Sei sulla pagina 1di 134

PART III

GRAMMAR
(THEORY AND PRACTICE)

III.1. THE VERB


III. 1.1. THE INDICATIVE MOOD
1.1.1. THE PRESENT TENSE SIMPLE
A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
I. FORM
a. Affirmative [the form coincides with the short infinitive, except the 3rd person
singular, which adds an -s]:
I/ you/ we/ they learn
he/ she learns
b. Negative [the auxiliary to do + not + the short infinitive of the main verb]:
I/you/we/they do not (dont) learn
he/ she does not (doesnt) learn
c. Interrogative [the auxiliary to do + subject + the short infinitive of the main verb]:
Do I learn? Do you learn? Does he/she learn?
II. USES
Present Simple is used to express:
a. General timeless statements (eternal truths):
Every solution breeds new problems.
Despair gives courage to a coward.
Man is mortal.
b. Definitions:
What is a nymph? Nymphs often accompany various gods and goddesses
c. Proverbs and sayings:
Still waters run deep.
A rolling stone gathers no moss.
d. Geographical or mathematical statements:
Bacu lies on the Bistria.
The earth moves round the earth.
e. habits/repeated actions with a given frequency, during an interval.
The adverbs of frequency include the following:
always, often, usually, frequently, generally, normally, occasionally, regularly,
sometimes, from time to time, every day/ week/ month/ year, twice a day/ week/ month/
year , rarely, seldom, hardly ever, ever, never, as a rule, whenever.
He always smokes a cigarette after breakfast.
My mother seldom drives our car.
f. a particular event that refers to a particular moment of time.
I place this flower into the hat and look, a rabbit pops out.
g. instantaneous actions:
- Step-by-step instructions and demonstrations (recipes or magicians):
2

To get to the station you go straight on to the traffic lights, then you turn left
First I take a bowl and break two eggs into it; next I fry the eggs
- Sport commentaries:
The player hits and the ball goes straight into the audience.
- Performatives imply the fact that the uttering of the sentence is the doing of an
action Austin (1975: 5).
I do (take this woman to be my lawful wedded wife). [uttered by the bridegroom
during a marriage ceremony]
I name this ship Lady. [uttered by the captain when smashing the bottle against
the stem]
- Stage directions involve the theatrical quality of the instantaneous present in stage
rhetoric:
George enters the room and draws the curtain.
- Special exclamatory sentences (with initial adverbials: here, there, up, down, etc.):
Here comes the winner!
There goes our train!
h. with future reference, the action fixed in advance is supposed to happen in the future:
- officially planned actions (timetables, statements about the calendar) that refer to
events regarded as immutable:
The train for London leaves at six.
School starts in September.
Tomorrow is Tuesday.
- planned activities where the idea of certainty is implied:
We leave London at 11:00 next Monday and arrive in Paris at 14:00.
She returns tomorrow morning.
-subordinate clauses of time and condition:
My son will look after his little sister while I am away.
If your cousin comes here tomorrow, well go to the cinema.
i. in story-telling with a past reference
Clarissa Dalloway goes out to buy flowers for a party she is to have at her
house. She prepares for her party when she is interrupted by Peter Walsh
(V.Woolf)
- in newspaper headlines in order to draw the attention of the reader:
Plane crashes in Paris. [Avionul s-a prbuit n Paris./ Avion prbuit n Paris.]
III. Ways of translating
a. indicativ prezent:
Ice melts in the sun. = Gheaa se topete la soare.
We drink coffee every morning. = Bem cafea n fiecare diminea.
b. perfect compus (historic present verbs of linguistic communication):
I hear she lost her baby. = Am aflat/ am auzit c i-a pierdut copilaul.
c. viitor sau prezent (adverbial clauses of time and condition):
I will pick up the cherries if he asks me. = Voi culege cireele dac m va ruga/
m roag.
Ill phone you when I get home. = i voi da telefon cnd voi ajunge/ ajung
acas.

1.1.2. THE PRESENT TENSE PROGRESSIVE


A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
The progressive aspect shows a situation that is in progress. From this brief definition
we infer that the meaning of the progressive reveals the following concepts:
- temporariness: Shes singing. [a temporary activity that has a limited duration]
- incompletion: Shes drinking a glass of milk. [the temporary activity is not
complete. A proper result accomplishment would be that the glass is empty,
but the progressive shows exactly this lack of completion.]
I. FORM
a. Affirmative (the present tense of the auxiliary verb to be + the present participle
V+ing) [see Appendix II for the spelling of the present participle]:
I am learning you/ we/ they are learning he/ she is learning
b. Negative
I am not learning you are not learning he/ she is not learning
c. Interrogative
Am I learning? Are you learning? Is he/she learning?
II USES
The Present Tense Progressive is used:
a. to express an action happening at the moment of speaking (the action spanning from
past to future is incomplete at the moment of speaking and is still taking place). It
indicates that the duration of the action is limited. The idea of immediate present is
often emphasized by just and now:
The children are sleeping now.
The pupil is just writing the exercise.
b. to create a contrast between a temporary action and an action usually performed
(habitual present) and to show that the repetition takes place over a limited period.
My mother usually cooks lunch, but today Im cooking. [the habit is temporary,
while cooks shows a permanent habit.]
John is a polite young boy, but today he is being rude. [states used in the Simple
Present Tense signify a permanent trait. When the verbs that designate states are
used in the progressive they are interpreted as a form of behavior/ activity].
c. to express a meaning of annoyance, irritation, sarcasm associated with a habit. In this
case the verbs are usually combined with such adverbs as: always, continually,
constantly:
You are always borrowing money from me.
Those children are constantly making noise.
d. to express a definite action planned for the near future. It anticipates the action thus
having a future time reference. It is the most usual way of expressing ones immediate
plans:
What are you doing tomorrow?
Im meeting my friend.
4

e. for an action intended to be polite as it shows lack of commitment:


Im hoping youll give the book to John. (Im hoping is preferred to I hope as
the latter leaves little room for polite refusal)
f. to express an action in a subordinate clause of time or condition:
The child will play in the garden while his mother is cooking dinner.
I will not disturb her if she is learning.
g. with activities/ processes (to get or to grow) to express a transition from one state to
another taking place over a period:
Its getting dark.
Hes growing older and older.
h. with achievements, the semelfactive ones, which describe momentary events. When
used in the progressive, they imply duration:
The player is kicking the ball.
He is nodding approval.
III. Ways of translating the Present Tense Progressive into Romanian
a. indicativ prezent
They are not doing their homework now, they are watching TV. = Ei nu-i fac
temele acum, se uit la TV.

He is continually finding fault with me. = Permanent arunc vina pe mine. (the
emotional use linked to the progressive is rendered into Romanian by an
emphasis on the adverb rather than on the verb)
b.
viitor/ prezent
What are you doing tomorrow? = Ce vei face/ faci mine?

B. EXERCISES
I. Put the verbs in brackets into the Simple Present or Present Progressive Tense:
1. My friend (come) to see us next month.
2. Apricots (ripe) in early summer.
3. I (walk) to school every day, but today as I am late I (go) by bus.
4. I (see) what you mean! You cant join us today as you (feel) ill. (See) the doctor
this afternoon?
5. How he (feel) now? You (think) of going to see him at the hospital?
6. She always (complain) about something.
7. We constantly (see) you outside the cinema.
8. I (love) the roses you sent me, and they (smell) wonderful.
9. I (doubt) if they (understand) what you (talk) about.
10. He (work) very hard at the moment and (deserve) to succeed.
II. Choose the correct form of the verb:
1. How many cups of coffee every day?
a) you drink; b) you do drink; c) do you drink
2. Even if Phil is a serious person, he comedy.
a) doesnt like; b) is liking; c) likes
3. I can keep an eye on your children till your husband back.
a) will get; b) is getting; c) gets
4. Can you tell me how often your dentist?
a) you visit; b) do you visit; c) are you visiting
5. I the answers to the test we are going to take tomorrow, trust me.
a) know; b) do know; c) dont know
6. true that Julia speaks four languages fluently?
a) It is; b) Does it; c) Is it
7. It is well known that rice in Britain, but in China.
a) grows; b) is growing; c) doesnt grow
8. We live in Manchester and I dont understand why my daughter to London so
often.
a) is going; b) goes; c) does not go
9. He to be a little stupid, isnt he?
a) appears; b) is appearing; c) does appear
10. Look at these pictures! Why buy one for your father?
a) dont we; b) we do; c) arent we
III. Rephrase the following sentences so as the meaning stays the same:
1. Im annoyed because you lose your pocket money every time I give it to you.
You are always
2.
There is a smell of roses in this room.This room
3.
My younger brother keeps on bothering me. My younger brother
4. Whats your opinion about the new book published by the University? What
do?
5.
Bread costs 10 000 lei in Romania. How much ?
6.
I like watching football matches and so does my girlfriend. Both of us
7.
In case of accident call the police. If
6

8.
Sunrise is at 5:30 tomorrow morning. The sun
9.
Diana and her grandmother are exactly alike. Diana
10. The number of people who own expensive cars is increasing. More and more
people
IV. Correct the mistakes in the following sentences:
1. Does his brother knows that you are going to leave the town without paying the
debt?
2. He is always going to work at 7 oclock in the morning.
3. Here is coming your husband!
4. He usually plays tennis after breakfast, but today he plays football.
5. You cook lunch right now and then you rest.
6. I cant answer the phone. I write a letter to Mary.
7. They are saying the earth is going round the sun.
8. Are you liking coffee or tea?
9. Christmas is coming in December.
10. Can you give me your pen? Or do you use it?
V. Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the verbs:
1. I ... the water for coffee in a special pot. (to boil)
2. Dont shout that loud! I ... you very well. (to hear)
3. Dont interrupt them! They ... to a scientific broadcast. (to listen)
4. Come and make the coffee! The water ... (to boil)
5. Wait a minute, will you? I ... them off. (to see)
6. A man ... with his nose. (to smell)
7. I ... these lovely flowers. (to smell)
8. Usually she ... a very quiet child but now she ... naughty. (to be)
9. She ... all right. (to feel)
10. She ... the silk to see how soft it is. (to feel)
VI. Fill in the blanks with the following verbs, using Present Tense Simple or
Progressive: to start, to look, to write, to live, to deal, not to seem, to stay, to rent, to
move, to do, to rain, to answer, to come, to get, to suppose, to begin.
Dear Sally,
I . just to let you know that Ive arrived and that everything is fine.
At the moment I . at a hotel in Athens and I . quite a lot of sightseeing. Next
week I . to the island of Crete which is where most of the people in the company
. . I . a villa there for the summer, which should be nice.
The weathers not particularly good as a matter of fact, it . at the moment.
Still, it . better slowly, and Im sure itll be fine when you . in the summer. I .
forward to it already.
The job . to be too demanding. Most of the time I . with bookings and .
inquiries. But I . itll be different when the tourist season . next month. Even
now the restaurants . to get busier.
See you soon,
Love,
Jenny

VII. Ask questions about the underlined parts of the following sentences:
1. I have my English lessons at school.
2. You feel thirsty on a hot day.
3. I brush my teeth three times a day.
4. We read only critical books.
5. You come to school on foot, dont you? Yes, but I occasionally take the half
past seven tram.
6. We sit on this bench two hours every Sunday.
7. We clean our car before leaving for a picnic.
8. You are a reliable person, for all I know.
9. You watch all the matches on TV.
10. I am free this afternoon because I dont have to work on holidays.
VIII. Translate the recipe and comment upon the uses of the verbs:
Southern Grilled Barbecued Ribs
INGREDIENTS:
4 pounds baby back pork ribs; 2/3 cup water; 1/3 cup vinegar; 1 cup ketchup; 1 cup
water; 1/3 cup Worcestershire sauce; 1/4 cup prepared mustard; 4 tablespoons butter;
1/2 cup packed brown sugar; 1 teaspoon hot pepper sauce; 1/8 teaspoon salt
DIRECTIONS:
1. Preheat oven to 175 degrees C. Place ribs in two roasting pans. Pour water and
vinegar into a bowl, and stir. Pour diluted vinegar over ribs and cover with foil. Bake in
the preheated oven for 45 minutes. Baste the ribs with their juices halfway through
cooking.
2. In a medium saucepan, mix together ketchup, water, vinegar, Worcestershire sauce,
mustard, butter, brown sugar, hot pepper sauce, and salt; bring to a boil. Reduce heat to
low, cover, and simmer barbeque sauce for 1 hour.
3. Preheat grill for medium heat.
4. Lightly oil preheated grill. Transfer ribs from the oven to the grill, discarding
cooking liquid. Grill over medium heat for 15 minutes, turning ribs once. Baste ribs
generously with barbeque sauce, and grill 8 minutes. Turn ribs, baste again with
barbeque sauce, and grill 8 minutes.
IX. Translate into English:
1. Tatl meu rareori se uit la televizor duminica.
2. ntotdeauna mi arde pantalonul cnd l calc!
3. Ce faci zilele acestea? Vruiesc buctria.
4. n vreme ce musafirii vorbesc despre vreme, noi, copiii, le turnm ceai n
pantofi.
5. Se simte mult mai bine acum.
6. Mergi la petrecere duminic?
7. Totul este bine cnd se termin cu bine, nu-i aa?
8. Noi nu mergem aproape niciodat la oper din pcate.
9. Maina mi face figuri astzi. Nu pot s-o pornesc. Mai bine lum autobuzul.
10. De ce deschizi ua cuptorului de attea ori? Las prjitura s se coac!

1.1.3. THE PAST TENSE SIMPLE


A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
I. FORM
a. Affirmative [-ed for regular verbs; the 2nd form in the dictionary for irregular verbs]
(see Appendix I for the pronunciation of ed and spelling rules of regular verbs)
I/ You/ He/ She/ We/ You/ They walked/ saw/ ran
b. Negative [auxiliary did + not + the short infinitive of the main verb]
I/ You/ He/ She/ We/ You/ They did not walk (didnt walk)
I/ You/ He/ She/ We/ You/ They did not go (didnt go)
c. Interrogative [auxiliary did + subject + the short infinitive of the main verb]
Did I/ You/ He/ She/ We/ You/ They walk?
Did I/ You/ He/ She/ We/ You/ They go?
II. USES
The Past Tense Simple is used:
a. to show an event at past reference:
Immediate situation (domestic sitations where the adverb of time could be
implied)
He woke up (at seven in the morning), got out of bed, washed, shaved, dressed,
went downstairs, had breakfast, put his coat on, hurried to the bus stop and
caught a bus to the station.
Larger situation (in historical or bibliographical statements about specific
persons, locations, or objects. They involve general knowledge about the situations
described.)
Vincent van Gogh was born in Holland. He did not become a painter until the
age of 27, after which he produced over 1,500 oil-paintings and drawings
before committing suicide. [it is a matter of cultural knowledge that Vincent van
Gogh is a historical personage (a famous Dutch post-impressionst painter) who
was born, worked and finally died.]
Actions are completed at a definite point in the past (when the time is given):
Yesterday; last night/week/month/year; a few hours/minutes/years ago; a long time ago;
in 1995; on October 24th, 1955; at the turn of the century; in 34 BC; during the war;
once; once upon a time; the other day
They arrived yesterday.
We bought this car five years ago.
He left the army in 1945 and settled down in Australia.
b. it shows an action often done in the past (habit), thus referring to a certain sequence,
with adverbs that express frequency, such as: everyday, frequently, often, etc.
It can be paraphrased by means of used to, which implies that an event/ state
definitely took place in the past and it will not happen in the present or future, unlike the
paraphrase with would.
We had water melon everyday.
He spent all his childhood in London. = He used to spend all his childhood in
London. [the implicature is that he is no longer a child].

He would spend all his childhood in Lodon. [the implicature is that he was still a
child at the moment of speaking, so a possible future interpretation]
c. it is related to the speakers attitude rather than to time, being most often associated
with politeness. It occurs in everyday conversation and the Simple Past Tense has
present time reference.
It is used with verbs such as hope, think, want, wonder It is considered to be
more polite than the present tense.
The same polite use can be rendered by past modal forms with present or future
reference (Could you help me for a moment? Would you come this way, please?)
Did you want to see me now?
I wondered if you could help me.
III. Ways of translating the Past Tense Simple into Romanian
a. perfect compus/ perfect simplu
He rang the bell and opened the door. = A sunat la sonerie i a deschis ua/
Sun la sonerie i deschise ua.
b. imperfect (with habitual past, attitudinal past or if the verb is lexically durative)
He often went fishing when he was a child. = Mergea adesea la pescuit cnd era
copil.
I thought we might go and see a movie. = M gndeam poate mergem s vedem
un film.
She stood there motionless. = Sttea acolo nemicat.
c. mai mult ca perfectul/ perfect simplu (to show sequence for past perfect value)
She knocked, entered and slammed the door. = Btuse/ btu, intr i apoi trnti
ua.
d. indicativ prezent
Irene told me that she wrote a poem. = Irene mi-a spus c scrie o poezie.

1.1.4. THE PAST TENSE PROGRESSIVE


A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
I. FORM
a. Affirmative [Past Tense of the auxiliary to be + Present Participle (V+ing)]
He was walking in the park when he met her.
b. Negative [Past Tense of the auxiliary to be + not + Present Participle (V+ing)]
He was not walking when he met her.
c. Interrogative [Past Tense of the auxiliary to be + subject + Present Participle
(V+ing)]
Was he walking in the park when he met her?
II. USES
The Present Progressive Tense has the following uses:

10

a. The progressive form of a verb can function as a time background when the speaker
feels that the actions are framed (Poutsma, 1926) thus making the simple forms more
precise:
I was buying a shirt when I first met my wife [the meeting was completed within
the framework of shirt-buying]
It is used with adverbial structures such as: this time last week/ month/ year or with
adverbial clauses of time
This time last week I was flying to Paris.
When I saw him he was running away.
b. it shows duration of an event
It happened while I was living in the countryside last year.
c. it shows annoyance, criticism of a habit
My husband was forever getting into trouble.
d. it has a polite use with verbs such as hope, think, want, wonder it makes a request
sound more polite but less definite
I was wondering if you'd like to come out with me one evening.
e. it marks a gradual progress without any temporal marker
The car was getting worse. One of the headlights was gradually falling off, and
the engine was making more and more funny noises.
f. it has a future reference in the past
He thought he was seeing her in the evening. [It is a case of Indirect Speech in
direct object clauses. The progressive changes the meaning of the physical
perception verb to see into to visit. The paraphrase could be He thought he
would see her in the evening.]
III. Ways of translating into Romanian
a. imperfect
I was sleeping when he came in.= Dormeam cnd el a intrat.
b.
viitor (in direct object clauses)
He thought he was seeing her in the evening. = Credea c o va vizita desear.
c. prezent (in direct object clauses)
She told me she was writing a novel then. = Mi-a spus c scrie un roman acum.
Appendix I
A. Pronunciation of -ed
- it is pronounced /d/ after vowels and voiced consonants (except /d/): /b/, /g/, /m/, //,
/l/, /v/, /z/ etc.
- it is pronounced /t/ after unvoiced consonants (except /t/): /p/, /f/, /k/, /s/ etc.
- it is pronounced /id/ after /d/ and /t/
B. Spelling rules of regular verbs (Past Tense affirmative)
most verbs add -ed
11

to visit visited
to help helped
to gain gained
verbs ending in -e add just -d
to dance danced
to hope hoped
one-syllable verbs ending in a single consonant (except c, w, x) preceded by a single
vowel, double the consonant when adding -ed:
to hop hopped
to pat patted
verbs of more than one syllable ending in a single consonant preceded by a single
vowel double the consonant when adding ed only if the final syllable is stressed.
Compare: to prefer preferred
and
to visit visited
to omit omitted
to listen listened
Exceptions: a. to kidnap kidnapped
to handicap handicapped
b. in British English l is doubled after a short vowel even if the vowel
is not stressed: to travel - travelled
verbs ending in -y preceded by a vowel add -ed with no other change:
to play played
to stay stayed
verbs ending in -y preceded by a consonant change -y into -i when adding -ed:
to try tried
to study studied
verbs ending in c have ck before -ed:
to picnic picnicked

B. EXERCISES
I. Put the verbs in brackets into the Past Tense Simple:
1. When (you/ meet) the company accountant?
2. The company (not/ disclose) how much it expects to gain from the two deals.
3. You (feel) out of place in your suit and tie.
4. The discussion (take place) in a famous villa.
5. The smell of the roses (creep) into the room.
6. They (wind) up the evening with a song.
7. One day an idea (strike) Mary.
8. Our blood almost (freeze) in our veins.
9. He (stick) to his opinion.
10. This (teach) him a bitter lesson.
II. Continue the following sentences using the Past Tense Progressive:
1. My neighbour burnt his hand while he ...
2. The TV was on but nobody ...

