who is responsible for .......?
7. He doesnt seem to me to be fond of .......
8. He said he was looking forward to .......
9. He said he wasnt used to ....... in public
10. I could notice how much he enjoyed .......
V. Finish the sentences so that the meaning stays the same:
1.
It was very kind of you to help me with the housework.
2.
I appreciate .....................
3.
I saw that he closed the safe.
4.
I saw him .....................
5.
I will talk with someone to paint my house.
6.
I will have .....................
7.
I suggest that they should paint the doors white.
8.
I suggest .....................
9.
The pipe is old and it leaks badly.
10. The pipe needs .....................
11. I am so anxious to hear about you.
12. I am looking forward .....................
13. He felt sorry he had been late for the concert.
14. He apologised .....................
15. I know how to solve this Maths problem; look here!
16. Thats the way .....................
17. The idea was to stay there and wait. I wasnt pleased with it.
18. The idea of .....................
19. He finished his work; he left the room without a word.
20. After .....................
VI. Rewrite each sentence using the words in capitals:
1. He is sorry he didnt answer her letter.
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REGRET
2. There is a risk that she will miss the train if she doesnt take a taxi. RISKS
3. Working late is pointless, because you wont finish the composition till
tomorrow.
USE
4. I wont smoke anymore, I promise!
UP
5. You may go home; she wont come; dont wait for her.
WORTH
6. You are not permitted to park here.
PARKING
7. I really dont know if I turned off the gas when I left
REMEMBER
8. I finished my homework and then I went out for a walk.
HAVING
9. It is strange that you should call on us at this hour.
YOUR
10. Is it all right if I go with you as well?
MIND
VIII. Translate into English:
1.
Ce-ai zice s mergem i s-l vizitm disear?
2.
Fratele meu prefer s joace tenis dect s m nsoeasc n parc.
3.
De ce nu ncerci s evii cltoria pe timpul nopii?
4.
M-am obinuit s merg pe jos 3 km pe zi.
5.
E foarte greu s-i mpiedici pe oameni s parcheze n acel loc.
6.
Nu-mi amintesc s fi plouat mari toata ziua
7.
Dar cum l poi face s nceteze de a copia la lucrri?
8.
S ncercm s pornim aparatul prin apasarea pe butonul rou.
9.
Acoperisul necesit reparaii urgente.
10.
Foarte greu m-am obinuit cu ideea de a-l pierde.
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Mouse / mice
III.5. Some Old English plurals are still in use:
sg. / pl.
child / children
ox / oxen
III.6. Nouns ending in -o may take -s or es in the plural. Compare:
-o / -os
-o / -oes
auto / autos
echo / echoes
photo / photos
hero / heroes
piano / pianos
potato / potatoes
kilo / kilos
tomato / tomatoes
video / videos
veto / vetoes
However, some nouns ending in -o may take both -s and -es:
sg. - pl.
Motto mottos / mottoes
Buffalo buffalos / buffaloes
Tornado tornados / tornadoes
Zero zeros / zeroes
Cargo / cargos / cargoes
III.7. Some nouns do not change at all:
sg. / pl
cod* / cod*
deer / deer
fish* / fish*
offspring / offspring
sheep / sheep
trout* / trout*
*Notice that these are names of fish. Many (but not all) fish have irregular plural forms. Salmon, pike,
halibut and tuna are further examples, but one shark becomes two sharks.
These include nouns that are traditionally plural, but are also used for singular forms:
sg. / pl
barracks / barracks
crossroads / crossroads
headquarters / headquarters
means / means
series / series
species / species
III.8. Other nouns retain foreign plurals. Note that some of these have adapted a regular
English plural form as well.
III.8.a. Nouns ending in a with plural ae:
singular
foreign plural
English plural in use
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alga
algae
amoeba
amoebae
amoebas
antenna
antennae
antennas
formula
formulae
formulas
larva
larvae
vertebra
vertebrae
III.8.b. Nouns ending in -us with plural -a (only in technical use):
sg. / pl
corpus / corpora
genus / genera
III.8.c. Nouns ending in -us with plural -i:
singular
foreign plural
bacillus
bacilli
cactus
cacti
fungus
fungi
nucleus
nuclei
octopus
octopi
stimulus
stimuli
III.8.d. Nouns ending in -um with plural -a:
singular
foreign plural
addendum
addenda
bacterium
bacteria
curriculum
curricula
datum
data
medium
media
memorandum
memoranda
sg. / pl
criterion / criteria
phenomenon / phenomena
III.8.h. The plural of compound nouns
Compound nouns may be divided into two classes:
Those whose parts are so closely joined as to constitute one word. These make
the plural in the last part.
courtyard, Englishman, fellow-servant, fisherman, Frenchman, forget-me-not,
handful, maidservant, stepson.
Those groups in which the first part is the principal one, followed by a word or
phrase making a modifier. The chief member adds -s in the plural.
attorney at law, commander in chief, court-martial, father-in-law, knight-errant.
NOTE:Some words ending in -man are not compounds of the English word man, but add -s; such as
talisman, firman, Brahman, German, Norman, Mussulman, Ottoman.
Some groups pluralize both parts of the group; as man singer, manservant,
woman servant, woman singer.
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priest / priestess
However, the masculine ending may be dropped before the feminine -ess is
added: e.g. abbot abbess; negro / negress ; murderer / murderess.
The feminine may also discard a vowel which appears in the masculine: e.g. actor /
actress; master / mistress.
IV.3. Gender shown by different words.
Sometimes, the feminine and the masculine are entirely different words
M. / F.
bachelor/maid
boy/girl
brother/sister
drake/duck
earl/countess
father/mother
gander/goose
husband/wife
king/queen
M. / F.
lord/lady
wizard/witch
nephew/niece
ram/ewe
sir/madam
son/daughter
uncle/aunt
bull/cow
boar/sow
V. Noun Suffixes
These are common endings for nouns. If you see these endings on a word, then you
know it must be a noun.
-dom: wisdom; kingdom;
-ity: capability, flexibility;
-ment: contentment, appointment;
-sion, -tion: celebration, expression;
-ness: toughness, kindness.
-ance, -ence: assistance, existence;
-er, -or: fighter, actor;
-ist: violinist, pianist.