12

3. Her parents helped with child care while she ...


4. We saw an accident while we ...
5. For a ruin it was in good condition, as though the place ...
6. When the rain began they ...
7. She was reading while her brother ...
8. The doorbell rang while I ...
9. Dave fell asleep while he ...
10. Somebody followed her while she ...
III. Put the verbs in brackets into the Simple Past or the Past Progressive:
1. He (stand) a long time in the darkest corner of the room.
2. When the doorbell (ring) she (sleep).
3. The young man (jump) on to the bus while it (run).
4. When the train (arrive) many travelers (wait) on the platform.
5. I (have) a bath when the phone (ring).
6. As he (cross) the street he (step) on a banana skin and (fall) down.
7. I (walk) in the park quietly when a dog (attack) me.
8. If I (win) a big prize in a lottery Id give up my job.
9. While I (swim) someone (steal) my clothes.
10. While I (water) the flowers it (begin) to rain.
IV. Put the verbs in brackets into the Simple Past or the Past Progressive:
Last night I (have) a very strange dream. When the dream (begin), I (sit) all alone in
a restaurant. Suddenly I (notice) that the other people (look) at me. Some of them
(point) at me. I (not understand) why. Just then the waiter (come) over to me. He
(smile), too, just like everyone else. He (ask) me if I (enjoy) my meal. I (tell) him
that it (be) very good. I (want) to ask him why he (smile) and why the other people
(look) at me, but something (stop) me. Then the waiter (ask) me if I (forget)
anything. At first I (not understand) his question, but then I (look) down at myself.
Suddenly I (realize) that I (not have) my trousers on! That was why everybody
(laugh) at me.
V. Correct the mistakes:
1. If I am not busy I would help you.
2. I was falling in love with anyone.
3. Last summer they were spending their holiday in Switzerland.
4. It was taking me a few seconds to realize I looked foolish.
5. I watched TV while my sister read the magazine.
6. What did you do when he was coming home?
7. We visited the States this time last year.
8. He read the script while she talked to the Production Director.
9. When the reasons behind the decision were explained it was all becoming clear.
10. Last week they were placing an advertisement in the local paper for a secretary.
VI. Rephrase the following sentences so as the meaning stays the same. Use
Present or Perfect Participle:
1. He bought the book, but then he realized he didnt need it.
After ...

13

2. I left the house but first I checked that I had my key.


Before ...
3. The police were approaching the house when they saw the burglars running
away.
While ...
4. He tried to repair his car but first he checked his tools.
Before ...
5. She cleaned the house, but then she fell asleep.
After ...
6. John was parking the car when he noticed the flat tyre.
While ...
7. She was skiing in Sinaia and met her friend Mary.
While ...
8. I took a pil land then I felt much better.
After ...
9. He bought a new car but first he checked all the prices.
Before ...
10. I went out for the evening but first I went to the hairdressers.
Before ...
VII. Translate into English:
1. Cnd am intrat n muzeu am vzut multe tablouri impresionante.
2. Din pcate, cnd eu am sosit Ana tocmai pleca, aa c nu am vorbit dect foarte
puin.
3. ntotdeauna purta o serviet cnd mergea la birou.
4. n timp ce musafirii se distrau hoii au intrat n cas i le-au furat hainele de
blan.
5. Era foarte extravagant, ntotdeauna i cumpra haine noi.
6. Preai foarte ocupat cnd te-am ntlnit asear. Ce fceai?
7. Bunica ncremeni o clip, pe urm l strnse n brae cu ochii scldai n lacrimi,
fr s poat rosti un cuvnt.
8. Eu aveam toat ncrederea n puterea mea, ca un om care pleac la drum tiut
periculos pentru c se simte n stare s se apere, n-avem prea mult grij.
9. Cum tot cearaful i perna erau prea calde, cum toate crile pe care am vrut s
le citesc, mi se preau uscate, am cobort ctre ora cinci n grdin.
10. Deschise ua ncetior, trecu prin sufragerie, unde nu era nimeni, i se strecur
printre o mulime de lume necunoscut, care nici nu-l lu n seam.

14

1.1.5. THE PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE


A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
I. FORM
a. Affirmative [the present tense of the auxiliary to have + the Past Participle of the
main verb]: she/he/it has already worked; I/you/we/they have taken a test.
b. Negative: she/he/it has not/ hasnt eaten; I/you/we/they have not/havent eaten
c. Interrogative: Has he/she/it eaten?; Have I/you/we/they eaten?
II. USES
The Present Perfect Simple is used:
a. for an action which is just completed but the resulting state is still present. Just and
already are the most common adverbs of time used to express a recently completed
action:
Theyve just solved the problems. [They solved the problem a few minutes
ago.]
Only just expresses surprise or impatience:
My pen has run out again. But you've only just filled it.
b. for an uncompleted action that one is expecting. It is used with adverbs of time such
as yet and still. Using the Present Perfect suggests that we are still waiting for the result
of the respective action.
The murderer hasnt confessed his crime yet. [The result that is expected
implies the murderers confession.]
He has been courting Ann for seven years now, but he has not still asked her to
marry him.
c. an action begun in the past but still continuing to the present moment, but only with
non-continuous verbs. The Continuative Present Perfect can show:
- a state leading up to the present:
This hut has been deserted for three days/ a long time/ for ages.
- Since denotes from some definite point/ period in the past till now.
Cynthia has not visited us since yesterday /Tuesday /1998 / her son left for
Canada.
- For denotes a length of time till now. When it is used with the simple past tense, for
expresses a completed period of time:
I have known him for two years. [I still know him.]
I talked with him for two years. [but I don't talk with him any longer.]
d. Adverbs of indefinite time or expressing frequency (never, ever, often, seldom,
always) are used for general experiences, while adverbs of time such as today, this
morning/ week/ month/ year, suggest a limited experience. This use of the Present
Perfect shows indefinite event(s) in a period leading up to the present moment. The
Past Tense is also used but it shows that the action has no connection with the
present.
My mother has washed three shirts today. [The action of washing the three

15

shirts is completed, but not the action of washing shirts because the day is not
over, so the Present Perfect denotes an incomplete period of time. The emphasis
is on achievement.]
My mother washed three shirts today. [washed = the Past Tense Simple. The
action of washing the three shirts is completed, and so it is the action of washing
for today because the day is almost over.]
My mother has been washing my brothers shirts today. [has been washing = the
Present Perfect Progressive. The emphasis is on duration.]
e. in adverbial clauses of condition:
John will go home if his wife has cooked dinner.
f. in adverbial clauses of time in order to express a future action, prior to the one
represented by a future tense in the main clause:
We will paint the fence after we have had lunch.
We will ring you as soon as/ after he has come back from work
g. in newspapers and broadcasts - to introduce an action which will then be described in
the simple past tense:
Abi Titmussi has admitted she is smitten with hunky Lee Sharpe. The curvy
blonde revealed she has fallen head over heels for the ex-Manchester United
Star. (Online Star 21 Jun 2005)
III. Ways of translating
a. indicativ prezent:
Weve been here since the beginning of the show. = Suntem aici de la nceputul
spectacolului.
The Romanian indicativ prezent is the translation both for the Present Tense Simple/
Progressive and the Present Perfect Simple and Progressive. Compare the following
sentences:
We drink beer every evening.= Bem bere n fiecare sear.
We are drinking beer now. = Bem bere acum.
We have been drinking beer for ten minutes. = Bem bere de zece minute.
b. perfect compus:
They havent seen me since 1983. = Ei nu m-au vzut din1983.

1.1.6. THE PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE


A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
I. FORM
a. Affirmative [the present tense of the auxiliary to have + the Past Participle of the
auxiliary be+ the Present Participle of the main verb]: She/he/it has been working;
I/you/we/they have been working
b. Negative: she/he/it has not/hasn't been working; I/you/we/they have not/ havent
been working
c. Interrogative: has she/he/it been working? Have I/you/we/they been working?
16

II. USES
The Present Perfect Progressive is used:
a. to show duration from the past until now. It can be used with habits (recurrent
events):
She has been teaching this class since Christmas.
Ever since I was a child, I have been living in the same house. [they are still
living in London]
- non-durative activities (processes) used in the progressive get an iterative
interpretation, whereas used in the Simple Present Perfect describe rather one single
instantaneous situation:
Someone has knocked at the door. [the activity of knocking stopped]
Someone has been knocking at the door. [the activity of knocking is still going
on]
It can be used with:
- Since and for - to express more temporary actions and situations, but for more
permanent actions the simple forms are preferred:
She has been living in my flat for the last month. - My parents have lived in
Bacu all their lives.
He lived in London for two years. [lived - the Past Tense Simple. He doesnt
live in London anymore.]
- Observe the use of the progressive aspect with how long and of the simple aspect with
how many:
How long have you been waiting for her?
How many hours have you waited for her?
- the adverbs of time recently and lately. The Present Perfect Progressive can be used
without a duration such as for ten minutes, and since morning. Without these precise
durations, this tense offers a more general meaning of lately in order to enhance this
meaning.
She has been lying about her whereabouts lately.
Recently, we have been feeling rather tired with his haughtiness.
b.
to suggest that one can see, smell, hear, or feel the results of an action that has
recently stopped.
You have been fighting again. [I can tell from your black eye.]
She has been crying. [Look, her eyes are red.]
c. to show that the action is not completed.
Who has been eating my dinner? [Some of my dinner is left.]
Who has eaten my dinner? [All my dinner is gone.]
d.

to convey feelings of irritation.


I have been demanding an explanation for hours but nobody has yet dared to
speak up.

17

III. Ways of translating


a. indicativ prezent
They have been widening the road for one week. = Lrgesc strada.
They have been eating since five oclock. = Mnnc de la ora 5.
b.
perfect compus
Who has been eating my cake? = Cine mi-a mncat din prjitur?
Perfectul compus + adverbs to render the speaker's emotions:
He's been drinking wine again! = Bineneles c iar a but vin! [That is why
hes tired/ drunk.]

B. EXERCISES
I. Complete the conversations using the present perfect simple or the past simple
of the verb in brackets.
1. I know Mr Robinson. Really? How long (you/ know) him? Oh, for quite a
long time now. When (you/ first/ meet) him? I (meet) him at Christies eight
years ago.
2. (Its 10 oclock in the morning) (you/ see) Mrs Carter this morning? Yes, I
(see) her when I (arrive) in the office, but she (go) out soon afterwards.
3. (you / ever/ visit) Switzerland? Yes, I (visit) it twice. I (visit) it two years ago,
and once when I (be) a child.
4. (Its the middle of the afternoon) Im really hungry. I (not/ have) any breakfast
this morning and I (not/ have) time to go out for anything to eat this afternoon.
II. Give an alternative for the following sentences:
1. It's years since we went to a movie.
2. It's over a month since I went to their place.
3. It's a long time since we had diner at the Decebal.
4. It's over a fortnight since he went to the barber's.
5. She went shopping twice last week.
6. They went to the park once last week.
7. Elizabeth II became queen in 1952.
8. The window got broken last week.
9. She began wearing glasses a month ago.
10. They began eating Chinese food several years ago.
III. Complete the following sentences with for or since.
1. It's a long time . you last quarrelled with anybody!
2. .. the past ten days , she's had nightmares every night.
3. . they came, ten days ago, I've been feeling rather depressed.
4. They don't think much of him as a policeman: he hasn't caught a burglar
at least seven years.
5. It seems like years . you cooked a really delicious meal.
6. you brought me that dog my cat hasn't turned up yet.
7. We haven't seen a good film . at least two months, in fact not we went to
see The Titanic together.
8. Petrol has become more and more expensive . the end of last year.
18

9. I am sitting for my portrait the last six months but the artist hasn't finished it
yet.
10. You must wake him. He's been sleeping soundly ten hours!
IV. Use the present perfect simple or progressive for the verbs in brackets:
1. She (cough) a lot lately. She ought to give up smoking.
2. You (hear) the news? Cynthia and Paul are engaged!
3. That's not new. I (know) it for ages!
4. They (walk) ten miles.
5. They (walk) for three hours.
6. You (walk). That's why you are tired.
7. She (sleep) on every bed in this house and she doesn't like any of them.
8. Why you (be) so long in the garage?
9. The tyres were flat. I ( pump) them up.
10. It (rain) for two hours and the ground is too wet to play on, so the
match (be) postponed.
V. Choose the correct variant:
1. How long .. you. your own house? A) did you paint B) do you paint C)
have you been painting D) are you painting.
2. He .. his fiance four times this week. Its Sunday evening and he gave up
calling her. A) has called B) has been calling C) called D) is calling.
3. Since his wife died, he .. .. A) has been grief-struck B) is grief-stricken C)
has been grief-stricken D) was grief-stricken.
4. The hen .. just an egg on the straw of the stable. A) laid B) has lain C) lay D)
has laid.
5. He .. his leg last week and since then he . in bed. A) has breaked B) has
broken C) broke D) breaked / A) lay B) has lain C) has been laying D) has been
lying.
6. ..... he ever . how to play chess? A) does he ever knows B) has he ever known
C) did you ever know D) does he ever know.
7. It was a terrible earthquake a few minutes ago. The tree in front of our house ..
down with a sudden crash. A) fell B) has fallen C) has falen D) felled
8. Its three weeks since I last spoke with my brother, so I .. in touch with my
brother for three weeks. A) was B) dont be C) havent been D) have been .
9. Its the first time in our family when a woman .. twins. A) bears B) has born
C) has borne D) bore.
10. After the clock .. eight, the police will start searching the thieves. A) will
strike B) has been striking C) strikes D) has struck.
VI. Put the verbs in brackets into an appropriate tense:
1. How old is your sister? Shes 20. She (read) Shakespeare as a child?
2. You (read) ever Shakespeare in the original?
3. He (lie) under that nut-tree for ages. He must have fallen asleep.
4. He told me that his elder brother (dig) a hole for three hours in order to find the
treasure.

19

5. Im quite upset. He always (ask) for my advice, but up to now he never (follow)
it.
6. She will be glad after her marriage (take) place.
7. We (get) a phone call 15 minutes ago and a man (yell) that there (be) a bomb in
our building. The police (search) for it since then but no bomb (find) yet.
8. He always (love) by women. He may be 50, but he still (have) a way of
attracting the opposite sex.
9. The table (lay) 20 minutes ago. I (not know) what you (wait) for. Why you (not
help) yourselves?, my mom asked.
10. How long you (put up with) this chatterbox? Since I (get) married.
VII. Translate into Romanian and identify the verbs underlined:
1. To the uninitiated, making a speech carries with it a certain glamour. After
having heard (you have heard) an expert, you may think, Thats as easy as
falling off a log.(The Sunday Post)
2.
But for three years, a panel of drug experts working for the US Food
and Drug Administration has been analyzing the ingredients of these patent
medicines to see if they really live up to their advertising. (Newsweek)
3.
Since the legendary Prometheus first stole the fire of heaven, virtually
all energy consumed by man has been fathered by the sun. (National
Geographic)
4.
Already the suns energy is being put to limited use in homes and
buildings around the world. (National Geographic)
5.
The blame for this situation has been laid at the door of the current
status and mood of society. (National Geographic)
VIII. Translate the following sentences into English:
1. 'De cnd se ntlnesc?' - 'Nu tiu nimic. ntreab-o pe Maria'.
2. i dau ntlniri pe holurile universitii de cnd sunt n anul I.
3. 'De cnd nu se mai neleg?' 'De vreun an, cred, se tot ceart mereu.'
4. N-am but cafea azi diminea i m doare teribil capul.
5. A muncit, srcua, toat ziua: a adunat beioare, pene i frunze s-i fac un
cuib unde s cloceasc oule.
6. Ce fata harnic eti! Ai terminat toat treaba aa c te odihneti acum, pe cnd
eu, ct mai am de lucru!
7. Niciodat n-am mai ntlnit un om aa de generos ca el!
8. Acest castel era nu de mult o ruin, dar de cnd se amenajeaz parcul parc arat
altfel.
9. Ce drum plin de gropi!' - 'Pi, n-a mai fost reparat de vreo doi ani.'
10. Nu mi-ai adresat nici un cuvnt de cnd am pit pragul acestei case.