B. EXERCISES
I. There are two or more plural nouns in each sentence. Only one of them is an
irregular plural noun. Underline the irregular plural noun in each sentence and
write the singular form. The first sentence has been done for you.
1. Vincent helped the women choose their costumes. Woman
2. The hunters never noticed the two deer by the apple trees.
3. Are the geese chasing the other farm animals?
4. Do turtles have teeth?
5. The children told their parents about the matches.
6. You should place the knives and spoons to the left of the plates.
7. The children stood on boxes to see the parade.
8. We took pictures of the oxen as they pulled the wagons.
9. Sandy knew that many mice were living in the walls of the old houses.
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10. Please keep your hands and feet inside the car.
11. All the kings horses and all the kings men ate scrambled eggs.
II. The underlined noun in each sentence is spelled in its singular form. Write the
correct plural form after the sentence. The first one is done for you.
1. There are too many box in our attic. Boxes
2. How many picture did you take on your trip?
3. Cheryl doesnt enjoy washing dish.
4. There are three church in our little community.
5. Our soccer team has had four wins and three loss.
III. In each sentence there is one singular noun that should be plural. Underline
that noun and write the correct form after the sentence. The first one is done for
you.
1. We put ten of our best crystal glass on the table. Glasses
2. All the student in that school wear uniforms.
3. Our watch dont show the same time.
4. Why are all school bus painted yellow?
5. Seven protester were arrested after the riot.
6. We saw some bright flash of light coming from the woods.
7. Why must I pay four different tax on the same income?
IV. There are two or more singular nouns in each sentence. One of those nouns
should be changed to its plural form to be correct. Underline the incorrect noun
and write its proper form after the sentence. The first three have been done for
you.
1. The old dog no longer fought over their food.
dogs
2. I read seven story to my son.
stories
3. Harold lost five of his new book.
books
4. We never noticed the frog that were sitting on the salad.
5. The governor brought all his child to the ceremony.
6. Annabella was outraged when the nurse said she had eleven louse in her hair.
7. There were many flash of light in the sky.
8. Mrs. Dale insisted that her property tax were too high.
9. All my dream came true when you became my wife.
10. Alice, did you remove some shelf from this bookcase?
11. My calf were sore after the race.
12. None of the switch were turned off on that panel.
13. The painter left their ladder in the middle of the driveway.
14. I sent three reply to your e-mail address.
15. All the witch flew over our Halloween party.
16. Penny put many penny in Pattys purple pantry.
17. Apple were the favorite food at the school party.
18. We saw many scary mask on the last night of October.
19. Olivia falls asleep by counting sheep in her mind.
20. I dont believe that John was chased by a bunch of mummy.
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V. Each sentence below is missing a noun. The singular form of the noun is printed
after the sentence. Write the correct form of the noun on the line. The first five
have been done for you.
1. How many presents are under the tree? present
2. My uncle's pranks are annoying. uncle
3. The members' votes were counted by hand. member
4. The teacher collected the children's papers. child
5. Does this mouse belong to you? mouse
6. You girls are not behaving like ______________! lady
7. I will grant you three ______________. wish
8. My ______________ car is falling apart. father
9. The ______________ are stacked against the door. box
10. The ______________ names are Big and Pig. puppy
11. Please take both your ______________ out of my pudding! foot
12. That ______________ belongs to my grandfather. cow
13. All of this ______________ characters had faults. story
14. Most ______________ colors will change during the fall. leaf
15. ______________ joke did not amuse the minister. Mary
16. The last four ______________ won the best prizes. customer
17. None of the ______________ showed the correct time. watch
18. The ______________ plan would surely get them into trouble. boy
VI. Give abstract nouns from these words:
1. to bear, to catch, to obtain, to strike, to destroy, to seize, to keep, to draw, to
crucify, to manage, to see, to pursue, to deny, to despise, to hide, to dally;
2. wry, proud, fluorescent, social, forlorn, busy, , mild, blue, absent, blue, moist,
delicate, keen, broad, lofty, gay, maladjusted, nimble, perverse, merry,
3. life, brother, coward, patron, traitor, rival, likely thief, mother, partner, pauper
(two forms), hard.
VII. Give the plural of the following nouns:
a. genius, touch, snail, tuft, axe, porch, pebble, parsnip, bough, scarf, coop,
colliery, ecstasy, sheath, nettle, reef, calf, hoof, elf, belief, titmouse, cameo, solo,
species, grouse, mongoose, index, die, wit, pain, brace, compass, ground, minute,
custom, moth, elk, necklace, fiddle, fiasco, hank, hansom, parsley, parish, scoop, tick,
jaw, wrinkle, hyacinth, alley, clog.
b. Rondo, sphinx, miasma, chamois, larynx, persona, necropolis, casino, virtuoso,
bandit, cactus, zero, hippopotamus, fauna, flora, cherub.
VIII. Give the plural of the following words. Translate them into Romanian:
by-street, milktooth, fir-tree, pickpocket, eggshell, wage-freeze, picklock,
wisdom tooth, eyeglass, catchfly, glasseye, knowlittle, court-martial, commander-inchief, test-tube, garden-flower, housewife, stepson, sun-bath, wind-screen, breakdown,
eyelash, do-nothing, boyscout, poet laureate, good-for-nothing, attorney-general,
onlooker, oil-can, goldfish, daybreak, bitch-atter, bulls eye, beau ideal, caroing-knife,
she-sparrow, lieutenant-colonel, science-fiction diary, lawn-mower, mars quake, brushoff, dog-rose, coltsfoot.
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IX. Choose the correct form of the noun, verb and determinative(s) and explain
your choice; or say where both are correct:
1. Statistics (is/are) used on a large scale in a countrys industry.
2. In a lot of (grottos/grottoes) all over the world, researchers have discovered
(frescos/frescoes) made by the primitive men.
3. Unfortunately, Pauls little brother is not good at (figure/figures).
4. He is a well-known hunter of (bison/bisons), but finds a great pleasure in
hunting (grouse/grouses) as well.
5. After a ten-day journey through the desert, they found a small (oasis/oases).
6. He planted three (score/scores) of bulbs.
7. The annals of Tacitus (is/are) among the best historical sources for the history of
the Roman times.