20

1.1.7. THE PAST PERFECT SIMPLE


A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
I. FORM
a. Affirmative [the Past Tense of the auxiliary have + Past Participle of the verb]
I had forgotten/ Id forgotten
b. Negative [the Past Tense of the auxiliary have + not + Past Participle of the verb]
I had not / I hadnt forgotten
c. Interrogative [the Past Tense of the auxiliary have + subject + Past Participle of the
verb]
Had I / hadnt I forgotten?
II. USES
a. Events, states or habits anterior to a time of orientation in the past:
Even if she looked like an English girl, she had been a true-born French. [state
meaning]
I had broken my glasses, so I couldnt read. [event meaning, having a resultative
use]
Mr. Pitt shouldnt have sacked John, he had worked a lot for this company.
[habitual meaning in the past]
- Cause-effect use the situation related to the point of reference relevant for the
Past Perfect can be interpreted as the cause for the action expressed through a Past
Tense (target verb). This use can be found in narrative texts.
I felt pretty upset because of the horrible things Mary had said to me. [the effect of
me being upset was caused by what Mary had said.]
When the events are presented in the order in which they happened, a Simple Past
Tense is preferred for the target verb as well as for the verb showing the point of
reference:
Mary said some rather horrible things to me and I felt pretty upset.
b.
to express a past hope, expectation, intention or desire that was not realised.
It is used with verbs such as to hope, to expect, to intend, to mean (= to intend)or to
want
We had hoped that you would be able to get that contract.
I had meant / intended to call on our bankers, but I was prevented from doing
so.
She had thought of paying us a visit but the bad weather made her change her
plans.
c. to express a past action that becomes the background for another action in the past,
thus showing a sequence of events. We can use it with the following conjunctions:
when, before, after, until, once, now that, and as soon as that introduce adverbial clauses
of time.
I reached the company after Mr. Woods had heard the news.
I didnt reach the company until after Mr. Woods had heard the news.
21

Mr. Woods (had) heard the news before I reached the company.
In adverbial clauses of time in order to express a future action that takes place
before another action expressed by a Future-in-the-Past:
She told me1/ she would pay me a visit2/ after I had come back from the city3/.
In adverbial clauses of time introduced by restrictive adverbs such as hardly/ barely/
scarcely/ no sooner, the past action is shown to be finished a little time before
another past action. Each adverb triggers inversion in the subordinate clause and it
has a correlative in the main clause.
No sooner had the curtain fallen than they rose to go.
Hardly / scarcely had I entered the door when the telephone rang.
d.
The Past Perfect is common in reported/ indirect speech to express a Present
Perfect or a Past Tense from Direct Speech.
I have already read the report. (DS) - She told me that she had already read
the report.(IS)
They left the Stock Exchange a few months ago'. (DS) - I was told that they had
left the Stock Exchange a few months before / earlier / previously. (IS)
III. Ways of translating the Past Perfect Simple into Romanian
a. perfect compus/ mai-mult-ca-perfect:
I knew Romeo but I hadn't seen him since my marriage. = l cunoteam pe
Romeo dar nu l-am vzut/ nu-l vzusem de cnd m-am cstorit.
b. perfect simplu:
He started the car after he had checked the engine. = oferul porni maina
dup ce verific motorul.
c. viitor:
He said he would give her a gold brooch after they had got married. = A spus
c-i va da o broa de aur dup ce se vor cstori.

1.1.8. THE PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE


A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
I. FORM
a.
Affirmative [the past tense of to have + been past participle - + present
participle of the verb]: I had been/ Id had been waiting for Ann since two oclock.
b.
Negative: I had not been/ I hadnt been waiting for you.
c.
Interrogative: Had he been/ hadnt he been waiting for us?
II. USES
The Past Perfect Progressive is used:
a. to show an activity or event, which had been in progress up to a past moment (in
other words, we can say that something had been happening for a period of time before
something else happened).
Mr. Woods had been working for 30 years when he finally retired in 1995. [a
habit in the past = recurrent event]
Ken gave up smoking two years ago. He had been smoking for 17 years.
22

To underline the continuity of a past action up to a past moment or just before it. It
does not express a frequently repeated situation (habit meaning) in the past, as the two
sentences above::
I had been waiting for her for half an hour when she finally arrived.
They had been working since eleven oclock.
b.

to show that the effect of the action is still apparent.


She told me that her son had been fighting. [the result is his blue eye].

c. to convey the speakers emotions of irritation .


I had been trying for hours to get our customer in Baghdad on the
phone. [besides the meaning of an action that seems to have been
happening for a long time, we might sense a tone of irritation]
d. in Indirect Speech, in order to express a Past Tense Progressive or a Present Perfect
Progressive from Direct Speech:
I was reading a novel at six oclock yesterday, Ann told to her friend. (D.S)Ann explained to her friend that that she had been reading a novel at six
oclock. (I.S)
We have been taking English classes for two years, they explained to their
teacher. (D.S)- The children explained to their teacher that they had been taking
English courses for two years. (I.S)
Have you been crying? (D.S) - She was asked whether she had been crying.
(I.S)
III. Ways of translating into Romanian
a. mai-mult-ca-perfect/ perfect compus/ perfect simplu (in narrative texts):
Mr. Woods had been working for 30 years when he finally retired in 1995. =
Domnul Woods lucrase/ a lucrat/ lucr timp de 30 de ani cnd n cele din urm
s-a pensionat/ se pension n 1995.
b. imperfect:
I had been driving for twenty minutes when I ran out of petrol. = Conduceam de
douzeci de minute cnd am rmas fr benzin.
c. perfect compus (for the emotional use):
I had been trying for hours to get our customer in Baghdad on the phone. = Ore
ntregi am ncercat s-l prind la telefon pe clientul nostru n Baghdad. [This
emotional use is rendered in Romanian by placing the adverb of time at the
beginning of the sentence.]
d. prezent:
She said she had been waiting for her friend for half an hour. = A spus c o
ateapt pe prietena ei de o jumtate de or.

23

B. EXERCISES
I. Starting from the information given, complete each sentence with a suitable verb
in the Past Perfect Simple or Progressive.
1. Maggie worked in the garden all afternoon. Then she took a hot bath.
Maggie took a hot bath because .. in the garden all afternoon.
2. Mary came top in the final examination. Her father bought her a car as a reward.
Marys father bought her a car because she . top in the final exam.
3. Henry came home from work early. He cooked lunch. His family were very
impressed.
Henrys family were very impressed to discover that he . lunch when he
came home from work early.
4. I lost my watch. We had looked for it for hours. I was very pleased when my
son found it.
I was very pleased when my son found my watch because we . for it for hours.
5. Ann worked very hard all morning. Her boss gave her an extra half hour for
lunch. She boasted about it.
Ann boasted that her boss . her an extra half hour for lunch because she
. very hard all morning.
6. Patrick went to the disco. He came home very late. His mother was worried and
she told him off when he got in.
Patricks mother told him off when he came home late because she . about
him all evening.
II. Put the verbs in brackets into a suitable past tense (Past Tense or Past Perfect):
1. We (try) to find new services which (be) sophisticated and (have) added value.
2. When (you/meet) the company accountant?
3. When (you/be) in this house last?
4. I (look) everywhere for ideas since I failed to hand in that project.
5. Yesterday, at the party he (feel) out of place in your suit and tie.
6. He (always / look) so young, but he (seem) to have aged in the last weeks.
7. Mary (discover) an addiction to housework which she (never/feel) before.
8. They (have) no money because they (spend) everything on duty free whisky.
9. I (realise) someone (use) my camera because there were finger marks on the
lens.
10. They (say) heavy industry (pollute) our rivers with noxious chemicals for ages.
III. Read the situations and write sentences ending with BEFORE. Use the verb
given in brackets.
1. The man sitting next to me on the plane was very nervous. It was his first flight.
(fly) He
2. A woman walked into the room. She was a complete stranger to me.
(see) I ..
3. Simon played tennis yesterday. He wasnt very good at it because it was his first
game.
(play) He
4. Last year we went to Denmark. It was our first time there.
(be) We
24

5. They concluded a contract two weeks ago. It was their first contract.
(sign) They ..........
IV. Fill in the blank spaces using the verbs in the brackets and paying attention to
the sequence of events in order to get meaningful events.
1. We arrived at work in the morning and found that somebody . the
office during the night. So we .. (to break into, to call)
2. I tried to phone Mr. Richards this morning but . no answer. He . . (to be, to
go out)
3. I met Jim a few days ago. He . just .. He .. (to come back, to look)
4. Yesterday Kevin .. He . very surprised. He . many times but
they .. (to get, to be, to write, to reply)
5. I arrived at the company for an interview at 12.30 as I .. the assistant
marketing manager the previous month. To my surprise I .. my husband in there
who .. (to apply, to find, to wait)
V. Choose the best alternative to complete each sentence:
1.
We.Netherlands last summer.
a) have visited/ - b) had visited/ the
c) visited/ - d) visited/ the
2.
After eight years Ithat all the time I..to my girl
friend her sistermy letters.
a) discovered/ was writing/ had read
b) had discovered/ had written/ had been
reading
c) discovered/ had been writing/ had been reading d) had discovered/
had been writing/ had been reading
3.
By the time we got home, Marys aunt.already. .
a) left
b) has left
c) will have left
d) had left
4.
The police officers.for the thieves for two days when they found
them near the village.
a) was looking
b) has been looking c) had been looking d)are looking
5.
Look, he has cuts on his legs. He ........ a lot during the football match.
a) had fallen over b) has been falling over
c) has fallen over
d) fell over
6.
He ..... never a princess in the flesh, but he hopes that he will have the
chance one day.
a) saw
b) was seeing
c) hasnt seen
d) has seen
7.
Its over a year since anyone ...... William.
a) has spoken withb) spoke with
c) had spoken
d) has been speaking with
8.
Last year when I was in France, I ....... a French princess in the flesh.
a) have seen
b) was seeing c) saw d) had seen
VI. Rewrite each sentence beginning as shown:
1. Id like to say sorry I missed your wedding, Joan said.
John apologised..
2. I met Mary as soon as I left home.
I had no sooner
3. I caught flu as soon as I had recovered from measles.
I had hardly
4. The train had left before we got to the station.
By the time

25

7. The man sitting next to me on the plane was very nervous because it was his first
flight.
He
5. They got on the train and immediately it left.
Hardly..
6. Alice had no sooner sung a song than she began another.
No sooner..
7. I realised my mistake after Id handed in the test.
I didnt realise my mistake until..
8. I havent played football for two weeks:
Its two weeks
VII. Correct the following mistakes:
1. The train left before I arrived.
2. Almost all the guests left by the time we had arrived.
3. Scarcely Sandra had come in than she started work.
4. I just got into bed when somebody knock at the door.
5. The car changed its direction when it hit the tree.
6. The grass was wet because it had raining all day yesterday.
7. Why did you left when he call on you?
8. How long they go out together when they finally get married?
9. The telephone rang for almost a minute when I got into the room. I was
wondering why nobody hadnt answered it.
10. The minute he entered, a horrible idea had stricken me.
VIII. Translate into English:
1. Intrunirea tocmai incepuse cand am intrat.
2. In ianuarie am obtinut rezultate mai bune decat se asteptase oricine.
3. Familia Miller a locuit in casa aceea treizeci de ani, pana cand a distrus-o un
cutremur.
4. Baiatul arata ca asi cum nu s-ar fi spalat niciodata pe maini.
5. Proiectantul facuse patru schite inainte de a se apuca de proiect.
6. Nu-i de mirare ca nu am recunoscut-o ieri pe Judith. Isi vopsise parul.
7. Din pacate, vasul s-a scufundat inainte ca elicopterul sa ajunga la locul
dezastrului.
8. Mi-era asa de foame, ca am mancat florile pana sa vina chelnerul.
9. De cat timp se cunosteau cand Tina s-a casatorit cu Robert?
10. Am verificat preturile mai multor companii occidentale inainte de a incepe sa
importam aceste video-recordere din Singapore.

26

1.1.9. THE FUTURE AND FUTURITY


A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
In Modern English futurity is closely interrelated with modality. That is why
there is no future tense proper in English, in the sense of a specific form the verb takes
to signal futurity. Instead, futurity, intermingle with modality or aspect, is rendered by
means of modal auxiliaries/ semi-auxiliaries and other linguistic patterns that contain
future meaning.
She will arrive tomorrow.
Besides the different tenses expressing futurity (discussed in the other chapters),
there are certain adverbials that place an event/ state on the axis of future:
- explicitly future time adverbials: tomorrow, next/ week/ month/ year, in a day/
week/ month/ year
- unanchored adverbials (in May, on Monday, in spring) whose future
interpretation depends on the context.
I. FORMS AND PATTERNS USED TO TALK ABOUT A FUTURE EVENT
a. Future Simple [Will/ shall + Infinitive]
They will confess their crime.
b. Future Progressive/ Continuous [Will/ shall +Progressive infinitive = be + Ving]
This time next month we will be visiting the Louvre museum.
c. Future Perfect [Will/ shall + have + past participle of the verb]
They will have brought up the furniture by then.
d. Future Perfect Progressive / Continuous [Will/ shall + have been + the present
participle of the verb]
He will have been driving the same truck for two years in September.
e. Be going to + Infinitive
f. Present Progressive/ Continuous
g. Simple Present
h. Be to + the infinitive of the verb
i. Be about to + the infinitive of the verb
j. Be on the point / verge of + gerund
k. Be due to + the infinitive of the verb
II. USES
The above forms and patterns are used to express the following concepts and types of
future events:
a. Predictions:

FUTURE SIMPLE: Jane will still be in Paris in five months.

BE GOING TO + INFINITIVE: Look at Jane. Shes going to have a baby.


Look out! That brick is going to fall!

a temporary event going on at a future reference time (FUTURE


PROGRESSIVE): This time next year Ill be teaching English. [the prediction is the
following: this time next year, the activity of teaching English is in progress.]

27


a present event ( FUTURE SIMPLE):Someone is shouting. Itll be
Marys daughter.

an event the speaker expects to be completed by a particular future reference


time (FUTURE PERFECT): Theyll have filled in the application by the time you
arrive. [we generally use adverbs such as: by then, soon, within the next, hour/
week]

a future event which is probable/ improbable to happen (BE LIKELY/


UNLIKELY TO + INFINITIVE): Hes likely to run out of petrol.
b. Intentions and decisions
made during the speech event (WILL + INFINITIVE): Ive run out of money.
Dont worry. Ill lend you some.
that have already been decided on before the speech event; premeditated (BE
GOING TO + INFINITIVE): What are you going to do today? Im going to lie in
bed all day..
c. Arrangements
personal arrangement for the near future (PRESENT PROGRESSIVE):
Im seeing my dentist tomorrow.
an event arranged by external factors (SIMPLE PRESENT ):
Mary works in the marketing department next week. [the decision was taken by
the manager, who is an exterior authority]
a polite way of refusing an invitation or asking about someones arrangements
(FUTURE PROGRESSIVE):Your birthday? Im really sorry. But Ill be sitting
for the English exam on Saturday.
official arrangements, when the event cannot be changed (BE TO +
INFINITIVE):
All the students are to be present in the schoolyard at 5 p.m.
d. Timetabled events (the subject is not human, it refers to institutions or things whose
going-on is scheduled by an external authority.)
PRESENT SIMPLE
The plain takes off at 7 p.m. tomorrow.
BE DUE TO + INFINITIVE (timetable may change)
The show is due to start at 8 p.m. but the rain may delay it.
e. Formal commands and instructions (BE TO + INFINITIVE):
You are not to go to the library this week.
f. An event that is about to happen
BE ABOUT TO + INFINITIVE
Hurry up. Hes (just) about to get on the bus.
BE ON THE POINT OF / ON THE VERGE OF + V-ing
Dont disturb him now. Hes on the point of falling asleep.
She is on the verge of bursting into tears.
BE GOING TO + INFINITIVE

28

Look at that old lady! Shes going to fall!


g. Willingness, refusal
subjects willingness to do something (WILL + INFINITVE)
Hell do anything for money.
determination, insistence (WILL + INFINITIVE)
I wll date him, whatever your sister says. (will is stressed)
refusal to do something (WONT / SHANT + INFINITIVE)
Believe me. He wont come.
h. Offers (WILL/SHALL/WONT + INFINITIVE)
Sit down. Ill do it for you.
Shall I do it for you?
Will you have another helping?
i. Promises (WILL + INFINITIVE)
Dont worry. My secretary will take care of you.
j. Requests
Will you give me a hand? [to be more polite use would you] (informal)
Give me a hand, will you? (insistent request)
k. Orders / Instructions (formal documents)
You will/shall keep an eye on the students till they finish their papers.
Each animal shall be confined in a container.
l. Routine, habitual future events
the speaker sees a future event as certain because it is part of a routine
(FUTURE PROGRESSIVE):
Well be having our monthly meeting on Thursday.
habits, characteristic behavior (WILL + INFINITIVE)
His elder sister will always be the first to leave the party.
Boys will be boys.
the speaker makes a statement of fact about a future event (WILL +
INFINITIVE)
The sun will rise at 6.00 tomorrow morning.
m. Future in the Past (FIP)
There are situations in which we have to express a future event from a viewpoint in
the past. In order to do that, we transfer the forms with future meaning in the past:
would + infinitive : in reported speech, involving a sequence of events
I hope youll water the whole garden. (future)
I hoped you would water the whole garden. (FIP)
would + progressive infinitive (future progressive): in reported speech, involving
a sequence of events
I think youll be selling furniture in two weeks time. (future)
29

I thought youd be selling furniture in two weeks time. (FIP)


would + have + past participle (future perfect in the past): in reported speech,
involving a sequence of events
They will have sold all the goods by Monday. (future)
I was sure they would have sold the all the goods by Monday. (FIP)
III. Ways of translating future
a. prezent/ viitor (in main clauses)
The train for Paris leaves at 6. = Trenul pentru Paris pleac la 6.
I ll be helping him tomorrow. = Mine il ajut.
Im going to meet Tom. = l voi intlni/ Intenionez/ Am de gnd s-l intlnesc
pe Tom.
He is about to leave/ on the point of leaving. = E gata s plece/ E pe punctul de
a pleca
Dont bother. Ill drive you. = Te duc/ voi duce eu.
b. viitor/ viitor anterior (in main clauses)
Ill have finished by six pm. = Voi termina/ voi fi terminatpn la
c. viitor/ prezent (in direct object clauses and adverbial clauses of condition and time)
He said he would be back = A spus c se va ntoarce
He will accept the proposal if I tell him the truth. = Va acceptadac i voi spune/ i
spun
d. viitor anterior/ viitor (in adverbial clauses of time)
The children will playafter they have finished[se vor jucadup ce vor fi
terminat / vor termina]

B. EXERCISES
I. Put the verbs in brackets into an appropriate tense:
1. How you (get) to the party tomorrow?
2. My friend (sit) for an exam on Monday.
3. He (sing) in Paris next week.
4. I (take) my parents to the ballet tomorrow.
5. They (play) some Beethoven next.
6. Its eight. Peter (call) for you at nine.
7. We (meet) him at the airport at five.
8. Hurry up! The train (leave) in a minute.
9. We (leave) as soon as it (cease) raining.
10. She told me she (see) the doctor at five p.m. the day after tomorrow.
II. Replace be going to by will / shall + be + V -ing (future progressive) and show the
differences in meaning (mention whether they are interchangeable):
1. Are you going to sleep in the armchair?
2. Are you going to take it with you?
3. Are you going to spend your money in a hotel?
4. Are you going to tell him the truth?
5. Are you going to make all the arrangements?
30

6. Are you going to discuss the matter with your mates?


7. Are you going to sing at the concert tonight?
8. Are you going to come by air?
9. Are you going to creep up the stairs?
10. Are you going to take your medicine?
III. Put the verbs in brackets into the going to form and make a context for each
sentence:
1. When the gardener (water) the flowers?
Model: When is the gardener going to water the garden?
Context: He should have done it two days ago, when I told him to.
2. Ann (miss) her bus.
3. This airplane (crash)
4. The petrol tank (explode).
5. What your teacher (do) with that big dictionary?
6. It (snow). Look at the sky.
7. I (plant) an oak tree here.
8. You (tell) me the whole story?
9. I (give) you one of these pills.
10. How much you (give) me for this book?
IV. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tense (present, present perfect,
future):
1. Ill wait for her in the restaurant till the clock (strike) four.
2. If you accept the bargain you (have) to pay for it.
3. When we (provide) all the facilities well speak about leaving the country.
4. If this terrible heat (not come) to an end well suffer from hunger next year.
5. This device is cheap and useful. I think I (buy) it.
6. What (you do) this weekend? I was thinking of visiting the international
exhibition of furniture.
7. All right. Ive put the spare part where you told me. Now what I (do) next?
8. What (offer) your daughter for her graduation?
9. In three days time I (fly) over the Atlantic ocean.
10. Theres someone at the door. That (be) Mr. Brown, the governor.
V. Choose the correct form of the verb:
1. Pour boiling water on the coffee grounds, wait till the grounds , then strain it
into a clean jug.
a) will settle
b) settle
c) are settling
d) have settled
2. John said he would give me a ring as soon as he Paris.
a) reaches b) reached
c) will reach
d) will be reaching
3. He visits a new country every year. By the time he fifty he all the countries
in the world.
a) is
b) will have visited
c) will be
d) has visited
4. By the end of the year all our debts .
a) will have been paid off b) will be paid off
c) will be being paid off
d) are
paid off
5. It's no use phoning Irene at the office, she

31

a) will be leaving b) is leaving


c) will have left
d) will left
6. Couldn't they stay in your spare room at Easter? Yes, I it by then.
a) will have decorated
b) will be decorating
c) will decorate
d) am going to decorate
7. Your hair is getting terribly long. Don't worry, I it cut on Wednesday.
a) will be getting b) will get
c) get
d) will have got
8. She can't come to the beach with us because she an exam on Sunday.
a) will be taking b) will take c) will have taken
d) takes
9. He will recognize her at once when he her.
a) will see
b) sees
c) will be seeing
d) is seeing
10. According to the latest forecast, the tunnel next year.
a) will be finished b) will have been finished
c) is finishing
d) finishes
VI. Rephrase each sentence so that it contains the word in capitals. Do not change
the word in any way:
1.
What time is the train for Paris?
leave
Model: What time does the train for Paris leave?
2. What does your boy friend intend to do?
going
3. If he isnt ill youll find him playing tennis in the court.
unless
4. The members of the crew have planned to leave the ship tomorrow.
leave
5. The aircraft is on the point of landing.
about
6. His wife is pregnant again.
have
7. Im bound to work here till the end of my life.
wont
8. You can be sure that at the end of the school the car will be in front of the house.
have
9. His fate is to become a great singer.
be
10. The show will start in half an hour.
start
VII. Use the word or phrase given so that the meaning stays the same
Example: The result of our appeal against the parking fine should arrive in the
post tomorrow. (due) - The result of our appeal against the parking
fine is due tomorrow.
1. Do not disturb the chimpanzees during feeding time. (disturbed)
2. Turn that music down! Its so loud that itll definitely wake all the neighbors.
(bound)
3. Scientists in the human genome project feel that they are about to discover the
secret of life. (discovering)
4. Will you promise that you wont get drunk again tonight? (not to)

32

5. It is probable that the road-sweeping contract will be withdrawn from Dustbugs.


(likely to)
6. Everyone in the village lived in fear of the volcanic eruption, which was
imminent.
(impending)
7. The designer believes that he will he be able to finish the specifications by
tomorrow
afternoon. (envisages)
8. I really dont think that the examiner will accept a handwritten script these days.
(unlikely to)
9. Please make your purchases and proceed to a check out. The store is going to
close in five minutes. (about)
10. If we want medical research to provide cures for all known diseases, it must be
adequately funded. (is)
VIII. Translate into English:
1. Il voi ajuta dup ce mi va spune cum s-au petrecut lucrurile.
2. Nu te culca nainte de a-i lua medicamentul.
3. Tu nu vezi? O s plou cu gleata.
4. Dac Irina va gsi cartea, o va cumpra.
5. Pn s ncepi tu nuvela, el va fi terminat romanul.
6. Nu credeam c la ora aceea tu vei mai cnta la pian.
7. Unde mncm n seara asta? La bunica?
8. Cu siguran o s ncerce s v fac s credei c e nevinovat.
9. Cnd vei ajunge tu student, eu voi fi terminat deja facultatea.
10. Ne amenin c o s ne dea pe toi afar pentru c susinea el c nu suntem buni
de nimic.

33

1.1.10. MODALS AND SEMI-MODALS


A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
I. MODALS
There are nine central modals in English. (Other terms used for them are modal
verbs and modal auxiliaries and modal auxiliary verbs.) They are used to add
meaning to a main verb, for example to indicate how certain, possible, probable,
necessary, obligatory something is, or how frequently something happens, or whether a
course of action is recommended or allowed.
Can/ could; may/might;must; shall/should; will/would
Note: Need to, dare to, ought to are marginal modals. However, one semimodal which is
frequently used is have (got)to.
CAN
FORM
a. Affirmative: can
b.
Negative:
cannot, cant (used only in spoken and informal written
English)
c. Interrogative: can + subject + infinitive
USES
a. Can expresses permission
Can he stay a little longer?
They cant have lunch at 12.
b. Can expresses ability (can=be able to)
physical power/capacity: Can you lift this piece of furniture?
knowledge/skill: Can they solve this problem?
circumstances: Can Susan come to our meeting on Wednesday? ( it may be
paraphrased by be in position to: Is Susan free to do so? Is Susan in a position to
do so?
c. Can expresses negative deduction:
Jane cant be working so long.
Jane cant have much experience in teaching.
Jane cant have taken your money.
(in my opinion its impossible)
d. In questions, in conversation, can is used:
to make suggestions
to offer to do something or to make polite requests by either asking people to do
things or asking for things.
What can I do around here?
Hello Paul. What can we do for you?

34

COULD
FORM
a.Affirmative: could
b.
Negative:
could not; couldnt (used only in spoken and informal written
English)
c.Interrogative: could + subject + infinitive
USES
a. Could expresses ability (be able to)
Tom could run ten miles when he was young. (=was able to)
b. Could expresses condition:
I could buy you a book. (if I want)
Couldnt he fiind a better job? (if he wanted)
c. Could have done expresses:
i. an action which is not performed:
He could have helped you (but he didnt)
ii. an action which in our opinion has not taken place
She couldnt have overslept (it my opinion it isnt possible)
They couldnt have waited for two hours. (Its out of the question)
The patterns could + bare infinitive and could + have + past participle are used to talk
about possibility in the past.
I remember how it could snow in the mountains even in summer.
I cant find my keys anywhere. You could have left them in your office.
d. In conversation, could is used to mark a present or future possibility. .
Wheres Peter? He could be in the study. (=Perhaps he is in the study)
Note: with could in this use the degree of possibility is less sure than with may
or might.
e. Couldnt as an extinction of can be used in not-so-polite requests.
Couldnt you (wouldnt it be possible for you to) give me your phone number?
Could not and couldnt are used with comparatives to emphasize that someone
or something has as much as is possible of a particular quality (possibility or
impossibility).
Mary couldnt be happier. (=Mary is very happy indeed)
The news couldnt have come at a better time.
MAY
FORM
a.Affirmative: may
b. Negative: may not
c.Interrogative: may + subject + infinitive
USES
a. May expresses (a) asking for permission as well as in (b) granting permission.
Excuse me. May I have a look at your newspaper?
Could I make a suggestion? Of course, you may.
May also indicates that someone is allowed to do something or has the choice of
doing something, usually because of a rule or law. May not indicates that someone is not

35

allowed to do something (=prohibition). This second use is chiefly limited to quick


responses to may.
Any two persons may marry in Scotland provided that both persons are at least
16 years of age on the day of their marriage.
May I join your trip? No, you may not!
b. May expresses possibility in the present and in the future:
Dont phone at 9.30. I may be watching the documentary film on television.
Theres someone at the door. It may be Peter. (=Perhaps it is Peter)
I havent decided yet where to spend my holidays. I may go to Greece. (Perhaps
I will go to Greece)
c. May/might+have+Past Participle expresses posibility about a past action:
The events may or may not have been connected. (its possible that they were
connected)
The chaos may have contributed to the deaths of up to 20 people. (its possible
that it has contributed)
d. For offers and polite requests:
May we recommended a weekend on the Black Sea Coast?
Do sit down. And may we offer you something to drink?
May I come with you to the conference?
e. In formal spoken English, may is also used as a polite way of interrupting someone,
asking a question or introducing what the speaker is going to say next.
If I may interrupt for a moment, John said.
Anyway, may I just ask you one other thing?
f. May is used when the speaker is mentioning the reaction or attitude that he/she thinks
someone is likely to have to something he/she is about to say.
You know, Brian, whatever you may think, I work hard for a living.
MIGHT
FORM
a.Affirmative: might
b.
Negative:
might not; mightnt (used only in spoken and informal written
English)
c.Interrogative might + subject + infinitive
USES
a. Might can be used to ask for permission in a less direct way. It is similar to could,
when used as a polite way of interrupting someone, asking a question, making a
suggestion, or introducing what the speaker is going to say next.
Might I make a suggestion?
Might I ask what youre doing here?
b. In conversation, might is used to talk about present or future possibility.
We arent sure what we are going to do next weekend. We might go in the
mountains. (=Perhaps we will go to the mountains.)
c. We can use might + have + past participle to talk about possibility in the past.
Betsy is late. She might have missed her train. (=Perhaps she missed / had
missed her train).
d.Might (not) + have + past participle is used to express uncertainty

36

I suppose I might have been rather critical.


They might not have received our message yet.
e. Might + have + past participle is used to express annoyance at someones failure to
do something (See similar pattern with could in this emphatical use of expressing the
speakers annoyance)
You might have told me before!
f. In conversation, might is used to make a suggestion or to give advice in a very polite
way.
They might be wise to stop advertising on television.
It might be a good idea to tell your husband.
g. Might is used in idiomatic expressions such as I might add and I might say in order
to emphasize a statement that the speaker is making.
Relatives ring up constantly, not always for the best motives, I might add.
I didnt come as a great surprise to me, I might say.
MUST
FORM
a.Affirmative form: must
b.
Negative form:
must not, mustnt (used only in spoken and informal
written English)
c.Interrogative form: must + subject + infinitive
USES
a. Must/have to/have got to express obligation: (trebuie)
I must be there before 2.
I have to be there before 2.
Ive got to be there before 2. (British English)
Sometimes the context allows the use of either must or have to, depending on whether
the speaker feels that the obligation comes from herself-himself or from elsewhere.
Now I must/have (got) to get your clothes ready for packing.
I see youre got only three decent shirts; your must/ll have to buy some more
when you get there.
b. Must not expresses prohibition: (nu trebuie)
You must not come late to lectures
c. Must expresses deduction:
She must be rich (=Im sure she is rich)
The past form of this construction is:
She must have been rich when she was young. (=Im sure she was rich)
d. Must in conversation is used most of the time to mark logical necessity.
Anns mum must not care.
Your feet must feel wet now.
e. Must + bare infinitive refers to the speakers certainty about a present action.
Its not very warm and youre not wearing a coat. You must be cold. (=I am sure
that you are cold).
f. Must expresses the speakers intention to do something
I must be getting back.
g. Must is used to make suggestions or invitations very forcefully.

37

You must see the painting George has given me as a wedding present.
You must visit me. Come to dinner.
h. Must is used in remarks and comments where the speaker is expressing sympathy.
This must be a very difficult job for you.
You must be very worried by now.
i. Must is used in exclamations to express surprise or shock.
Go! Please go. You must be joking!
I really must be quite mad!
You must have gone out of your mind!
SHALL
FORM
a.Affirmative: shall
b.
Negative:
shall not
c.Interrogative:shall + subject + infinitive?
USES
a. Shall can be used with all persons to emphasize something which the speaker feels is
certain to happen or wants to happen.
I shall definitely help him to finish his work. (conversation).
I shall try to show that our political practices accept integrity as a distinct
virtue (academic prose)
b. In conversation, shall is typically used as a volitional modal in questions acting as
offers or suggestions. (Note that shall is associated with I and we in questions.)
Shall we post this letter for you?
Shall we play tennis tomorrow?
WILL
FORM
a.Affirmative: will
b. Negative: will not, wont (only in spoken English and informal written
English)
c.Interrogative:will + subject + infinitive
USES
a. Will expresses prediction of events or states not involving personal agents.
In conversation, will is commonly used to mark logical prediction as well as personal
volition (and prediction of ones own future actions).
I will say no more on these matters, important though they are.
He will be devoting more time to writing, broadcasting and lecturing.
I wont be here early enough to show you before school.
b. Will marking assumption
It wont be that difficult to do.
c. Will is used in questions in order to make polite invitations or offers
Will you stay for dinner?
Wont you sit down?
d. Will is also used in questions in order to ask or tell someone to do something
(volition).

38

Will you drive me home?


Wipe the jam off my mouth, will you?
(Would can be used as a less definite, more polite form of will in this meaning; see
would in this use).
e. Will (related to the present) refers to activities or events that are repeated and which
we notice, such as peoples habits or characteristics of things
Kate is very kind. Shell always help people if she can.
Art thieves will often hide an important work for years after it has been stolen.
In the Western Isles itll rain for days on end.
WOULD
FORM
a.Affirmative: would; d (in spoken and informal written english often abbreviated)
b.
Negative:
would not; wouldnt (used only in spoken and informal written
English)
c.Interrogative: would + subject + infinitive
USES
a. Would expresses prediction. of events or states not involving personal agents. The
meaning is past of hypothetical.
Cheap money would have the same effect by increasing private investment.
I would just read the book as well.
b. Would marking assumption
She would just feel better if she went out.
c.Would is used in questions in order to make polite invitations, offers or requests:
Would you like a drink?
Would you prefer to stay in or go out this evening?
d. Would not may expresses refusal in the past. It may also express refusal in inanimate
objects.
I knew Trevor wouldnt come with me.
The paint wouldnt stick to the wallpaper.
e. Would is used in sentences expressing certainty, where the sentence is a suppressed
conditional sentence.
Nobody would agree with that idea. (if we asked them)
SHOULD
FORM
a.Affirmative: should (note that should as a modal is never contracted to d, unlike
conditional should)
b.
Negative: should not, shouldnt (used only in spoken and informal written
English)
c.Interrogative: should + subject + infinitive
USES
a. Should is related to expectation

39

(Where* should appears, ought to is also possible. Should and ought to are very similar
in meaning, but we often prefer ought to to talk about authority which comes from
outside the speaker e.g. from laws.)
This restaurant* should really be very expensive.
2. Should + have + past participle is used to refer to something which was supposed to
happen.
It should have rained. (but it didnt)
3. Should is used for duty and advisability.
People* should let one know before failing to keep an appointment. (duty)
I think you* should check to see if our Austrian partners are coming
(advisability)
4. Should + have + past participle is used to express the non-fulfilment of a duty.
They* should have let us know that they werent coming.
5. In conversation, in questions should is used when the speaker is asking someone for
advice, permission, or information. (The speakers questions involve a degree of
uncertainty)
Should I or shouldnt I go to university?
What should I do?
Should we tell her about it?
6.. In writing, should can be used to express a strong obligation politely.
Guests should vacate their rooms by midday.
NEED
FORM
a.Affirmative: need
b.
Negative: need not, neednt ;do/does/did not need to, dont/doesnt/didnt need
to
c.Interrogative:need + subject + infinitive; do/does/did+ subject + need to+
infinitive
USES
a. neednt/dont need to express absence of obligation
You neednt do it now. (Its not necessary-according to the speaker)
You dont need to do it now. (Its not necessary-external circumstances do not
require the action to be performed)
Interrogative forms are the following:
Need I go there? No, you neednt. Yes, you must.
Does he need to go there? Yes, he does/No, he doesnt.
b. didnt need to expresses absence of obligation in the past:
I didnt need to wait (And so I didnt wait) N-a fost nevoie sa astept.
They didnt need to do anything (And so they didnt do anything) N-a fost nevoie
ca ei sa faca ceva.
c. neednt +have+ Past Participle expresses an unnecessary action which was
performed:
I neednt have waited. (but I did) Nu era nevoie sa astept.
He neednt have taken a taxi. (but he did) Nu era nevoie sa ia un taxi.

40

HAVE TO
FORM
a.Affirmative: has/have/had to
b.
Negative: doesnt/dont/didnt have to
c.Interrogative: does/do/did + subject + have to+infinitive?
USES
a. Have to expresses the external obligation that has its origin in circumstance
(necessity) or in a person other than the speaker or writer.
I have to be home by 10 oclock. (My parents insist.)
We have to drive on the left in Britain. (That is the law.)
Note: that have to is used to replace must where the modal does not have
corresponding forms.
b. We normally use have to, not have got to, for things that happen repeatedly,
especially when we use one word adverb of frequency (always, often).
I always have to work late on Tuesdays evenings.
Ive got to work late this evening.
c. Have to + bare infinitive refers to a past obligation. (Note: have got to is not used to
talk about the past, we normally use had to.)
We had to go to Germany.
d. Dont have to and wont have to are used to express absence of obligation in the
present and future.
I dont have to leave for another conference.
I hope the plane leaves on time and that I wont have to wait at the airport.
e. Didnt have to expresses the absence of obligation in the past when the speaker did
not do anything because it was not necessary. (Note: neednt have is used when the
speaker did do something although it was not necessary.)
They didnt have to pay tax.
The last time you went you took Hong Kong dollars with you. Yes, but I
neednt have; its easy to change money when you get there.
II. There are a number of fixed idiomatic phrases with functions similar to those of
modals.
be able to; be bound to; would rathe; be supposed;would do well to;had best;be
going to;be liable to; would just as soon;be sure to;had better;be meant to; would
sooner;be unable to;
HAD BETTER
FORM
a. Affirmative: had better; d better
b. Negative: had better not
c. Interrogative: had+S+better+inginitive?
USES
a. Had better + bare infinitive expresses a strong recommendation in a particular
situation.
Im going to an interview tomorrow. Id better iron my shirt.

41

Its going to be cold tonight. Wed better turn on the heating.


Note: that we always use had (not have) with better in this structure, but the meaning
is present or future, not past.
b. Had better often suggests a kind of threat or warning, and is stronger than should or
ought to.