8. Mumps (is/are) very catching.
9. The committee (was/were) of the opinion that it/they should take further steps.
10. The vast (sand/sands) of the desert made him shiver with fear.
11. The (snow/snows) and (frost/frosts) of the Antarctic made him sway between
(hope/hopes) and (fear/fears).
X. Give the feminine of the following words:
marquis, ram, boar, friar, bullock, executor, wizard, ambassador, buckhedgehog, duck, bachelor, count, bee, fianc, cow, goose, witch, calf, fox, lion, bride,
ram, peacock, lad, swan, cock (rooster), sow, stag, mare, widow, protg, billy-goat,
marquis.
a uniform
a European an MP
an L.-plate
/ju:/
/ju:/
/em/
/el/
If the noun is modified by an adjective, the choice between a and an depends on the
initial sound of the adjective that immediately follows the article:
a broken window
an unusual meeting
a European commision
I.1. USES
The indefinite article can be used before singular countable nouns; it cannot be used
before uncountable nouns:
I bought an armchair.
(but NOT: I bought a furniture.)
We use the indefinite article:
when we are referring to one thing, but it is not one in particular:
I'd like a peach.
when we refer to something for the first time. With the second reference, we
use the:
There's a man at the door. 1 think it's the man from the garage.
after to be and have got when we are describing someone or something,
including someone's job, nation or religion:
She's a headteacher. But: She's the headteacher of Park School.
Brian is an Irishman.
Julian is a practicing Buddhist.
He's got a lovely smile.
It's a nice day.
But: It's the nicest day we've had all week.
with a unit of measurement (weight, quantity, time):
12 a kilo, three times a day, once a week
In exclamations:
What a lovely day!
II. The definite article: the
The definite article the signals that the noun is definite; that it refers to a particular
member of a group.
II.1. USES
The definite article can be used before singular and plural countable nouns and
before uncountable nouns. We use it when we want to refer to a specific thing or things.
This includes:
when the content of the sentence specifies which particular one(s) we are talking
about:
The people next door have invited as round for a drink.
I'll wear the dress I bought last week.
when something is referred to for a second time and therefore becomes specific:
They've got a boy and a girl. The girl is at university now.
when we refer to a particular place, person, animal or thing and the speaker and
listener know which one(s) is/are being referred to:
The window cleaner's here.
I think your keys are in the kitchen.
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88
B. EXERCISES
I. Write a or an in the blank.
1. I saw an owl on your roof.
2. They built a real igloo in the park.
3. Erin is ...... honor student.
4. Is Maxwell really ...... horrible student?
5. The speech lasted for ...... hour.
6. Barbara bought ....... better basketball.
7. ...... bald eagle flew above the hill.
8. ..... honest reply would be appreciated.
9. Does ...... ancient city lie beneath the water?
10. How far can ...... gallon of gas go?
11. I think I saw ..... oriole perched on the branch.
12. Would ...... old-fashioned man wear a diamond earring?
13. Did I make ...... mistake by serving the chocolate covered worms?
14. Someone put ...... eel in the bathtub!
15. ..... humorous hippo hugged Helen.
16. We arrived after ...... long afternoon in the automobile.
17. ...... ugly camel answered our eager call.
18. I believe it was ...... accidental meeting.
19. I just picked ..... one ounce apple.
20. She taught ...... exciting lesson.
II. Complete the sentences with a or an, the or no article.
1. 'How much are the leeks?' 'They're 80 pence a pound.'
2. I went to ...... wonderful concert by ...... London Symphony Orchestra.
3. ...... local school is soon to be closed.
4. I usually go to ...... work by ....... train.
5. Is ...... meat in ...... oven?
6. Is this ...... first time you've been to ...... Isle of Man?
7. He's ...... art teacher and she's ...... electrician.
8. A lot of people give ....... money to ....... charity at this time of year.
9. What....... beautiful face that child's got!
10. ....... British usually have ...... butter on their bread.
11. ...... life is very difficult for ....... unemployed these days.
12. ....... Leader of ....... Opposition is in danger of losing her seat at ...... next
election.
13. I like to have ....... cup of ...... tea when I wake up in ...... morning.
14. I saw ...... fox this morning. I think it must have been ...... same one that I saw
last week.
15. Can I have ...... apple?
16. Have you ever seen ...... Acropolis in ....... Athens?
17. ...... police have had a lot of support from ...... general public over this issue.
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91
e
V. Negative prefixes
Adjectives may also be formed by means of a number of negative prefixes including
the following:
dis-: disagreeable dishonest
un-: uninteresting, unnecessary
il-: illegal, illogical
im-: impossible, impolite
in-: inconvenient, insignificant
ir-: irresponsible, irrelevant
VI. Degrees of Comparison
Comparison is an inflection not possessed by nouns and pronouns: it belongs to
adjectives and adverbs.
When we place two objects side by side, we notice some differences between
them as to size, weight, color, etc. Thus, a lioness may be larger than a lion, a purse may
be heavier than a suitcase, a womans eyes may be bluer than the sky, an idea may be
better than another one, etc. This characteristic of adjectives is called gradability.
Most adjectives in English are gradable, but there are some adjectives which are
non-gradable as they already denote the highest position on a scale:
favourite, main, final, immemorial, infinite, perpetual, organic, sole, sufficient,
supreme, universal, etc.
The degrees of comparison are the comparative, expressing a greater degree of
quality, and the superlative, expressing the greatest degree of quality. These are
properly the only degrees, though the simple, uninflected form is usually called the
positive degree.
VI. 1. The Comparative
The Comparative in English is represented by:
the Comparative of Superiority
the Comparative of Inferiority
the Comparative of Equality
VI.1.a. The Comparative of Superiority
In the case of monosyllabic and easily pronounced adjectives of two syllables,
the comparative is formed by adding the suffix er.
blue bluer, easy easier, fat fatter, happy happier, thin thinner
Most two-syllable adjectives and the adjectives which have three or more
syllables have the comparative with more.
careful more careful, famous more famous
VI.1.b. The Comparative of Inferiority
All adjectives form the Comparative of Inferiority by adding either not so/as ...
as or less ... than.
not as happy as..., less interesting than...
VI.1.c. The Comparative of Equality
All adjectives form the Comparative of Equality by adding as ... as.