B. EXERCISES
I. Replace the words in italics with a construction using a modal verb related to
ability/ inability, permission/ prohibition or possibility/ impossibility.
1. I was able to speak German quite well as a child.
2. Did you hear that sharp noise? I think its possible that one of the book shelves
has broken in the study next door.
3. The company say theyre able to keep pricing competitive.
4. Its possible to fool all the people some of the time and some of the people all
the time, but its impossible to fool all the people all of the time. (Abraham
Lincoln in this, his famous saying, used you, not one).
5. Would you allow me to use your laptop computer for a moment? Its possible
that my computer has a bug in the software.
6. They were able to work together very efficiently.
7. Would you allow me to make one small suggestion? she said.
8. It was impossible for anyone to get in because no one knew the password.
9. The children are not allowed to watch violent TV programmes.
10. Later, at a news conference, Mr. Peel was able to convince the competition that
it would be possible for them to become partners in that huge long-term project.
II. Read the situations and make sentences from the words in brackets. Use may or
might.
a. Why didnt Tim answer the phone? Im sure he was in the house at the time.
1. (he/ be/ in the bath).
2. (he/ not/ hear/ the telephone).
b. I cant find Helen anywhere. I wonder where she is.
1. (she/ go/ shopping).
2. (she/ play/ tennis).
c. I cant find my umbrella. Have you seen it?
1. (it/ be/ in the car).
2. (you/ leave/ in the office).
d. Im looking for Bob. Do you know where he is?
1. (he/ watch/ TV/ in his room).
2. (she/go/ out ).
III. Read the situations and use the words in brackets to write sentences with must
have and cant have.

42

1. I was woken up in the middle of the night by the noise next door. (the
neighbours/ have/ a party)
.
2. Fiona did the opposite of what I asked her to do. (she/ understand/ what I said)

3. Ben passed the exam without studying for it. (the exam/ very difficult).

3. They knew everything about our plans. (they / listen/ to our conversation).

4. When he woke up this morning, the light was on. (he/ forget/ to turn it off)

5. The jacket you bought is very good quality.(it/ very expensive)

6. The phone rang but I didnt hear it. (I / asleep)

7. I havent seen the people next door for ages. (they/ go away)

8. Peter cant find his umbrella. (He/ leave/ it in the restaurant last night).

9. The lights were red but the car didnt stop. (the driver/ see/ the red light)

IV. Fill the gaps in the sentences with must (nt), neednt or should( nt).
1. Weve run out of paperclips. I get some in the morning.
2. You finish that report tonight if youre too tired. Midday tomorrow is the
deadline.
3. What are you doing here? you be at the meeting downtown?
4. He really have told his brother about this deal. It was supposed to be
absolutely confidential.
5. You clean the office because we havent been using it today, but could you
tidy the shelves in the storeroom, please?
6. You make so much noise. Well be asked to leave otherwise.
7. Im going to be in trouble. I have posted these yesterday afternoon and I
completely forgot.
8. You have typed this a handwritten note would have been quite adequate.
9. The meetings finished. We find out whats been decided any moment now.
10. The diet be maintained unchanged for about a year.
V. Complete these sentences using dont/ doesnt/ didnt have to + one of these verbs:
arrive, be, climb, cook, get up, go, go, pay, shave, tell, wait, wear, work, work
1. Im not particularly busy. Ive got a few things to do but I them now.
2. Catherine isnt working tomorrow, so she early.
3. Weve got plenty of time. We yet.
4. A man was slightly injured in the accident but he to hospital.
5. The car park is free you to park your car there.
6. I went to the bank this morning. There was no queue, so I
7. Amy is extremely rich. She
8. Paul has got a beard, so he

43

9. You can tell me if you want but you me.


10. William a suit to work but he usually does.
11. Theres a lift in the building, so we the stairs.
12. Sue at work so early. She arrives early because she wants to.
13. You a good player to enjoy a game of tennis.
14. Karen on Sundays.
15. We arent spending our weekend at home, so we our meals.
VI. Complete the sentences using must or a form of have to. Sometimes two
answers are possible.
1. I couldnt go to the party last night because I babysit for my sister.
2. You get a visa to visit the United States.
3. Jane will do her homework tomorrow.
4. Its getting very late. We go now.
5. I stay in bed yesterday because I wasnt very well.
6. Mr. Mason wear glasses since he was a child.
7. I dont like work at weekends.
8. The doctor gave me some medicine. I take it three times a day after meals.
9. (you/ work) home last night?
10. John hurry. Hes plenty of time.
VII. Put the verbs in brackets into a modal construction using will or would.
1. The Prime Minister is now 65 years old and in all probability this (be) the last
election that he is likely to contest.
2. The holiday (do) him the world of good.
3. Within ten weeks of the introduction, 34 million people (reach) by our
television commercials.
4. I (imagine) that you cant grow seeds actually in these big plastic bags.
5. If you (let) me pay for a taxi, then at least allow me to lend you something.
6. She (like) to ask questions, but he had moved on to another topic.
7. He kept trying to start the car and the battery got flatter and flatter, until it
(turn) the engine at all.
8. He has insisted that his organisation (negotiate) with the government.
9. It (cost) very much more for the four of us to come from Italy.
10. He expressed the hope that on Monday elementary school (reopen).
VIII. Complete the sentences with should (have) + the verb in brackets.
1. Margaret the exam. Shes been studying very hard. (pass)
2. You missed a great party last night. You (come)
3. We dont see you enough. You and see us more often. (come)
4. Im in a difficult position. What do you think I ? (do)
5. Im sorry that I didnt take your advice. I what you said. (do)
6. Im playing tennis with Jill tomorrow. She shes much better than me. (win)
7. We lost the match but we . We were the better team. (win)
8. Is John here yet? Not yet, but he here soon? (be)
9. I posted the letter three days ago, so it by now. (arrive)
10. I this morning but I was feeling a bit ill. (go)

44

1.1.11. THE PASSIVE VOICE


A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Besides mood, aspect, and tense, a verb has another grammatical category, namely
the voice. The voice system in English makes possible for the action of a sentence to be
viewed in two ways:
Her mother ironed the blouse. [active voice]
The blouse was ironed (by her mother). [passive voice]
The active and passive sentences have the following representations:
ACTIVE VOICE
Her mother
ironed
the blouse.
Subject
Predicate
Direct Object
The blouse
Subject

PASSIVE VOICE
was ironed
Predicate

by her mother.
Object (by + agent)

I. FORM
The active subject becomes the passive agent; the verb to be in the appropriate
tense (that of the main verb); the main verb is in the Past Participle; the direct object
becomes the passive subject, preceded by by:
a. Affirmative:
John sold the book.
The book was sold by John.
b. Negative: subject + be (the appropriate tense) + not + the past participle
It isnt known who made the mistake.
c. Interrogative: be (the appropriate tense) + subject + the past participle
Was the problem solved yesterday?
Has a doctor been sent for?
II. Changes form Active to Passive:
Active
Present:
writes
Present Progressive:
is writing
Present Perfect:
has written
Past:
wrote
Past Perfect:
had written
Future:
will write

Passive
is written
is being written
has been written
was written
had been written
will be written
45

Future in the past:


Modal verbs:
Modal + perfective:
The Infinitive
-ing forms

would write
would be written
must do
must be done
might have done
might have been done
My sister loves to be admired by everybody.
She hoped her book to have been accepted by the publisher.
[perfect infinitive]
While being asked about his whereabouts, he felt a cold shiver
running along his spine. [present participle]
Before having been asked about the robbery, he was taken by t
he police. [perfect participle]
I enjoy being taken out to dinner.
Do you mind her having been arrested? [perfect gerund]

III. Constraints
a. Verb constraints
1.
verbs of being and having to have ( = to own) to be, to belong, to lack, to
seem , to become, to hold, to resemble, to suit require only an active construction:
Tom has a new Jeep. - * A new Jeep is had by Tom.
This dress doesnt suit you. - * You are not suited by this dress.
2.
verbs of wanting and liking] are used in the active voice:
She wanted me to be there. - * I was wanted to be there.
I like that car. - * That car is liked.
3.
the verb to let has no passive form; we use a passive of to allow/ to permit/ to
give permission:
He let me leave early . - * I was let leave
> I was allowed /given permission to leave early.
4.
passive only: to be born, to be drowned (when no agent is implied); in
Nominative + Infinitive constructions.
She was born after the war. - * Her mother bore her after the war.
He was thought to be honest. - * People thought him to be honest
5.
Phrasal verbs to look into, to go into, to arrive at can be used in the passive
only when the subject is an abstract patient, not a concrete one.
This delicate matter had been looked into. * This bag had been
looked into. [matter = abstract subject, bag = concrete subject]
b. Agent constraints
The agent by-phrase is generally optional. The omission occurs:
- when the agent is irrelevant or unknown: My car has been stolen.
- when the agent is left out as redundant: He had a cup in his hands a few seconds
ago, and now the cup is broken.
- when the agent is so obvious that there is no need to mention it: The thief will be
arrested.
- in impersonal statements: Passengers are asked not to enter this area.
IV. Causative have
- The verbs to have and to get can occur in the following construction: have/ get
+ direct object + past participle = somebody does something for/ to you.
I will have you arrested!

46

These constructions show semantically that the grammatical subject is not the
agent/ doer of the action, on the contrary there is another agent implied, one
that is not mentioned. The direct object is the sufferer:
She has her hair cut. [the auxiliary has is actually a causative verb, simple
present tense meaning: she will not perform the action of cutting her own hair,
but a hairdresser for example.]

V. Ways of rendering the English Passive into Romanian


a. Active voice into Romanian (+ the appropriate tense of the verb)
People are getting frightened by earthquake. [Oamenilor le este fric de
cutremur. prezent.]
b. Passive voice into Romanian (+ the appropriate tense of the verb to be)
The letter was written by John. [Scrisoarea a fost scris de John. perfect
compus]
They will take good care of her. [Va fi bine ngrijit. viitor]
c. Reflexive voice into Romanian
A noise was heard. [S-a auzit un zgomot. perfect compus]
The children will be offered many toys. [Copiilor li se vor oferi multe jucrii.
viitor]
A decision was arrived at. [S-a ajuns la o decizie. perfect compus]
Fish eats with garlic. [Petele se mnnc cu mujdei. prezent]
The window broke. [Geamul s-a spart. perfect compus]
Ive had some photos taken this week. (causative have) [M-am fotografiat
sptmna aceasta. perfect compus]
This matter will be dealt with at once. [Ne vom ocupa imediat de aceast
problem. viitor.

B. EXERCISES
I. Turn into Passive Voice:
1. Father did not allow me to go to the party last night.
2. People strongly assume money brings happiness.
3. They are closing down a lot of factories nowadays.
4. Police had to break the meeting immediately.
5. No one talked about this at the meeting.
6. People don`t pay babysitters a lot of money.
7. The President denied access to the affected area.
8. Social workers were doing valuable work.
9. You should meet them at the airport tonight.
10. He has used this apparatus only once since that day.
II. Turn into Active Voice:
1. The murderer was arrested in less than two hours.
2. A speech to the nation was made by the Prime minister.
3. The building was being guarded by the police.
4. Both drivers will be taken to the hospital by the ambulance.
5. The watch has been repaired skilfully.
6. Someone will have to be found to take my place.

47

7.
8.
9.
10.

The goods had been sent to the required address.


The accident had been seen by a crowd of people.
My car was just being repaired by Tom when I arrived.
He is expected to be back at the end of the week.

III. Finish the sentences:


1. All the people know the President well. The President..
2. They are just lengthening the road. The road..
3. He admitted this on very few occasions. On very few occasions..
4. She has proved that all his statements are lies. All his statements..
5. The man had never before made such a firm promise. Never..
6. I will never tell them the truth about the accident. They..
7. Everyone knows that gym exercises are good for health. Gym exercises..
8. They didn`t find out about the results until later. Not until later..
9. They were trying a new check-out system in the library. A new..
10. Someone should give him the required information. He.
IV. Rewrite each sentence using the words in capitals. Make sure the
sentences are passive.
1. They have found some very old coins in a churchyard.
DISCOVER
2. I am sorry, I dont know his name.
INTRODUCE
3. Police had not found out the identity of the victim.
IDENTIFY
4. The satellite will give us new pictures of the planet Mars. RECEIVE
5. At this time yesterday, the mechanic was repairing my bike. REPAIR
6. The building is thought to date from the 10th century.
IT
7. The author has included key answers at the end of the book .BEEN
8. Chinese people inhabit this beautiful island.
BY
9. They are looking into the files very carefully.
EXAMINE
10. As soon as he finishes his report, he will take me for a walk. FINISHED
V. Use tenses of the Passive Voice as required:
1. They (invite) to Bucharest this week. (Present Tense)
2. About 100 new flats(build) by the end of the year. (Future Tense)
3. The yesterday newspaper (buy) by many people. (Past Tense)
4. She now believes she (take in) by all his lies. (Past Simple)
5. I think he is the very person that can (ask) about it. (Infinitive)
6. The announcement (make) immediately after midnight. (Past Perfect)
7. A new meeting on this problem (arrange) by the Commonwealth Prime Minister.
(Present Continuous)
8. The new proposals (discuss) when he entered the meeting hall. (Past
Continuous)
9. Traffic rules must (obey). (Infinitive)
10. I cant believe she (recognize) by her uncle. (Present Perfect)
VI. Translate into English:
1. Toate acele case au fost distruse de recentul cutremur.
2. Mi s-a spus c s-au discutat multe aspecte interesante la conferina de ieri.
3. Se tie c telefonul a fost inventat de A. G. Bell n 1876.

48

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

i se va permite s vizitezi tot muzeul cu condiia s nu atingi exponatele.


Acest material este foarte bun, se calc uor.
Se insist foarte mult asupra nvrii asistate de calculator.
Dup toate datele primite, casa va fi demolat mine.
Se observ c tiina a evoluat foarte mult n ultimii ani.
Progresele tehnice sunt analizate cu atenie n toate centrele de tiin din lume.

III. 1. 2. THE SUBJUNCTIVE


A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
The Subjunctive is a grammatical mood used in (in)dependent sentences in order
to refer to events which are not certain to happen which we hope will happen, or
imagine might happen, or want to happen. (Swan, 1990: 580)
I wish I were younger. (unfortunately I am not)
From a formal point of view, there are 2 types of Subjunctive:
a. the Synthetic Subjunctive
b. the Analytical Subjunctive.
a. THE SYNTHETIC SUBJUNCTIVE
I. FORM AND USES
- The Old Subjunctive (the Present Subjunctive) resembles the form of the Short
Infinitive of the verb for all tenses and persons and is used to express supposition,
purpose, fear, suggestion, request, wish, necessity etc.
It is important that he come/ be invited to the party.
From a semantic point of view, the Old Subjunctive can be classified into:
The Formulaic Subjunctive in the formal and old-fashioned style, it is used
in independent/ main clauses that contain certain idioms to express wishes, prayers or
protests (often involving supernatural powers).
God save the Queen!
Be that as it may, she will carry on with her plan!
The Mandative Subjunctive is used in subordinate 'Thatclauses' to express
desire, demand, requirement, obligation, necessity, suggest, command etc.
He made the suggestion that the thief come and explain everything.
- The Modern Subjunctive (the Past and Past Perfect Subjunctive) conveys the idea of
unreality, regret about a situation, improbability, and doubt. The Past Subjunctive is
used when the action referred to is simultaneous with or posterior to the reference time
(usually used for present and future time). The Past Perfect Subjunctive resembles the
form of the Indicative Mood, Past Perfect for all tenses and persons and it is used when
the action referred to is anterior to the reference time (used only for past time).
If I were you, I wouldnt wait for him any longer.
I wish I had known the truth about this matter.
II. Ways of translating the Synthetic Subjunctive
a. conjunctiv prezent:

49

God bless the King! (Dumnezeu s-l binecuvnteze pe rege!)


I wish he were us. (A vrea s fie aici.)
b. imperativ: Expenses be hanged! (D-le ncolo de cheltuieli!)
c. indicativ prezent:
Suffice it to say that he was caught stealing the pearls! (E de ajuns s spunem ca
a fost prins furnd perlele!)
d. conjunctiv perfect: He wishes he had been there. (Ar dori s fi fost aici.)
e. condiional optativ:
He looked at me as if he had seen a ghost. (S-a uitat la mine de parc ar fi
vzut o stafie.)
b. THE ANALYTICAL SUBJUNCTIVE
I. FORM AND USES
- The Subjunctive Equivalents (or modal auxiliaries) are often used to replace the Old
Subjunctive in informal English.
His uncle urged that he should sit down and wait.
No matter how pretty she might be, she cant be your girl friend.
II. Ways of translating the Analytical Subjunctive
a. conjunctiv prezent:
It is necessary that your father should sign the application. (Este necesar ca tatl
tu s semneze formularul.)
b. conjunctiv perfect:
It is impossible (that) he should have failed the exam. (Este imposibil ca el s fi
picat examenul.)
c. condiional optativ:
However disgraceful it may be, you must give him a hand. (Orict de dezonorant
ar fi, trebuie s-l ajui.)
d. condiional optativ/ indicativ:
I wish you would call me earlier! (Tare a dori s m suni mai devreme!/ De
ce nu m suni mai devreme?)

B. EXERCISES
I. Build up sentences with the following words using the Subjunctive:
1. He recommended that (I, some money, to lend, to his friend).
2. She orders that (to see, the vet, at once, her dog ).
3. I suggest that (immediately, to return, all of you, in the classroom).
4. The Prime Minister demanded that (to house, from USA, the delegates, at the
best hotel).
5. They insist that (John, to resign, tomorrow).
6. He urged that (to work, the employees, more efficiently).
7. I propose that (in the morning, to be, at six, in my office, you).
8. Mary required that (the diploma, the schoolmaster, her, to give).
9. The doctor insisted that (to take, before meals, the pills, every day, he).
10. The mayor demands that (to keep, all the citizens, clean, the town).
50

II. Rephrase the following sentences using 'wish' to express regret for a present
action (the meaning must stay the same):
1. Its a pity you leave so soon.
2. I regret he doesnt know how to start the engine.
3. Im sorry the delivery comes come so late.
4. Its a pity you get only poor marks at the exams.
5. I regret the girls dont pay attention to the explanations.
6. Its pity I cant fix the car.
7. Im sorry they are fighting every day.
8. Its a pity you dont speak to each other.
9. I regret our teacher drinks so much coffee.
10. Its a pity you dont try to improve your pronunciation.
III. Rephrase the following sentences using 'wish' to express regret for a past
action (the meaning must stay the same):
1. I didnt meet her yesterday.
2. It was time for us to leave.
3. Mike failed all his exams.
4. He didnt bring the money for the dictionary.
5. We didnt study semantics last term.
6. They didnt know how to act under such circumstances.
7. She wasnt there at the right moment.
8. We didnt spend much time together.
9. They didnt have any children.
10. I didnt understand her real problems.
IV. Use the past tense and the past perfect forms of the Subjunctive after: as if /
though, suppose, even if/ though according to the meaning:
1. He looked as if he (see) a ghost.
2. He wouldnt solve the exercise even if he (try).
3. Suppose you (be) there, what would you have done?
4. The criminal behaved as though he (not know) anything about the murder.
5. He smiled friendly as if he (recognize) her.
6. I wouldnt sell my honesty even though he (give) thousands of dollars.
7. You treated those people as if you (not meet) them before.
8. You treated the girl as if you (not know) her.
9. Suppose you (have) a flat of your own, would you put me up?
10. I wouldnt invite him even if you (ask) me to.
V. Rephrase the following sentences using its impossible/ normal/ natural/
unbelievable with should according to the model:
Example: She cant be here at this hour. Its impossible (that) she should be here
She cant have been there at that hour. Its impossible (that) she should have
been there
1. This cant happen again.
2. Allan cant have lied to his parents.
3. You cant leave her alone after all she has done for you.