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The
Comparative of
Superiority
thinner
more famous
The
Comparative of
Inferiority
not as thin as
less famous than
The
Comparative
of Equality
as thin as
as famous as
The Relative
Superlative
the thinnest
the most famous
The
Absolute
Superlative
very thin
very famous
Notes:
1. Some two-syllable adjectives have comparatives and superlatives with either the endings er and est
or more and most:
e.g. common commoner/more common the commonest/the most common
simple simpler/more simple the simplest/the most simple
Here are some more: cruel, gentle, handsome, narrow, obscure, polite, remote, shallow, stupid, subtle.
2. Three-syllable adjectives derived from other adjectives by adding the prefix un may also have
comparatives and superlatives with either the endings er and est or more and most:
e.g. unhappy unhappier/more unhappy the happiest/the most happy
unlucky unluckier/more unlucky the unluckiest/the most unlucky
far
late
near
farther/furthe
r
later/the
latter
nearer
B. EXERCISES
I. Complete the following sentences with an adjective formed from one of the
verbs or nouns below:
act, care, change, comfort, describe, dread, enjoy, forget, grace, motion, power,
rely, submit, tire, truth
1. We had a lovely weekend; it was thoroughly enjoyable.
2. He never remembers my birthday; I don't know why he's so ..............
3. The problem is that there's nothing we can do about it; we're completely ............
4. I believe what he says because he's always been ............... in the past.
5. She never seems to run out of energy; she's completely ....................
6. She's a very ............... writer; she gives you a very good feel for the places and
characters in her stories.
7. Don't worry. If he's said he'll be there, then I sure he will. He's very ...............
8. His problem is that he always does exactly what people tell him to do: he's
just so ....................
9. You're so ................... you're always dropping things.
10. I love to watch good ballet dancers: they're so .......................
11. The cat stayed ................... as it waited to pounce on the bird.
12. It's a very ....................... climate; the weather can be completely different from
one day to the next.
13. It's important to keep ...................... after you retire.
14. The seats in first class were really ............. I could easily have fallen asleep in
them.
15. The situation out there is ............ More and more people are dying every day.
II. Fill each of the blanks with a suitable adjective from the list.
devoid, free, certain, inclined, liable, concerned, filled, elect
1. Those ......... with the political implications of the new policy are very worried.
2. The outgoing President was accompanied by the President ..........
3. I'm ......... to think that it would be better to finish this later.
4. These buildings are ......... to collapse in a strong earthquake.
5. I was absolutely ......... I'd left it on the table.
6. The landscape was completely ......... of any sign of human habitation.
7. Please feel ......... to use the phone if you need to.
8. The ex-prisoner is ............ with remorse for what he has done.
III. Circle the adjectives listed a, b, c or d, that can fill each gap. One, two, three or
all of them may be possible.
1. The ... child was comforted by his aunt.
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un-
it-
imimpatient
in-
ir-
dis-
V. Copy the table into your notebook and write the adjectives in the correct
columns. Put them into pairs of adjectives with similar meanings.
surprising, starving, nice, filthy, devastated, wonderful, hungry, delicious, big, tasty,
furious, ugly, impossible, small, hideous, terrified, good, enormous, tired, thirsty,
amazing, angry, vital, parched, dirty, upset, important, terrible, frightened, minute,
exhausted, perfect, difficult
gradable
non-gradable
surprising
am a z i n g
VI. Give the degrees of comparison of the following adjectives and use them in
sentences of your own: beautiful, thin, interesting, bad, little, old, good, lucky,
common, little, unhappy.
VII. Complete the sentences with adjectives derived from the words in capital
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98
99
personal
possessive
reflexive
demonstrative
indefinite
reciprocal
relative
interrogative
- as a complement: sg.
me
you
him/ her/ it
pl.
us
you
them
b. Uses:
The pronoun I is always written with a capital letter.
All the verbs in English (excepting Imperatives) must have a pronominal
subject:
They dislike inefficiency.
You and one are used impersonally meaning everyone, no one or anyone.
You/ one should always tell the truth.
They is used impersonally denoting a collective agent telling something:
They say he is dishonest.
It is used for people or things with an unknown gender, with a noun to refer to
persons and in expressions about the weather, temperature, time, dates and
distances:
Where is my book? It is on the shelf.
Who is at the door? It is Olivia.
Its cold outside.
What time is it? Its nine oclock.
How far is it to Chicago? Its ten miles.
II. 2. Possessive pronouns
a. Form:
sg.
mine
pl.
ours
yours
yours
his/ hers
theirs
b. Use: - possessive pronouns replace possessive adjectives. The noun missing was
mentioned before:
This is my book. This book is mine.
Were using his car, not her car. Were using his, not hers.
II. 3. Reflexive pronouns
a. Form: sg. myself
yourself
himself/ herself/ itself
pl.
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ourselves
yourselves
themselves
b. Uses:
With reflexive verbs like to enjoy oneself, to amuse oneself, to help oneself, to
hurt oneself, to cut oneself, to wash oneself:
Please help yourself with some cake!
He hurt himself during the game.
But some verbs which are reflexive in other languages are not reflexive in
English: to dress, to comb, to shave, to meet.
Sue and Joe met last year.
To show an action performed for or on oneself:
She looked at herself in the mirror.
Why are you so angry with yourself?
To emphasize the doer of an action:
The president himself attended the meeting.
II. 4. Demonstrative pronouns
a. Form:
this, that (singular referent); these, those (plural referent)
b. Uses:
The pronouns are in number agreement with the noun they replace:
This (umbrella) is mine. That is his.
These (discs) are mine. Those are his.
This, these refer to objects that are near the speaker; that, those refer to objects
in the distance, not near the speaker:
This is here, that is there.
The former the latter have the meaning of the first and, respectively, the
second of two; they have the same form for singular and plural:
Andy and Janet are cousins: the former is a student, the latter is a pupil.
II. 5. Indefinite pronouns
a. Form: - all; both; much; many; more; most; little; a little; few; a few; another; the
other; others; the others; either; neither; each; everybody; everyone; everything; some;
any; no one/ none; somebody/ thing/ one; anybody/ thing/ one; nobody; nothing;
enough; several; one.
b. Uses:
The series ending in body refers to people, that ending in thing refers to
things.
Everybody is at home.
Everything is possible here.
The pronouns beginning with some- are used in affirmative sentences and in
interrogative sentences when an affirmative answer is expected; those beginning
with any- are used in negative sentences when they follow a negative verb or a
negative word, or in interrogative sentences when we are not sure about the
answer:
I have something to tell you.
Shall I give you something to read?
I didnt see anybody.
Is anybody at home?
Both refers to only two people, things and is used with plural verb:
The boys are both sleeping.
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Either and neither refer to two people or things; either means one or the other,
neither means not one and not the other:
Which book do you prefer? Neither/ either.
Much means a great amount or quantity of; many means a great number of:
Much of his information was vital for us.
Many of us have seen this film.
Little means not much and is used for uncountable nouns; a little means at
least some:
Little is known about him.
Is there any soup left? Yes, a little.
Few and a few refer to countable nouns; few underlines the smallness of a
number; a few means at least some:
We expected many guests but only few came.
A few of us managed to arrive in time.
B. EXERCISES
I. Rewrite the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first one and
contains the word(s) in brackets:
1. We only have a week left. (all)
2. All the participants will be sent an agenda. (every)
3. This idea wont work, and the other one also wont work. (neither)
4. We only want a weaker dollar. (all)
5. The two proposals are interesting. (both)
6. Dr. Jones is one of my colleagues. (mine)
7. Two theories proposed by him proved correct. (his)
8. This is your electric drill. (yours)
9. There is nothing to read at home. (anything)
10. It was Mary who asked that stupid question. (herself)
II. Fill in with the suitable reflexive pronouns:
1. There isnt much to do on weekends, so we have to amuse
2. Jerry has fallen off the ladder this morning and has injured
3. The students were happy because they could watchon the video.
4. You can letinto the house with the small key.
5. As she was not hungry, she had to forceto eat.
6. The boy lockedin the bathroom.
7. We were surprised when we sawin that large mirror.
8. The light in the stairway switchesoff after two minutes.
9. The soldier didnt know that the gun was loaded so he shot
10. My sister is going to France soon, so she is teachingFrench.
III. Fill in with some; any; someone; anyone; none; somebody; anybody; nobody;
something; anything; nothing:
1. I cant see my wallet; must have taken it.
2. Do you haveto add?
3. If you have no money, I can lend you
4. I rang the bell two or three time, butanswered.
5. He must beimportant.
6. is more important than good health.
7. You can find practicallyyou want in this shop.
8. I think theresat the door. Were you expecting?
9. I have some very good wine. Would you like?
10. She wanted to drink some coffee but there wasleft.
11. of us has ever heard such an interesting story.
12. This time I cant dofor you.
13. Im going to the supermarket since I want to buy
14. There isin my bag; its empty.
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VIII. Translate the following sentences into English using pronouns wherever
possible:
1. Nu este nici o frm de adevr n ceea ce spune ea; nu-i adevrat c ea personal
s-a dus acolo.
2. Este timpul s plecm, nu-i aa?
3. I-am cutat pe Frank i Patrick mai bine de o or i, n cele din urm, i-am gsit
pe amndoi n parc.
4. George a fost cel care a intrat primul n atelier.
5. Pe cine ai mai ntlnit acolo?
6. Cartea pe care am cumprat-o luni este foarte interesant.
7. Casa al crei acoperi este rou a fost vndut unui american.
8. Dup ce s-au uitat unul la altul cu insisten, cei doi au izbucnit n rs.
9. Colegii notri nu au gsit pe nimeni acolo iar laboratorul era zvort.
10. Cine altcineva te-a mai vzut intrnd aici?
11. i Maria i Lucy au promis c vor fi aici la ora cinci, ar nici una nu a venit nc.
12. Cu excepia ctorva polonezi i a noastr, toat lumea a plecat n excursie.
13. Cui i-ai dat raportul scris?
14. Cum de mi-ai gsit adresa? Cine i-a dat-o?
15. A cui este maina de lng poarta noastr?
16. Ce altceva a fi putut face?
17. Care este haina ei? Sunt trei aici i nici una nu este a mea.
18. Primele exerciii sunt corecte, celelalte sunt greite.
19. Care dintre biei i-a spart geamul?
20. Prietena mea are doi biei: unul este medic iar cellalt este cercettor n
domeniul tehnic.
11 eleven
21 twenty-one
105
2 two
12 twelve
30 thirty
3 three
13 thirteen
40 forty
4 four
14 fourteen 50 fifty
5 five
15 fifteen
60 sixty
6 six
16 sixteen
70 seventy
7 seven17 seventeen 80 eighty
8 eight
18 eighteen 90 ninety
9 nine
19 nineteen 100 one hundred
10 ten
20 twenty
2. USES:
Notes:
- The figure 0 can be read in the following ways:
- in mathematics: nought [no:t]
- for temperature: zero
- for telephone numbers, TV , radio, long numbers: oh [u]
- in sport scores: nil [nil] (in team games); love [lv]
- There is nos after hundred, thousand, million, etc., except when followed by
of:
hundreds of people (meaning lots of).
-When the cardinal number contains a full stop, the number(s) that occur after
the full stop indicate a fraction: 7.25 (seven point twenty-five)
- When the numbers are over 999 and are written in figures, they get a comma or
a blank:
1, 987 or 1 987
2, 513, 608 or 2 513 608
Common ways of calculating
a. addiction:
2+3=5
(two plus three is/are five)
b. subtraction:
93=6
(nine minus three is/ are six)
c. multiplication:
6 x 5 = 30
(six multiplied by five is/ equals thirty)
d. division:
40 : 5 = 8
(forty divided by five is/ equals 8)
5
e. powers:
3 = 241
(three to the power five is two hundred and fortyone)
f. root:
25 = 5
(the square root of twenty-five is five)
3
27 = 3
(the cube root of twenty-seven is three)
Fractions
a. Common fractions:
one half
numerator/ denominator
three fourths
one fourth
2/3 two thirds
6/35 six thirty-fifths
b. Decimal fractions:
35.89
thirty-five point eight nine
0.5
nought point five
0.03
nought point nought three
Measurements
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a. linear measure:
1 inch = 2.54 cm
12 inches = 1 foot (ft)
3 feet = 1 yard (yd)
1 mile = 1.6093 metres
3 miles = 1 league = 4.83 kilometres
1.00
1.15
2. 30
3. 05
9. 45
6. 55
10. 40
15. 00
23. 15
b. nautical measure
6 feet = 1 fathom
100 fathoms = 1.829 metres
Expressing age
a. Using to be followed by a number:
He is fifteen (years old).
b. Using the preposition of after a noun, followed by a number:
She was a girl of twelve.
c. With the help of a compound adjective: number + a singular noun referring to a
period of time + old:
A fifteen-year-old boy
d. When we refer to the approximate age we can use in + pronoun + teens/ twenties/
fifties etc. or over + number:
She was in her teens then, now shes in her mid-fifties.