51

4. Your best friend cant abandon you in the middle of the battle.
5. They cant have eaten all the food.
6. He cant go abroad this week.
7. You cant have done such terrible mistakes.
8. Peter cant ask Mary to marry him.
9. That wind cant have destroyed the whole city.
10. You cant utter such heavy words.

III.1.3. THE CONDITIONAL MOOD


A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
I. Definiton
The Conditional is the grammatical mood expressing suppositions, doubt or
different types of conditions real, (im)probable, (im)possible/ hypothetical .
The conditional mood can cover two types of structures:
dependent clauses made up of two parts: the main clause/ MC and the adverbial
clause of condition/ IfC:
I would leave if I had enough money.
independent clauses where the IfC is rather implied from the context. They can
be part of a dialogue or of free indirect speech/ thought:
I told you what had happened to Paul and how he reacted. What would you
have done? I would have fired those that had robbed the company.
II. Conditional Clauses
In English, there are three main types of Conditional Clauses.

52

TYPE CONDITION

I.

possible to
fulfill

MAIN CLAUSE

IF

IF/CONDITIONAL
CLAUSE

I will pass the exam

if

I study harder.

Voi trece examenul

daca

voi invata mai mult.

Future Form (will + Infinitive)


II.

in theory
possible to
fulfill

Present Form

I would pass the exam

if

I studied harder.

As trece examenul

daca

as invata mai mult.

Present Conditional (would + Inf.)


III.

impossible to
fulfill

Past Form

I would have passed the exam

if

I had studied harder.

As fi trecut examenul

daca

as fi invatat mai mult.

Perfect Conditional (would + have


+ Past Participle)

Past Perfect Form (had


+Past Participle)

III. Mixed conditionals


In addition to all the tense variations that we can use in first, second and third
conditionals, it is also possible to mix conditionals so that, for example, the if clause
uses a verb form used in the first conditional and the main clause uses a verb form used
in the third conditional. The context defines the meaning. The most common
mixed conditional is:
Type III
if + past perfect
If I had worked harder at university,

Type II
would/could/might+ infinitive
I would have a degree now.

Here are some other examples of mixed conditionals :


Type 1
Type II
If you come to the party tomorrow,
I wouldn't bring Mike with you.
Type II
Type III
If she loved him,
she would have stayed with him.
IV. Conjunctions which can replace IF
Unless + affirmative verb (If + negative verb) places a negative condition
Unless you come at once, Ill take it with me. (If you dont)
Unless you had a lot of money, you couldnt buy it.(If you hadnt)
Unless he is happy to see me, I wont come to bother him. (If he is unhappy)
Providing / provided (that) used when there is a strong idea of limitation
(chiefly used with permission)

53

You can borrow her bike provided (that) you bring it back by 10 pm.
But for + a proper name/a noun/a pronoun = If it were not for/ if it hadnt been
for
My best friend has come to help me. But for him, I wouldnt get the diploma.
But for his trust, I wouldnt have succeeded.
Suppose/supposing = what if/ whathappen if?
Suppose he doesnt come on time? = What if he doesnt? = What will happen
if he?
Suppose I hadnt sent you the document? = What if I hadnt sent?= What
would have happened if I hadnt sent
In case usually refers to a future condition that may or may not arise:
In case I receive any news, Ill let you know.
If so and If not, used instead of complete clauses:
Is anybody feeling cold? If not, let's put the central heating off.
You may have some difficulty operating the machine at first. If so, do not
hesitate to telephone our service department.
On condition that = if
He will give you the day off on condition that you work on Saturday too.
As long as = if
Cynthia is welcome to stay with us as long as she shares the rent.

V. Inversion
The sentence must begin with the IfC where an inversion of the subject with the
lexical verb or auxiliary verb is performed.
Were I (If I were) the rector of the University, I wouldn't approve of this. [in
written language, in literary style]
Had she known (If she had known) about it, she would have come home at
once. [in written or spoken language]
Should it be necessary (if it should be necessary), I will leave by the 10 pm
train. [in written or spoken language, to express a polite suggestion]
VI. Ways of translating a Conditional structure
In English there is a dependency between the forms of the verbs in the two
clauses; they express the same kind of action, situated in the same period of time (past,
present or future), and yet, they have different forms (tenses), unlike the Romanian
language where we have the same forms in both the MC and IfC.
Type 1:
Viitor/prezent & viitor/prezent
I will leave if I have money. [Voi pleca/ Plec dac voi avea/ am bani]
prezent/ viitor + cumva & imperativ
If you should run into Paul, tell him he owes me an answer. [Dac cumva te
ntlneti cu Paul, spune-i c mi-e dator cu un rspuns.]
perfect compus & prezent/perfect compus/viitor
If I did that, I apologise. [Dac am fcut asta, mi cer scuze.]
If I said that, I was mistaken. [Dac am spus asta, am greit.]
If she made a mistake, she will try to correct it. [Dac a fcut o greeal, va
ncerca s o ndrepte.]
54

viitor/ prezent + conjunctiv prezent (verb lexical) & prezentul (unei verb care va
reda sensul modal al lui will: a vrea sau a refuza)
If he wont do it, well have to do it ourselves. [Dac refuz s fac asta, va
trebui s facem noi singuri.]
Type 2:
condiional optativ prezent
I would leave if I had money. [A pleca dac a avea bani.]
Type 3:
condiional optativ perfect
I would have left if I had had money. [A fi plecat dac a fi avut bani.]

B. EXERCISES
I. Put the verbs in brackets in the correct form:
1. If he (meet) her, he will invite her to the theatre.
2. If the weather (be) fine, well go for a ride.
3. You (disappoint) your students if you dont come to the last class.
4. Unless he (study) economy, he will become an accountant.
5. You can make your dreams come true, provided you (work) hard.
6. Unless you have an interpreter, you (can) to understand each other.
7. Suppose she (not admit) she has made the mistake. What will you do?
8. If you take these pills, you (feel) much better.
9. Theyll blame you, if the plan (not to work).
10. Trevor (not to make) his decision, if he doesnt talk to his lawyer.
11. If you had made a good work, he (congratulate) you.
12. They wouldnt have lost if they (take) the map with them.
13. If you ( not to threaten) her , she wouldnt have told the police.
14. He (hurt) him if he hadnt been a well educated man.
15. Peter would have walked if he (repair) his car.
16. She (not to expect) so good results if she hadnt worked so much.
17. I wouldnt have made up my mind so quickly if it (be) for her.
18. You (have) your hair cut if your father hadnt asked you to.
19. She wouldnt have been so relaxed if she (pass) the exam.
20. She (not to expect) so good results if she hadnt worked so much.
21. I wouldnt have made up my mind so quickly if it (be) for her.
22. You (have) your hair cut, if your father hadnt asked you to.
23. She wouldnt have been so relaxed, if she (pass) the exam.
24. You would have caught the train, if he hadnt kept you so much.
II. Choose the most appropriate conjunction (unless, suppose, supposing, provided)
and fill in the blank spaces:
1. I will accept your invitation you send a car to take me.
2. You can go fishing tomorrow it rains.
3. I will repeat the requirementyou dont understand.
4. They will come with us on the tripwe invite them.
5. He cant pass the exam he sits for it.
6. What would you dohe doesnt give you the key?
55

7. you admit you were wrong, she wont forgive you.


8. Mary were your manager. How would you behave?
9. Ill buy the furnitureI have enough money.
10. They will never finish their worksomebody help them.
III. Find and correct the mistakes in the following sentences:
1. Had I know the truth, I wouldnt have asked that silly question.
2. Ill lend you the dictionary provided you brought it back on time.
3. Suppose you are the president. Would you declare war?
4. She will join you unless you dont tease her.
5. Were you a soldier, will you die for your country?
6. I wouldnt have turned down that idea, if I had known it was his.
7. All the runners would be exhausted if the race had taken place on such a hot day.
8. Were he honest to her if he hadnt trusted her?
9. Ill retire when I would reach the age of 55.
10. Would the project have been implemented supposing he put it forward?
IV. Rephrase the following sentences using the conjunction if:
1. I didnt go out yesterday because the weather was so bad.
2. Mary was shy with boys because her father didnt let her meet them.
3. She was attracted to Tom because he seemed so pleasant.
4. Tom wanted to marry her because she was rich.
5. Her father liked him because he thought Tom was a politician.
6. Mary believed his story because she had so little experience of men.
7. She married him because she thought he really loved her.
8. He treated her badly because he didnt love her.
9. She shot him because he was so terrible to her.
10. All this happened because her father was so foolish.
V. Complete the following sentences:
1. But for John, your sister
drowned.
2. If you.. . ,then Id like it back, please.
3. Unless he. ..fail the exam.
4. Helen wouldnt agree with you, even
5. Thanks for your encouragement. I ..otherwise.
6. If it hadnt..for a walk.
7. Had your father heard...a new car.
8. I wont ever go shopping, provided
9. If you will.
the whole truth.
10. I wouldnt be a teacher, ifa long time ago.
VI. Match the clauses and write the mixed conditional sentences in your notebook.
A. If you had told me about this problem earlier,
B. If you were a more sensitive person,
C. If they don't contact you soon,
D. If he hadn't died so young,
E. If he didn't work so hard all the time,
F. If the train hadn't been delayed,
G. If he was feeling ill this morning,

56

H. If youre coming with us


I. If I really wanted to have children,
J. If you had worked harder last month,
A. he probably won't be at the meeting.
B. you could always ring them up.
C. his wife would never have left him.
D. you wouldn't have said that to her.
E. would have had them by now.
F. everything would be all right now.
G. would you hurry up and get ready?
H. you wouldn't be so busy this month.
I. we would be there by now.
J. I'm sure he'd be a famous musician by now.
Example:
If you had told me about this problem earlier, everything would be all right now.
VII. Rewrite the sentences replacing if with the most appropriate conjunction.
1. Mr Davidson says he'll come and give a talk at the conference if we pay
him a reasonable fee. (supposing that / unless / on condition that)
Example:
Mr Davidson says he'll come and give a talk at the conference on
condition that we pay him a reasonable fee.
2. I won't help him if he doesn't ask me properly. (provided / unless / as long as)
3. If I could get a job, life here would be perfect. (what if / even if / if only)
4. If you had a lot of money, do you think you would give up work? (Supposing
that / Providing that / As long as)
5. If the train arrives on time, they'll be here in a few minutes. (What if / Assuming
that / On condition that)
6. If he doesn't agree to my request, what will I do then? (Imagine / What if /
Provided that)
7. You can go out tonight if you get back by midnight. (as long as / assuming that /
supposing that)
8. If the helicopter hadn't been there to save her, what would have happened
then? (If only / Imagine / Unless)
9. If you'd offered to pay me a thousand pounds, I wouldn't have done it. (If
only / Provided that / Even if)
10. If Rosie gets this new promotion, we'll have enough money for a holiday abroad
this year. (Even if / Provided that / Supposing that)
VIII. Translate into English:
1. Poate s participe la Jocurile Olimpice numai dac se antreneaza intens.
2. Friptura ar fi bun dac ar fi cald.
3. Dac nu ar fi grdinile i parcurile, centrul oraului ar arta dezolant.
4. Petre ar fi avut necazuri la examene, dac nu l-ar fi ajutat colegul su.
5. Dac l-ai vedea cum arta nu l-ai mai recunoate.
6. N-a fi consimit niciodat s prsesc linia frontului, dac a fi tiut ce se va
intmpla.

57

7. n cazul n care voi uita , nu ezita s-mi aminteti de aceast problem.


8. Dac nu ai fi att de mincinos, n-ai fi acum in situaia regretabil ca nimeni s
nu aib ncredere in tine.
9. Ce-ar face directorul dac s-ar ntmpla s te gseasc fumnd in curtea colii?
10. Oamenii au ncredere n tine dac i tu ai ncredere n ei.
11. Vei avea nevoie de bani n cazul n care renuni la serviciu.
12. Imagineaz-i c i-ar fi vopsit baia n negru.
13. Dac n-ar fi fost Maria nu a fi primit cecul.
14. N-am s pot repara frigiderul dect dac vine mecanicul.
15. Dac cumva m caut Jack, spune-i c sunt la restaurant.
16. Dac v-ar face plcere s lucrai n biroul meu, comunicai-mi pn mine sear.
17. Dac vrei s ne nsoeti, vom mai lua un cort.
18. Dac ai binevoi s ateptai cteva clipe, l voi chema pe domnul director.
19. Nu ai fi acum aici, dac nu ai fi cheltuit toi banii pe cai.
20. Ai fi tiut rspunsul, dac ai citi mai mult.

III. 1.4. SEQUENCE OF TENSES


A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
A complex sentence contains a main clause and one or more subordinate
clauses. We can distinguish the following types of subordinate clauses:
a. Direct Object Clause
b. Prepositional Object Clause
c. Subject Clause
d. Predicative Clause
e. Relative Clause
f. Adverbial Clause of Time/ Place/ Manner/ Comparison/ Reason/
g. Condition/Purpose/Result/Concession
a. Direct Object Clauses
There are several grammar rules related to the sequence of tenses in direct object
clauses the speaker has to follow.
1. There is no tense limitation in the direct object clause when the main verb is in the
Present Tense or Present Perfect Tense:
58

I know Paul has sent the book.


Susan knows that you led a rifle platoon during the Second World War.
We all know that the Prime Minister will appoint a civilian as defence minister.
2. When the main verb is in the Future Tense the speaker can use all tenses in direct
object clauses apart from the future tenses:
Trevor will let them know that they are safe.
3. When the main verb is in the past the verb in the direct object clause ought to be in
the past too.
Subordinate clause action versus main clause action

Anteriority
Simultaneity
Posteriority

Tense
clause
Past
Perfect
Past
Perfect
Past
Perfect

in

main

Tense/Past

Tense in
subordinate clause
Past Perfect

Tense/Past

Past Tense

Tense/Past

Future-in-the-past

He told me he had spent his early life in Sri Lanka before moving to England.
Peter thought he was right.
Walter said himself he would be satisfied with whatever he could get.
Note: It does not apply in the following cases for statements which are still valid in the
moment of speaking now have the verb in the present tense although it is also correct
to change the verb into the past or with verbs such as know, realise, believe, think, hope,
regret etc.
He explained that the population of London is around 9 millions.
I realised he is a South- American.
4. The subjunctive is used in direct object clauses after verbs like ask, demand, require,
order, urge, suggest, propose, arrange, recommend. Either subjunctive can be used.
Mr. Hill suggested that their candidate should be supported/be supported by
the Socialist too.
5. The use of the tenses in direct object clauses after the main verb wish
- wish + past tense (=past subjunctive) when the regret is related to the present reality
I wish(ed) John were/was here with us on this wonderful trip.
- wish + past perfect (=past perfect subjunctive) when the regret is related to the past
reality.
They wish(ed) she had joined their company two years ago.
- wish + would + bare infinitive to express a future action the speaker wants to happen
but which has less chances to fulfill.
Catherine wishes he would become a reliable person. (but she doesnt think he
will).
The above pattern is also used in polite requests
I wish you would be quiet.
59

- wish + present tense/future tense when wish means hope.


Helen wishes he will finish his work soon. (=Susan hopes he will finish his work
soon).
- the subjunctive (past or past perfect) is also used indirect object clauses after would
sooner/rather when the person who expresses the preference is not the subject of the
action to follow.
I would rather he talked less.
Id sooner Boris had improved his knowledge of English.
Note that the pattern wish + that-clause is translated in Romanian by the pattern
conditional + subjunctive.
I wish he worked harder.
= A dori ca el s munceasc mai mult
I wished he had worked harder.
= A fi dorit ca el s fi muncit mai mult.
and the same for the pattern subject1 + would rather/sooner + subject2 + subjunctive
(past or past perfect).
Id rather he went to Spain.
= A prefera ca el s plece n Spania.
Id rather he had visited the = A fi preferat ca el s fi vizitat Muzeul Prado
Prado Museum in Madrid.
din Madrid.
b. Prepositional Object Clause
The rules of the sequence of tenses applies in the prepositional direct object
clause too.
The two parties agreed upon it that it had been an unfortunate
misunderstanding. (anteriority)
that Mr. Brown was right.
(simultaneity)
that the competition would apologise.
(posteriority)
When the main verb is formed by one of the idiomatic expressions be sorry, be
surprised, be astonished, be amazed, be disappointed in a present tense the verb
in the prepositional object clause will be formed by the following patterns:
- present tense/should + bare infinitive to express simultaneous actions.
Rupert is surprised that they spend/ should spend their holidays in the little
village. (= Rupert este surprins c ei i petrec concediul n acest micu sat)
-present perfect/past tense or should + perfect infinitive to express an anterior action.
Mr. Hill is glad that our German partner has accepted/should have accepted
the goods (= Domnul Hill este mulumit c partenerul german a acceptat
mrfurile.)

When the main verb is in the past the speaker has to apply the corresponding
sequence of tenses
a. Simultaneity :
past tense or should + infinitive
Our boss was disappointed we were/should be so late. (= eful nostru a fost
dezamgit c noi am venit aa de trziu)
b. Anteriority: past perfect or should + perfect infinitive
Daniel was sorry his father had sold/should have sold his car.
(=Lui Daniel i-a prut rau c tatl su i-a vndut maina)

c. Subject Clause
The speaker can use both the indicative mood or the subjunctive mood. The
60

indicative mood shows the subject clause action is seen as being fulfilled while the
subjunctive indicates an assumption.
It is strange that Tim arrived at the office so early. (=E ciudat c Tim a sosit la
birou att de devreme).
It is strange that Tim should arrive at the office so early. (=E ciudat ca Tim s
ajung la birou att de devreme.)
There is no tense limitation in the subject clause when the main verb is in the
present tense.
It is unlikely that Ralph has signed/will sign the contract (=Este puin probabil
c Ralph a semnat/va semna contractul)
When the main verb is in the past the verb in the subject clause ought to be in
the past too.
It was a surprise that they had delivered the goods on time (anteriority)
that Ann behaved like that (simultaneity)
that the Prime Minister would deliver a speech. (posteriority)

After idiomatic expressions like it is strange/ alarming/surprising/ annoying


gratifying/splendid (the main verb is in the Present Tense) the subject clause
verb will be used in the following patterns.
a. Simultaneity: present tense or should + infinitive
It is strange that they buy/should bought such expensive goods.
b. Anteriority: present perfect/past tense or should + perfect infinitive
It is gratifying that he waited/should have waited until the plane landed.