I think he is over sixty.
Telephone numbers
Each digit of a telephone number is spoken separately; if there are two identical
numbers occurring together, we say double 2/4/8 etc.:
142093 (one for two oh nine three)
566791 (five double six seven nine one)
2. Uses:
a. When we want to identify something by indicating where it comes in a sequence:
January is the first month of the year.
This is the seventh time when Im calling her!
Notes:
- dates may be written in the following ways:
April 1, 1946/ April 1st, 1946/ 1st April 1946/ 1st of April 1946
- ordinal numbers can also be written in an abbreviated form:
the 1st; the 2nd; the 52nd; the 76th, the 98th
III. The Multiplicative numeral
1x
2x
3x
4x
B. EXERCISES
I. Read the following numbers and fractions:
408; 1/3; 6.08; 5,728; 25,100; 9/10; 964; 198/4; 673; 68/12; 0.7; 10.58
II. Read the times of the clock:
3:25; 6:45; 9:00: 1:15; 4:50; 23:35; 18:00; 8:35
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109
110
Time
I paid him a visit yesterday.
Place
The party is going to take place here
Manne
She tapped him gently on his shoulder.
r
Adverbs are words that can modify:
A verb: He drove slowly.
an adjective: He drove a very fast car.
another adverb: She moved quite slowly among the trees.
a clause: Unfortunately, he was fired yesterday.
II. FORM
Many adverbs are formed by adding -ly to an adjective:
Adjective bright
honest
gradual
silent
brightl honestl graduall silentl
Adverb
y
y
y
y
sudden
suddenl
y
Note: When the adjective ends in ic, the adverb is formed by adding the suffix ally:
e.g. basic - basically, numerical - numerically
However, this is not a reliable way to find out whether a word is an adverb or not as:
many adjectives may end in ly: e.g. kindly, friendly, elderly, lonely, lovely
motherly, etc.
many adverbs do not end in -ly and some have the same form as the
corresponding adjective.
adjective adverb
fast
fast
late
late
early
early
hard
hard
much
much
enough
enough
III. Comparison
Like adjectives, many adverbs are gradable and they may form comparatives and
superlatives in a similar way to adjectives.
The
Positive
Degree
fast
rapidly
The
Comparative
of Superiority
faster
more rapidly
The Comparative of
Inferiority
less fast than
not so/as rapidly as
The
Comparative
of Equality
as fast as
as rapidly as
The Relative
Superlative
the fastest
the most rapidly
The
Absolute
Superlative
very fast
very rapidly
IV. Some adverbs require a subject-verb inversion. There are at least eighteen types of
inversion:
1. negative adverb
Never do I sleep.
Only at night can I study.
In no way could I help you with your Japanese grammar question.
I believe that only rarely will I need your help.
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Not until I got home did I realize that my shoes were untied.
Question form is obligatory. It is used with all verbs. Notice that sometimes the
inversion occurs right after the negative intro form and sometimes it occurs in the next
subject and verb.
2. intro adverbial
Into the room ran the lady.
First comes love, then comes marriage.
After A comes B, then comes C, next comes D.
Down came the rain and washed the spider out.
Inversion is optional. It is used with be-verbs, linking verbs, and verbs of
direction. Notice that sometimes we have an adverb, like first and down and sometimes
we have an adverb phrase like into the room or after A. These adverbs and adverb
phrases usually show location or direction. This type of inversion usually only occurs
with be-verbs, linking verbs and verbs that show direction or movement, like come, go,
run, etc.
3. comparatives
Cheetahs run faster than do antelopes.
You speak Chinese better than do I.
Inversion is optional. It is used with all verbs. We normally only have inversion
here if we are comparing subjects of the verb, not objects.
4. here is, here are, here comes, here come
Here is some good food for you to try.
Here are the books that I dont need anymore.
Here comes the bus!
Inversion is obligatory. It is usually used only with these verbs.
B. EXERCISES
I. Underline the appropriate adjective or adverb.
1. They drove under a low / lowly bridge.
2. She has travelled wide / widely.
3. Make sure you're here at seven o'clock sharp / sharply.
4. She loved him dear / dearly.
5. We'll be there short / shortly.
6. Three-toed sloths live deep / deeply in the Amazon forest.
II. Give the adverbs corresponding to the following adjectives:
useless, deep, voluntary, formal, strong, heavy, certain, anxious, scientific, various,
original, slight, kind, local, absent, easy, graceful, idle, sudden, rapid, violent,
comparative, complete, accurate, local, attentive, light.
III. Complete each sentence using too or enough and one of the following
adjectives or adverbs: dark, deep, difficult, early, far, heavy, interesting, late,
loud, old, rich, thirsty, well.
1. They didn't catch the train because they didn't leave home...
2. You are... to understand such things.
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3. Our neighbours couldn't sleep because the music in our room was...
4. We couldn't do that problem because it was...
5. We were... to drink a well dry.
6. You couldn't take a photograph because it is... here.
7. The cupboard was... to be moved by the child.
8. This book is... to be read by all of you.
9. They couldn't hear her voice because she was... away.
10. Mr. Brown is... to afford such an expensive car.
11. We got to the theatre... and so we missed the first act.
12. This river is... to be crossed.
13. George spoke... to win the speech prize.
IV. Use the adverbs in the brackets in the right degree of comparison:
1. He usually gets here much (early) than the others.
2. However, I can swim (well) than your brother.
3. Mike plays football (badly) of all the players.
4. She speaks English (fluently) as a native speaker.
5. The wind blew (hard) yesterday than I did on Sunday.
6. Jack knows English grammar (well) of all the students.
7. She usually enjoys films (much) than plays.
8. She didn't do this part (thoroughly) as the first part.
9. She certainly hopes to finish her work (fast) than that.
10. Mr. Williams explains things (clearly) of all teachers.
V. Put the following adverbs in the right position:
1. We have seen that statue (never).
2. The boy is very active after meals (often).
3. I learn many new English words in our English class (usually).
4. Does the foreman eat lunch with the other workers (ever)?
5. The food in this restaurant is good (seldom).
6. I have time to see visitors in the afternoon (rarely).
7. My father smokes in the office during the day (never).
8. Why don't you speak to your neighbour (ever)?
9. Mr. Brown dictated reports to his secretary (often).
10. Were you ready for breakfast by eight o'clock (already)
VI. Paraphrase the following sentences using an adverb in place of the words in
italics:
1. William jumped two meters with ease.
2. The policeman left the room in a hurry.
3. My daughter was sleeping in peace.
4. Although outnumbered, our troops fought like heroes.
5. The farmer gazed with pride at his vegetables.
6. The tramp looked with hunger at the bread the old lady gave him.
7. The Chinese vase was broken by accident.
8. The prisoners were beaten without mercy.
9. Jonathan works all the sums in his head.
10. Now we can look forward to the future with hope.
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
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B. EXERCISES
I. Choose the best answer for these questions:
1. Which conjunction is used to connect two equal parts of a sentence?
a. either; b. until; c. but; d. since; e. after
2.
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b. but
c. therefore
d. otherwise
6. I live too far to visit you often. ________, you are never home.
a. besides
b. even so
c. otherwise
d. so
7. I prepared my English lesson. ___________, I wrote my French paper.
a. however
b. whats more
c. consequently
d. and
8. The road was wet and slippery, _________ there were many accidents.
a. furthermore
b. nevertheless
c. so
d. therefore
IV. Rewrite these sentences as conditionals
Model: Unfortunately I didn't see him, so I couldn't give him your message .
If I had seen him, I could have given him your message
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
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A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
a. A preposition links nouns, pronouns and phrases other words in a sentence.
The word or phrase that the preposition introduces is called the object of the
preposition. It describes a relationship between other words in a sentence. In itself, a
word like "in" or "after" is rather meaningless and hard to define in mere words. For
instance, when you do try to define a preposition like "in" or "between" or "on," you
invariably use your hands to show how something is situated in relationship to
something else.
A preposition usually indicates the temporal, spatial or logical relationship of its
object to the rest of the sentence as in the following examples:
The book is on the table.
The book is beneath the table.
The book is leaning against the table.
The book is beside the table.
She held the book over the table.
She read the book during class.
In each of the preceding sentences, a preposition locates the noun book in space
or in time.
Prepositions are nearly always combined with other words in structures called
prepositional phrase. Prepositional phrases can be made up of a million different words,
but they tend to be built the same: a preposition followed by a determiner and an
adjective or two, followed by a pronoun or noun (called the object of the preposition).
This whole phrase, in turn, takes on a modifying role, acting as an adjective or an
adverb, locating something in time and space, modifying a noun, or telling when or
where or under what conditions something happened.
A prepositional phrase is made up of the preposition, its object and any
associated adjectives or adverbs. A prepositional phrase can function as a noun, an
adjective, or an adverb. The most common prepositions are:
about, above, across, after, against, along, among, around, at, before, behind,
below, beneath, beside, between, beyond, but, by, despite, down, during, except, for,
from, in, inside, into, like, near, of, off, on, onto, out, outside, over, past, since, through,
throughout, till, to, toward, under, underneath, until, up, upon, with, within, and
without.
Consider the professor's desk and all the prepositional phrases we can use while
talking about it.
You can sit before the desk (or in front of the desk). The professor can sit on the
desk (when he's being informal) or behind the desk, and then his feet are under the desk
or beneath the desk. He can stand beside the desk (meaning next to the desk), before
the desk, between the desk and you, or even on the desk (if he's really strange). If he's
clumsy, he can bump into the desk or try to walk through the desk (and stuff would fall
off the desk). Passing his hands over the desk or resting his elbows upon the desk, he
often looks across the desk and speaks of the desk or concerning the desk as if there
were nothing else like the desk. Because he thinks of nothing except the desk, sometimes
you wonder about the desk, what's in the desk, what he paid for the desk, and if he
could live without the desk. You can walk toward the desk, to the desk, around the desk,
by the desk, and even past the desk while he sits at the desk or leans against the desk.
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All of this happens, of course, in time: during the class, before the class, until
the class, throughout the class, after the class, etc. And the professor can sit there in a
bad mood [another adverbial construction].
Those words in bold are all prepositions. Some prepositions do other things
besides locate in space or time (My brother is like my father. Everyone in the class
except me got the answer.), but nearly all of them modify in one way or another. It is
possible for a preposition phrase to act as a noun (During a church service is not a good
time to discuss picnic plans;In the South Pacific is where I long to be ), but this is
seldom appropriate in formal or academic writing.
Prepositions can be classified into: prepositions of time, of place, of movement,
of time.
b. Prepositions of Time: at, on, and in
We use at to designate specific times.
The train is due at 12:15 p.m.
We use on to designate days and dates.
My brother is coming on Monday.
We're having a party on the Fourth of July.
We use in for nonspecific times during a day, a month, a season, or a year.
She likes to jog in the morning.
It's too cold in winter to run outside.
He started the job in 1971.
He's going to quit in August.
c. Prepositions of Place: at, on, and in
We use at for specific addresses.
Mrs. Smith lives at 55 Boretz Road in Durham.
We use on to designate names of streets, avenues, etc.
Her house is on Boretz Road.
And we use in for the names of land-areas (towns, counties, states, countries, and
continents).
She lives in Durham.
Durham is in Windham County.
Prepositions of Location: in, at, and on and No Preposition
IN
AT
ON
NO
(the) bed*
class*
the bed*
PREPOSITION
the bedroom
home
the ceiling
downstairs
the car
the library*
the floor
downtown
(the) class*
the office
the horse
inside
the library*
school*
the plane
outside
school*
work
the train
upstairs
uptown
* You may sometimes use different prepositions for these locations.
d. Prepositions of Movement: to and No Preposition
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Toward and towards are also helpful prepositions to express movement. These
are simply variant spellings of the same word; use whichever sounds better to you.