When the main verb is in the Past Tense the following patterns ought to be used.
a. Simultaneity: past tense or should + infinitive
It was surprising that they worked/should work until midnight.
Anteriority: past perfect or should + perfect infinitive
It was splendid that they had cooked/should have cooked dinner before our
coming.
Note that the indicative mood relates to a fulfilled action while the subjunctive relates to
an assumption.

The analytical subjunctive pattern should + bare infinitive is used after


idiomatic expressions like it is/was advisable, desirable, essential, imperative,
important, inevitable , necessary, right, vital.
It is/was necessary that he should earn more money.
The analytical subjunctive pattern may/might + bare infinitive is used after
idiomatic expressions like it is possible, it is probable (see also The
Subjunctive and Modals and Semi-Modals)
It is possible that Jane may arrive tonight.

d. Predicative Clause
There is no tense limitation in the predicative clause when the main verb is in
the Present Tense.
The important fact is that he was sent abroad.
that Mr. Pitt has talked about it.
61

that the contract will be soon concluded.


When the main verb is in the past the verb in the predicative clause ought to be
in the past too.
The problem was that they had talked to him before.
that we were very busy.
that Sean would leave the next day.
e. Relative Clause
There is no tense limitation in the relative clause.
I showed John the dress Ill wear at our next party. (= I-am artat lui John rochia
pe care o voi purta la viitoarea noastr petrecere.)
My new watch, which I bought a month ago, is very good. (=Ceasul meu cel nou
pe care l-am cumparat acum o lun este foarte bun.)
f. Adverbial Clause of Time
When I have some days off, I go to the seaside. (=Cnd am cteva zile libere,
merg la mare).
While you are cooking dinner, Ill write a letter to Sean. (=n timp ce tu
pregteti cina, eu i voi scrie o scrisoare lui Sean.)
After the show is over, well have supper at the Lido. (=Dup spectacol vom cina
la Lido.)
Tom will join us as soon as he has finished his work (Tom ni se va altura dupa
ce-i va fi terminat ceea ce avea de fcut.)
When they left for University this morning, it was terribly cold. (=Cnd au plecat
la universitate n aceast diminea era ngrozitor de frig.)
They left the company as soon as they had finished their negotiations. (=Au
prsit firma de ndat ce s-au terminat negocierile.)
I would try to contact Mr. Blake before he left the town. (=A ncerca s-l
contactez pe domnul Blake nainte de a prsi oraul.)
g. Adverbial Clause of Place
There is no tense limitation in the adverbial clause of place.
Would you please put those two dictionaries back where they belong. (=Ai vrea
s punei cele dou dicionare unde le este locul)
Wherever they went, they met nice people. (= Oriunde mergeau, ntlneau
oameni amabili)
h. Adverbial Clause of Manner
There is no tense limitation in the adverbial clause of manner.
Audrey will do just as you told her.
i. Adverbial Clause of Comparison
There is no tense limitation in the adverbial clause of comparison.
He was as busy as you had thought.
a man could be.
I am now.
you are going to be.

62

The Romanian pattern cu ct . cu att can be expressed as follows.


The harder he works, the better results he will get.
(pattern : future tense in the main clause + present tense in the adverbial clause of
comparison)
The more frequently they travelled abroad the more they enjoyed it.
(pattern: past tense in the main clause + past tense in the adverbial clause of
comparison).
The subjunctive can also be used in the adverbial clause of comparison
He behaves /behaved as if he were the company chairman. (but he isnt/wasnt)
They talk/talked as if they had known him. (but they havent/hadnt)
j. Adverbial Clause of Reason
There is no tense limitation in the adverbial clause of reason.
I stayed in bed longer this morning because I hadnt been able to sleep all
night.
because today is Sunday.
k. Adverbial Clause of Result
There is no tense limitation in the adverbial clause of result.
He did his job so well
that they promised him a pay rise (=i fcea att de
bine serviciul nct i-au propus o mrire de salariu.
that theyll never forget him. (=i fcea att de bine
serviciul nct nu-l vor uita.
l. Adverbial Clause of Concession
Both present and past tenses in the indicative mood can be used.
Though he has never studied marketing
Although he is very young he is a successful businessman.
Even though he did not study marketing
The analytical subjunctive pattern may/might + infinitive can be used in the
adverbial clause of concession too. (see The Analytical Subjunctive)
Whoever may/might phone, put him through. (= Oricine ar suna d-mi-l la
telefon)
Note that the above pattern is translated into Romanian by using the conditional.

B. EXERCISES
I. Complete the following sentences, using a clause:
1. Almost as soon as I entered the company .
2. that they might come across our letter.
3. The old woman who confronted me in the street
4. She was nicer than
5. He said that many years ago
6. They spoke English much better than
7. We arranged to hire a coach that
8. , the more I liked him.
9. He declared that
63

10. They announced that


II. Select the correct word or expression in brackets in each of the following
sentences. Give the reason for your choice:
1. I learnt recently that Jupiter (is, was) the largest of the planets.
2. If I (had had, have had) more time, I would have done a better job of cleaning
the house.
3. After Einstein (had become, became) famous, his works were published by
many magazines.
4. It is a long time since I (read, have read, had read) a novel as absorbing as this
one.
5. Mr. Black asked me yesterday where I (have gone, went, had gone) the day
before.
6. She (has not bought, did not buy) her dress when she was in town last week.
7. He remained silent as soon as he (had heard, heard) that.
8. He walked so far that he (tired, had tired) himself.
9. His illnes showed him that all men (were, are) mortal.
10. I was glad to hear that her brother (was, is) industrious.
III. Supply the most logical form of the verb in the following:
I just (go) to bed after a very hard day when the phone rang. It (be) an eccentric
farmer. I never (meet) him before, although I often (hear) people talk about him. He
(seem) quite hysterical and he (talk) for a minute or so before I (understand)
anything. Even then all I (can) (make out) (be) that someone called Milly (have) a
very bad accident. I (have not) the slightest idea who she (be) but I obviously (have)
to go.
It (snow) heavily that day and I (not know) the way. I (drive) for at least an hour
when I finally (find) his place. He (stand) there, waiting for me. It (seem) Milly
already (die). She (mean) more to me than anyone even my own wife! he said. I
(can) (see) that he (cry). I (assume) a terrible tragedy (take place) with overtones of
a possible scandal. I must (admit) I (be) even more shocked when he (tell) me he
(put) her in the barn. I (will not) (leave) her out in the cold! he said.
Milly clearly (be) a secret sweetheart of his. I (be) about to tell him he (cannot)
(expect) me to cover anything up when he (open) the barn door and (point) his torch
at a motionless shape on the straw.
She (be) such a good cow! I (will not) (let) anyone but a doctor touch her! he
said, and (burst) into tears again.
IV. Translate into English:
1.
Te voi suna cnd voi porni de acas spre tine, ca s nu risc s fii plecat.
2.
tiam c ai s vii la mine, dar m-am ntrebat de ce ai fcut un secret din asta.
3.
I s-a spus n repetate rnduri c cinstea e cea mai bun dintre politici, dar nu
a vrut s cread, i am aflat c acum a pit-o.
4.
De ndat ce a vzut-o, a rmas tcut, gndindu-se c este mult mai frumoas
dect i-o nchipuise vreodat.
5.
A venit s m vad, dar nu eram acas, nefiind anunat din timp, iar la
ntoarcerea mea tocmai plecase s se ntlneasc cu un alt prieten de al lui, cu toate
c i-ar fi plcut s se sftuiasc cu mine, deoarece are mai mult ncredere n mine,

64

dect n el.
6.
Ori de cte ori treceam prin faa colii m ntrebam ce or mai fi fcnd fotii
mei profesori i unde sunt oare colegii mei.
7.
Ori de cte ori te ntlnesc, simt nevoia s-i spun ct de mult a dori s fim
prieteni.
8.
l admir mai puin dect l-am admirat pe bunicul su care a fost un om
adevrat.
9.
N-a fost un secret pentru nimeni c reuita lui se datoreaz, n mare parte,
srguinei cu care a nvat n tot timpul care a trecut de la sosirea lui la facultate.
10.
Am sosit aici doar de trei zile, dar m simt de parc a fi venit de mult.

III.1.5. DIRECT AND INDIRECT/ REPORTED SPEECH


A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
When we change a statement from the Direct Speech (DS) to the Indirect
Speech (IS) we change some of the words that the person said, without altering the
meaning of the persons remark or speech, and the quotation marks are not used.
He said (that) breakfast would be a cheerless affair for the Prime
Minister that morning.
I. Direct speech (DS)
The verbs of reporting and thinking are: to say; to tell, to remark, to
observe, to point out, to report, to announce; to ask, to demand, to inquire; to reply (to
say in response), to protest (to say with reservation); to warn (to say about undesirable
consequences); to insist (to say emphatically); to complain (to say irritably); to sob, to
beam, to snort, to twinkle and others according to the situation.

65

II. Indirect speech (IS)


The changing from DS into IS brings a number of constraints that affect:
- the speaker (changes concerning the persons of the pronouns);
- the time of the action (changes concerning the tenses of the verbs);
- the location of the action (changes concerning the adverbs of time and of
place);
- the structure of the sentences (changes concerning imperative,
interrogative or exclamatory sentences)
III.a. Morphological changes
III.a.1. Tense Backshift
- Tenses are moved into the past (backshift) after a past tense reporting verb:
Im leaving. She said she was leaving.
- When the reporting verb (say, tell, remark, etc.) is in the present, present
perfect or future, direct statements can be reported without any changes of tense.
Methane is often regarded as the second most important greenhouse gas
after carbon dioxide, he explains. [DS]
He explains than methane is often regarded as the second most
important greenhouse gas after carbon dioxide. [IS]
TENSE in DIRECT SPEECH
PRESENT SIMPLE
I want to stop, said Sue.
PRESENT PROGRESSIVE
Im going home, said John.
PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE
Sally has finished, announced Will.
PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE
We have been working very hard at the
office lately, said Robert.

PAST SIMPLE
The Second World War lasted nearly six
years, remarked Simon.
PAST PROGRESSIVE
I was still working at eight oclock
yesterday evening, confirmed Helen.

FUTURE SIMPLE

66

TENSE
in
INDIRECT
SPEECH
PAST SIMPLE
Sue said that she wanted to
stop.
PAST PROGRESSIVE
John said that he was going
home.
PAST PERFECT SIMPLE
Will announced that Sally had
finished.
PAST
PERFECT
PROGRESSIVE
Robert said that they had
been working very hard at the
office lately.
PAST PERFECT SIMPLE
Simon remarked that the
Second World War had lasted
nearly six years.
PAST
PERFECT
PROGRESSIVE
Helen confirmed that she had
still been working at eight
oclock in the evening the day
before.
FUTURE IN THE PAST

Ann will find a wide variety of choices


available in university cafeterias, said
Tom.
FUTURE PROGRESSIVE
Ill be using the car myself on the 27th,
she said.
FUTURE PERFECT SIMPLE
Ill have finished my work by the end of
next week, he explained.
FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE
Ill have been working non-stop for over
three weeks, said Mary.

Tom said that Ann would find


a wide variety of choices
available
in
university
cafeterias.
FUTURE PROGRESSIVE
IN THE PAST
She said that she would be
using the car herself on the
27th.
FUTURE PERFECT IN
THE PAST
He explained that he would
have finished his work by the
end of the following week.
FUTURE
PERFECT
PROGRESSIVE IN THE
PAST
Mary said that she would
have been working non-stop
for over three weeks.

Notes:
Verbs already in the past perfect, do not change.
Christine said, I had seen the film before. [DS]
Christine said that she had seen the film before. [IS]
After a past tense reporting verb, conditional sentences type 1 and zero
conditionals (= real situations) undergo backshift.
He said, Youll feel a lot better about yourself if you work on solutions to your
upsetting situations. [DS]
He said that they would feel a lot better about themselves if they worked on
solutions to their upsetting situations. [IS]
In reported hypothetical situations in the present (= conditional sentences type
2), if the event is clearly hypothetical and impossible, time changes are made.
If I had a map, I could find the way, he explained. [DS]
He explained that if he had had a map he could have found the way. [IS]
Hypothetical past conditional sentences type 3 do not change.
Peter said, If I had gone by bus to the office, I would have missed the
meeting. [DS]
Peter said that if he had gone by bus to the office he would have missed the
meeting. [IS]
If the reporting verb is in a past tense, modal auxiliaries change where there is a
past equivalent: can changes to could, will changes to would, shall changes to
should and may changes to might. Would, should, ought to, had better, might,
used to, could and must do not normally change. Must can be reported as either
had to or remain as must:
He said, I might not be back until next week. [DS]
He said that he might not be back until the following week. [IS]

67

Exceptions from tense backshift


Tense backshift is optional in the cases of the habitual uses of the simple present
tense. The population of London is around 9 million, he explained. [DS]
He explained that the population of London is around 9 million. [IS]
In spoken language the tense backshift does not apply when direct speech is
reported very soon afterwards.
Im too busy to come, she said. [DS]
She said shes too busy to come. [IS]
III.a.2. Morphological changes of pronouns, adjectives and adverbs
A.
Pronouns and possessive adjectives normally change from first or second
person to third person except when the speaker is reporting his own words.
She said, Id like to join an aerobic class to improve my fitness. [DS]
She said that shed like to join an aerobic class to improve her fitness. [IS]
A.
Changes of viewpoint: demonstrative pronouns/ adjectives
This used in time expressions usually becomes that.
He said, I know a wonderful restaurant where we can have lunch this week.
He said that he knew a wonderful restaurant where they could have lunch that
week.
B.
Adverbs and adverbial phrases of time and place
If we report words like here, now, today in a different place or at a different time,
they often change.
SPEAKERS WORDS
INDIRECT SPEECH
here
there
this
that/ the
now
then
today
that day
tonight
that night
tomorrow
the next day/ the following day
the day after tomorrow
in two days time
yesterday
the day before/ the previous day
the day before yesterday
two days before
next week/ year/ Monday/ August
the following week/ year/ Monday/
August
last week/ year/ Monday/ August
the previous week/ year/ Monday/
August
a year/ week ago
a year/ week before/ the previous
year/ week

III.b. Syntactical changes


III.b.1. Interrogative sentences
Yes/ no questions are reported using if. The word order is the same as in
statements and we do not use a question mark.
Do you like hamburgers I asked her. [DS]
I asked her if she liked hamburgers. [IS]

68

Wh-questions are introduced by the wh-word (when, where, what, who, why, etc.)
which begins the questions in direct speech.
She said, Where do you come from? [DS]
She asked (me) where I came from. [IS]

III.b.2. Imperative sentences


We often report directives (orders, requests, warnings or pieces of advice) using
the structure verbs + (object) + to infinitive.
command
She said, Get out of my room!
She ordered me to get out of her room.
warning:
Ruth said, Stay away from me.
Ruth warned them to stay away from her.
request:
Ann said, Could you help me with my bags, Oscar?
Ann asked Oscar to help her with her bags.
advice:
Albert said, You should phone the police.
Albert advised them to call the police.
negative orders: Dont touch my glasses, said Steven to Grace.
Steven told Grace not to touch his glasses.

B. EXERCISES
I. Put the following statements into indirect speech:
1. The company believes that products will sell well in the run-up Christmas, he
explains.
2. Mr. Blake says, Its not a very good time to sell at the moment.
3. John warns, Throwing good money after bad may not be a good idea.
4. Ann says, My Marketing Director is hoping he can sell the idea to clients.
5. Experts have been discussing how to improve the fight against crime, he said.
6. Residents are advised not to put their rubbish bags on the pavement outside
their houses, said Ann.
7. The marketplace was jammed with a noisy crowd of buyers and sellers.
8. Ive lived most of my adult life in London, said Mr. Rankin.
9. Shes leaving the day after tomorrow, said Ken.
10. All the lights went off, and mass hysteria broke out, said Walter.
II. Report these sentences:
1. Would you like to join us to dinner? said Paul.
2. Stay away from me, said Mike.
3. Lets wait here!, she said.
4. Damn that map!, he said.
5. Can I help you? he said.
6. Would you like to come to my party? said Collin.
7. Can you lend me some money? Ken asked me.
8. Switch off the TV, she told David.
9. Happy Birthday, she said to Mary.
69

10.
11.
12.
13.

I wont forget shopping, said Ann.


You should stop smoking, said Dr. Blake.
Dont smoke in here!, said my boss.
Are all of these organisations running as independent businesses? Do they have
very little contact?, asked Charles.
14. Will you carry my briefcase for me please, Richard? said James.
V. Use these verbs to report what the people said in as few words as possible.
assure, claim, congratulate, deny, disagree, insist, promise, regret, remind, reproach,
suggest, warn
1. No it wasnt me. I didnt borrow your bike.
2. Ill let you know as soon as they get here. OK?
3. Dont forget: youve got to hand in your work this evening.
4. Its a shame you couldnt make it to the party last night.
5. Well done! I always thought youd pass.
6. Dont worry, as long as you keep your head, youll manage all right.
7. You really must come and visit us next weekend!
8. I dont really think that what you said makes sense.
9. If you park on this double yellow line, youll get a ticket.
10. You shouldnt have behaved like that. You should be ashamed of yourself!
VII. What exactly would you say in these situations?
1. You have to convince the board that your proposals about merging are the best
policy for the future.
2. You want a foreign client to repeat his words because you were unable to pay
attention.
3. You are questioning the bank you work with for a surcharge.
4. You invoiced a client twice the sum he/she was due to pay; repair the situation.
5. You dont want to attend a meeting presided by your boss because you know
hes boring and inefficient.
VIII. Turn into Indirect Speech:
1. Why is he going to do this? Matt asked.
2. It is raining hard now. We cant leave Claire said.
3. You certainly studied it a week ago, you must remember this, the teacher said.
4. He has been working hard lately so you must let him rest a while she begged.
5. If you listen carefully, you will learn he warned the students.
6. Lets wait for Jane here, Mike suggested.
7. Well know the results in a week, they assured us.
8. They needed our help so we offered them help, they claimed.
9. I am going to London tomorrow; I must set things in order there, he decided.
10. Dont go away so early, she advised him.
IX. Rewrite each sentence, beginning as shown, so that the meaning stays the same:
1. Sue, can you remember to buy some bread?
Paul reminded
2. I dont really think itll snow tomorrow.
I doubt..

70

3. Im sorry I didnt phone you earlier.


Jill apologized
4. I really think you should see a doctor, Chris.
Will advised..
5. No, Im sorry, I wont work on Saturday. Definitely not!
Cathy refused..
6. Lets go out to the pub for lunch, shall we?
Wendy suggested..
7. Its not true! I have never been arrested.
Larry denied.
8. If you like, Ill help you do the decorating, Bob.
Ann offered..
9. Ill definitely take you to the park, children.
Tom promised the..
10. Yes, all right, Ill share the bill with you, Dave.
Brenda agreed.