We're moving toward the light.
This is a big step towards the project's completion.
With the words home, downtown, uptown, inside, outside, downstairs, upstairs,
we use no preposition
Grandma went upstairs
Grandpa went home.
They both went outside.
e. Prepositions of Time: for and since
We use for when we measure time (seconds, minutes, hours, days, months,
years).
He held his breath for seven minutes.
She's lived there for seven years.
The British and Irish have been quarreling for seven centuries.
We use since with a specific date or time.
He's worked here since 1970.
She's been sitting in the waiting room since two-thirty.
f. Prepositions with Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs.
Prepositions are sometimes so firmly wedded to other words that they have
practically become one word. (In fact, in other languages, such as German, they would
have become one word.) This occurs in three categories: nouns, adjectives, and verbs.
fondness for
grasp of
hatred of
hope for
interest in
love of
need for
participation in
reason for
respect for
success in
understanding of
fond of
happy about
interested in
jealous of
made of
married to
need for
participation in
reason for
respect for
success in
understanding of
fond of
happy about
interested in
jealous of
made of
married to
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proud of
similar to
sorry for
sure of
tired of
worried about
A combination of verb and preposition is called a phrasal verb. The word that is joined
to the verb is then called a particle. Please refer to the brief section we have prepared
on phrasal verbs for an explanation.
Idiomatic Expressions with Prepositions
agree to a proposal, with a person, on a price, in principle
argue about a matter, with a person, for or against a proposition
compare to to show likenesses, with to show differences (sometimes
similarities)
correspond to a thing, with a person
differ from an unlike thing, with a person
live at an address, in a house or city, on a street, with other people
Unnecessary Prepositions
In everyday speech, we fall into some bad habits, using prepositions where they are not
necessary. It would be a good idea to eliminate these words altogether, but we must be
especially careful not to use them in formal, academic prose.
She met up with the new coach in the hallway.
The book fell off of the desk.
He threw the book out of the window.
She wouldn't let the cat inside of the house. [or use "in"]
Where did they go to?
Put the lamp in back of the couch. [use "behind" instead]
Where is your college at?
Prepositions in Parallel Form
When two words or phrases are used in parallel and require the same preposition to be
idiomatically correct, the preposition does not have to be used twice.
You can wear that outfit in summer and in winter.
The female was both attracted by and distracted by the male's dance.
However, when the idiomatic use of phrases calls for different prepositions, we must be
careful not to omit one of them.
The children were interested in and disgusted by the movie.
It was clear that this player could both contribute to and learn from every game he
played.
He was fascinated by and enamored of this beguiling woman.
We use the Gerund after the following phrases:
accuse of
agree with
apologize for
believe in
blame for
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complain about
concentrate on
congratulate sb. on
cope with
decide against
depend on
dream about/of
feel like
get used to
insist on
look forward to
rely on sth.
succeed in
specialize in
talk about/of
think of
worry about
B. EXERCISES
I. Complete the following sentences with the correct preposition: at, in, or on.
1. Will you wait for me _____ the bus stop?
2. Jane is _____ her bedroom.
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on
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
10
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VIII. In some of the lines of the following text there is one unnecessary
preposition. It is either incorrect or does not fit in with the sense of the text.
For each numbered line find this preposition and write it down on the right:
1 An engineering student was walking across campus when
2 another engineer rides up in a shiny new motorcycle.
3 Where did you get such a great bike?, asked the first.
4. The second engineer replied: Well, I was walking along
5 yesterday, minding my own business when a beautiful
6 woman rode up on this bike.
7 She threw the bike at the ground, took off all her clothes
8 and said Take what you want!
9 The first engineer nodded in approvingly
10 Good choice; the clothes probably wouldnt have fit in.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
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Meaning
example
ah
expressing pleasure
expressing realization
expressing resignation
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expressing surprise
expressing pity
expressing surprise
expressing enquiry
expressing surprise
"Eh! Really?"
inviting agreement
expressing hesitation
expressing greeting
expressing surprise
calling attention
hi
expressing greeting
hmm
expressing surprise
expressing pain
expressing pleading
ouch
expressing pain
uh
expressing hesitation
uh-huh
expressing agreement
um, umm
expressing hesitation
expressing surprise
"Well I never!"
introducing a remark
alas
dear
eh
er
hello, hullo
hey
oh, o
well
Characteristics:
1. it is an exclamatory word that usually expresses a strong emotion.
A word may stand alone
Hooray!
Help!
2. Followed by an exclamatory mark (!)
It may be followed by a related sentence.
Hooray! We won the championship!
Help! I can't hold on any longer!
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2. A word of strong emotion ends in exclamation point (separate from rest of sentence)
Hey! Leave my friend alone!
Wow! I never thought she's go out with him!
3. a word of mild emotion ends in comma (part of the sentence)
Oh, sit still!
Say, are you busy?
B. EXERCISES
I. Underline the interjection in each sentence:
1. Brrr! The theater is as cold as ice!
2. Aha! There are some empty seats!
3. Ouch! Someone stepped on my toe!
4. Well, I suppose I should have studies more.
5. I wish that giggling would stop. Shhh!
6. Say, who told you about the party?
II. Use an appropriate interjection of your own for each of the emotions listed.
1. relief _________________ 4. astonishment_________________
2. joy _________________ 5. severe pain _________________
3. confusion _________________ 6. anger _________________
III. Rewrite each sentence below. Begin with the interjection in parentheses. Add
the correct punctuation after each interjection and at the end of each sentence.
1. They're announcing the winners (Psst)
_____________________________________________________
2. I guess I'll have to make a speech (Well)
_____________________________________________________
3. That wasn't so bad after all (Phew)
_____________________________________________________
4. I don't know if I can stand it any longer. (Help)
_________________________________________________
V. In each blank, write an appropriate interjection for the feeling shown in
parentheses.
Interjection Emotion
oh, good heavens surprise
aw, darn, oh, no disappointment
ouch pain
wow, goodness joy
uh hesitation
tsk impatience
Model: (Pain)! That really hurts. Ouch
1. (Surprise), I didnt expect to see you here.
2. (Impatience), I wish youd hurry up.
3. (Hesitation), I dont know the answer.
4. (Joy)! What a great present.
5. (Pain)! I cut my finger.
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