III.1.6. NONFINITE FORMS


A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
The six grammatical categories according to which a finite verb is inflected are:
person, number, tense, aspect, voice and mood.
The nonfinite verbs may have some of the categories above mentioned: voice (I
would like not to be watched. infinitive, passive voice) or aspect (He is said to have
stolen the goods. perfect infinitive).
If there appear some morphological changes in the context where the ing-forms
occur, the Participle and the Gerund can act as a verbal adjective and as a verbal noun,
respectively.
I saw the dancing bear in the park. (Verbal Adjective)
The children were impressed by the dancing of the bear. (Verbal Noun)

1.6.1. THE INFINITIVE


I. FORM
a. Affirmative: to write, to see, to bring
71

I would like to write a letter to her to apologize for everything I did.


b. Negative: not to write, not to see, not to bring
I wanted him not to swear strangers.
II. USES
a. Verbal features
it may have aspect, voice or take direct objects:
It does him good to take long walks. (Present Infinitive, Simple Aspect present
reference)
I was glad to have finished it soon. (Perfect Infinitive, Perfective Aspect past
reference)
The shop is said to have been broken into. (Perfect Infinitive, Passive Voice)
The teacher told us to read a book about Shakespeare. (Direct Object)
III. Ways of translating the Infinitive into Romanian
a. infinitiv
To err is human, to forgive, divine. [A grei e uman, a ierta e divin.]
b. conjunctiv prezent/ perfect (diateza activ sau pasiv)
I want to see Hugh. [Vreau s-l vd pe Hugh.]
I didnt want to have said this. [N-am vrut s fi spus acest lucru.]
Do you expect the shop to be opened on Sunday? [Te atepi ca magazinul s fie
deschis duminic?]
c. modul indicativ (timpul prezent, trecut sau viitor) n propoziii subordonate
I was glad to have finished it soon. [M-am bucurat c am terminat mai
devreme.]
John is believed to have brought on all the trouble. [Se crede c John a cauzat
tot acest necaz.]

1.6.2. THE PARTICIPLE


I. There are two participles in English:
- THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE (Im dancing)
- THE PAST PARTICIPLE (I have danced).
The difference between the two participles lies in the meaning they have:
whereas a Present Participle generally expresses an active meaning, the Past Participle
has a passive one.
I found the barn burning. ([the fire was burning active)
I found the barn burned. (the house was burned passive. The Past Participle is
the consequence of the event expressed by a Present Participle.)
II. FORM OF THE PRESENT/ PAST PARTICIPLE
a. Affirmative:
- the ing form of a verb (the Present Participle) - (I was) working/
loving
- the en form of a verb (the Past Participle) - (I have) worked/ loved
b. Negative: - not + the ing form of a verb (the Present Participle)
- not + the en form of a verb (the Past Participle)
Not knowing what to say, I kept my mouth shut.
72

She will not answer, if not asked.


III. USES AND FUNCTIONS OF THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE
a. . to form with the auxiliary to be the progressive aspect
I am reading a book. [Present Tense Progressive]
I have been reading a book for five hours. [Present Perfect Progressive]
b. Verbal features:
it may have aspect, voice or take a direct object:
Having finished his work, Peter went out for a walk. [Perfect Participle,
perfective aspect)
Being found guilty, he was taken to prison. [passive voice]
The girl is playing tennis.
it may have an indirect object:
Grandma is telling me a very funny story.
c. Adjective features
The Present Participle may also have the function of an adjective. The Present
Participle used as a noun modifier bears the name verbal adjective.
the verbal adjectives can be used predicatively or attributively:
The news is interesting. I heard the interesting news.
IV. USES AND FUNCTIONS OF THE PAST PARTICIPLE
a. to form with the auxiliary to be the passive voice and with the auxiliary to have the
Perfect Tenses
A book was read. [Past Tense, Passive Voice]
You could have told us everything. [have told = Perfect Infinitive]
I cant stand having been deceived. [Perfect Gerund, Passive Voice]
2. Verbal features
It may take direct objects or prepositional objects:
We have asked several questions.
3. Adjective features
The Past Participle can be used attributively or predicatively.
He had too many shattered dreams. His dreams are shattered.
V. Ways of translating The Present/ Past Participle into Romanian:
a. Gerunziu/ Propoziie subordonat ( + un mod predicativ: prezent, trecut sau viitor):
I saw John opening the gate. (L-am vzut pe John deschiznd poarta.)
All things considered, we will accept him. (Lund n considerare toate aspectele,
l vom accepta.)
b. Conjunctiv prezent
Ill have her typing two letters. (Am s o pun s bat la main dou
scrisori.)
c. Adjectiv
The news seemed very interesting. (tirile preau foarte interesante.)
d. Adjectiv/ participiu: my beloved child (copilul meu drag/ iubit)
73

e. Substantiv: a never-ending story (poveste fr sfrit)


f. Participiu: They were defeated by a more powerful army. (Ei au fost nvini de o
armat mai puternic.)

1.6.3 THE GERUND


An ing form can cover another nonfinite form of the verb, namely a Gerund. Even
if the Gerund resembles the Present Participle in form, it is totally different in syntax.
Laughing loudly is not nice when you have an official meeting. (the subject)
I. FORM OF THE GERUND
a. Affirmative: -ing form
Do you mind my smoking in here?
b. Negative: not + -ing form (Gerund); not + having + Past Participle of the verb
Do you mind me not coming with you? (Te deranjeaz dac nu vin cu tine?)
II. USES AND FUNCTIONS OF THE GERUND
a. Verbal features
The Gerund may have aspect, voice, a direct, indirect or prepositional object:
Your going there is a little bit surprising. (simple aspect)
Your having gone there was a little bit surprising. (Perfect Gerund)
She resents being asked personal question. (passive voice)
I enjoy talking about my new job.
b. Nominal features
There are some morphological and syntactical features that show that the
Gerund has nominal morphological features which make it change into a Verbal Noun.
- definite/ indefinite article:
The rebuilding of the city took more than we thought. (Verbal Noun)
Rebuilding the city took more than we thought. (rebuilding Gerund)
- plural number: We are exhausted with his comings and goings. (Verbal
Noun)
- genitive (the prepositional genitive):
The beautiful singing of the children was the climax of the party.
c. Pseudo-adjective features
Like the Present Participle, the Gerund can precede a noun, but whereas the
Present Participle can become a Verbal Adjective, the Gerund does not become an
adjective. Compare the following ing forms:
a dancing bear (dancing = Verbal Adjective a bear which is dancing)
a dancing-teacher (dancing = Gerund a teacher of dancing)
III. Ways of translating the Gerund into Romanian
1. gerunziu:
Fancy Tom dancing. (Imagineazi-l pe Tom dansnd/ c danseaz.)

74

2. conjunctiv:
He is fond of listening to music. (i place s asculte muzic.)
3. infinitiv:
He had the chance of telling the truth. (A avut ansa de a spune adevrul.)
4. modul indicativ (prezent, trecut sau viitor)
Do you mind me smoking in here? (Te deranjeaz dac fumez aici ?)
Do you mind me having smoked in here? (Te deranjeaz dac am fumat aici?)

B. EXERCISES
I. Identify the Infinitival and Participial constructions and specify the verbs that
trigger them:
1. The boy noticed the dog running.
2. We named John to be our President.
3. I want him to listen to me.
4. They are supposed to be coming round tonight.
5. They felt the house shaking.
6. The house was announced to have been broken into.
7. I swear not to do this again.
8. He is unlikely to come at the meeting.
9. He seemed to be annoyed by the noise.
10. They cant allow him to be laughed at.
II. Choose the correct form:
1. This meat ....... awful! I think it has gone bad.
a) is tasting
b) tastes
2. They were .......their motorcars dangerously.
a) raising
b) racing
3. It was nice to see the kids ....... in the sun.
a) lying
b) laying
4. ....... typed the letters, the secretary put them into envelopes.
a) being
b) having
5. We regret ....... that we cannot accept your apologies.
a) to tell
b) telling
6. I remember ....... the door when I left the house.
a) to lock
b) locking
7. ....... furiously, I led the dog out of the room.
a) as it barked
b) barking
8. He was always ....... mistakes in his translations.
a) to make
b) making
9. Can you remember what you were doing .......?
a) usually at that time of the day b) that time of the day
10. .......being very tired, the swimmer finished the race
a) in spite of
b) despite
III. Use the Gerund or the Infinitive of the verbs in brackets:

75

1. (talk) about the first item on the agenda, the chairman went on (discuss) about
the unemployment problem.
2. You should (try) settle the dispute between them; Im sure youll find a solution.
3. Ill have the mechanic (check) the battery while hes here.
4. Its no good. The car is broken down and I cant make it (go).
5. (Judge) from recent events, people will stop (complain) about loss of jobs.
6. I hate (think) sometimes that he might find excuses for everything he does.
7. I didnt remember (post) the letter, so I still have it.
8. Ill never forget (walk) on the beach with her and (enjoy) the morning sunshine.
9. I invited her (come) out with me.
11. I tried (go) to bed immediately after lunch but I couldnt sleep.
IV. Finish the sentences using Gerund or Perfect Gerund:
1. The answer to the employment problems seems to lie in .......
2. I would never think of .......
3. He sees no harm in my .......
4. Why dont you stop ....... if you dont like .......?
5. He was so happy he succeeded in .......!
6. Who is responsible for .......?
7. He doesnt seem to me to be fond of .......
8. He said he was looking forward to .......
9. He said he wasnt used to ....... in public
10. I could notice how much he enjoyed .......
V. Finish the sentences so that the meaning stays the same:
1.
It was very kind of you to help me with the housework.
2.
I appreciate .....................
3.
I saw that he closed the safe.
4.
I saw him .....................
5.
I will talk with someone to paint my house.
6.
I will have .....................
7.
I suggest that they should paint the doors white.
8.
I suggest .....................
9.
The pipe is old and it leaks badly.
10. The pipe needs .....................
11. I am so anxious to hear about you.
12. I am looking forward .....................
13. He felt sorry he had been late for the concert.
14. He apologised .....................
15. I know how to solve this Maths problem; look here!
16. Thats the way .....................
17. The idea was to stay there and wait. I wasnt pleased with it.
18. The idea of .....................
19. He finished his work; he left the room without a word.
20. After .....................
VI. Rewrite each sentence using the words in capitals:
1. He is sorry he didnt answer her letter.

76

REGRET

2. There is a risk that she will miss the train if she doesnt take a taxi. RISKS
3. Working late is pointless, because you wont finish the composition till
tomorrow.
USE
4. I wont smoke anymore, I promise!
UP
5. You may go home; she wont come; dont wait for her.
WORTH
6. You are not permitted to park here.
PARKING
7. I really dont know if I turned off the gas when I left
REMEMBER
8. I finished my homework and then I went out for a walk.
HAVING
9. It is strange that you should call on us at this hour.
YOUR
10. Is it all right if I go with you as well?
MIND
VIII. Translate into English:
1.
Ce-ai zice s mergem i s-l vizitm disear?
2.
Fratele meu prefer s joace tenis dect s m nsoeasc n parc.
3.
De ce nu ncerci s evii cltoria pe timpul nopii?
4.
M-am obinuit s merg pe jos 3 km pe zi.
5.
E foarte greu s-i mpiedici pe oameni s parcheze n acel loc.
6.
Nu-mi amintesc s fi plouat mari toata ziua
7.
Dar cum l poi face s nceteze de a copia la lucrri?
8.
S ncercm s pornim aparatul prin apasarea pe butonul rou.
9.
Acoperisul necesit reparaii urgente.
10.
Foarte greu m-am obinuit cu ideea de a-l pierde.

III.2. THE NOUN


A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
I. Definition
A noun is a word used to name a person, animal, place, thing, or abstract idea.
Late last year our neighbours bought a villa.
The bus inspector looked at all the passengers' passes.
II. Classification of nouns
Grammarians have developed a whole series of noun types, including the
proper noun, the common noun, the concrete noun, the abstract noun, the countable
noun (also called the count noun), the non-countable noun (also called the mass noun),
and the collective noun. You should note that a noun will belong to more than one type:
it will be proper or common, abstract or concrete, and countable or non-countable or
collective.

77

II.1. Proper Nouns


Proper nouns are names of specific persons, places, or things and they are
always written with capital letters. The names of days of the week, months, historical
documents, institutions, organisations, religions, their holy texts and their adherents are
proper nouns.
Many people dread Monday mornings.
Last year, I had a Baptist and a Buddhist as roommates.
II.2. Common Nouns
A common noun is a noun referring to a person, place, or thing in a general
sense.
According to the sign, the nearest town is 60 miles away.
All the gardens in the neighbourhood were invaded by beetles this summer.
II.3. Concrete Nouns
A concrete noun is a noun which names anything (or anyone) that can be
perceived through the physical senses: touch, sight, taste, hearing, or smell.
The judge handed the files to the clerk.
The real estate agent urged the couple to buy the second house because it had
new shingles.
II.4. Abstract Nouns
An abstract noun is a noun which names anything which can not be perceived
through the five physical senses.
Mary is amused by people who are nostalgic about childhood.
Justice often seems to slip out of our grasp.
II.5. Countable Nouns
A countable noun (or count noun) is a noun with both a singular and a plural
form, and it names anything (or anyone) that can be counted.
We painted the table red and the chairs blue.
Miriam found six silver dollars in the toe of a sock.
II.6. Non-Countable Nouns
A non-countable noun (or mass noun) is a noun which does not have a plural
form, and which refers to something that you could (or would) not usually count. A noncountable noun always takes a singular verb in a sentence. Non-countable nouns are
similar to collective nouns, and are the opposite of countable nouns.
Oxygen is essential to human life.
Gravel is more expensive than I thought.
II.7. Collective Nouns
A collective noun is a noun naming a group of things, animals, or persons. You
could count the individual members of the group, but you usually think of the group as a
whole, as one unit. You need to be able to recognise collective nouns in order to
maintain subject-verb agreement. A collective noun is similar to a non-countable noun,
and is roughly the opposite of a countable noun.

78

The steering committee meets every Wednesday afternoon.


The class was startled by the bursting light bulb.
III. Number
English has two numbers: singular and plural. The singular number denotes that
one thing is spoken of; the plural denotes that more than one thing is spoken of.
III.1. In modern English -s or -es has come to be the "standard" ending of the plural
forms of nouns.
The majority of English count nouns are regular and predictable in the spelling
of the plural form. Add -s to the end of the singular form or -es to those singulars that
end in a sibilant sound (-s, -ss, -x, -ch, -sh, -zz).
-s
-es
boy / boys
patch / patches;
bed / beds
box / boxes;
book / books
bus / buses
pen / pens
lunch / lunches
day / days
class / classes
III.2. However, if the singular ends with -y and the -y is not preceded by a vowel (or is
not a proper name), the -y changes to -i and the plural is then -es. Compare:
-y / -ies
-y / -ys
spy / spies
play / plays
baby / babies
bay / bays
city / cities
osprey / ospreys
sky / skies
boy / boys
III.3. Some nouns that end in -f/-fe change to -ves in the plural:
-f; -fe / -ves
calf / calves
half / halves
leaf / leaves
life / lives
wife / wives
shelf/shelves
self/selves
knife / knives
However, there are some nouns ending in f, -fe that can have two plural forms (both -fs
and -ves): e.g. scarf scarfs / scarves; wharf wharfs / wharves.
III.4. Some nouns change the vowel sound in becoming plural:
sg. / pl.
Man / men
Woman / women
Foot / feet
Goose / geese
Tooth / teeth
Louse / lice
79

Mouse / mice
III.5. Some Old English plurals are still in use:
sg. / pl.
child / children
ox / oxen
III.6. Nouns ending in -o may take -s or es in the plural. Compare:
-o / -os
-o / -oes
auto / autos
echo / echoes
photo / photos
hero / heroes
piano / pianos
potato / potatoes
kilo / kilos
tomato / tomatoes
video / videos
veto / vetoes
However, some nouns ending in -o may take both -s and -es:
sg. - pl.
Motto mottos / mottoes
Buffalo buffalos / buffaloes
Tornado tornados / tornadoes
Zero zeros / zeroes
Cargo / cargos / cargoes
III.7. Some nouns do not change at all:
sg. / pl
cod* / cod*
deer / deer
fish* / fish*
offspring / offspring
sheep / sheep
trout* / trout*
*Notice that these are names of fish. Many (but not all) fish have irregular plural forms. Salmon, pike,
halibut and tuna are further examples, but one shark becomes two sharks.

These include nouns that are traditionally plural, but are also used for singular forms:
sg. / pl
barracks / barracks
crossroads / crossroads
headquarters / headquarters
means / means
series / series
species / species
III.8. Other nouns retain foreign plurals. Note that some of these have adapted a regular
English plural form as well.
III.8.a. Nouns ending in a with plural ae:
singular
foreign plural
English plural in use

80

alga
algae
amoeba
amoebae
amoebas
antenna
antennae
antennas
formula
formulae
formulas
larva
larvae
vertebra
vertebrae
III.8.b. Nouns ending in -us with plural -a (only in technical use):
sg. / pl
corpus / corpora
genus / genera
III.8.c. Nouns ending in -us with plural -i:
singular
foreign plural
bacillus
bacilli
cactus
cacti
fungus
fungi
nucleus
nuclei
octopus
octopi
stimulus
stimuli
III.8.d. Nouns ending in -um with plural -a:
singular
foreign plural
addendum
addenda
bacterium
bacteria
curriculum
curricula
datum
data
medium
media
memorandum
memoranda

English plural in use


cactuses
funguses
English plural in use
curriculums
mediums
memorandums

III.8.e. Nouns ending in -ex, -ix becoming plural -ices:


singular
foreign plural
English plural in use
appendix
appendices
appendixes
cervix
cervices
cervixes
index
indices
indexes
matrix
matrices
matrixes
vortex
vortices
III.8.f. Nouns ending in -is becoming -es in plural:
sg. / pl
analysis / analyses
axis / axes
basis / bases
crisis / crises
diagnosis / diagnoses
oasis / oases
III.8.g. Nouns ending in -on becoming -a:
81

sg. / pl
criterion / criteria
phenomenon / phenomena
III.8.h. The plural of compound nouns
Compound nouns may be divided into two classes:
Those whose parts are so closely joined as to constitute one word. These make
the plural in the last part.
courtyard, Englishman, fellow-servant, fisherman, Frenchman, forget-me-not,
handful, maidservant, stepson.
Those groups in which the first part is the principal one, followed by a word or
phrase making a modifier. The chief member adds -s in the plural.
attorney at law, commander in chief, court-martial, father-in-law, knight-errant.
NOTE:Some words ending in -man are not compounds of the English word man, but add -s; such as
talisman, firman, Brahman, German, Norman, Mussulman, Ottoman.

Some groups pluralize both parts of the group; as man singer, manservant,
woman servant, woman singer.

IV. Noun - Gender


Whereas in other languages gender follows the form, in English the gender
follows the meaning of the word,; that is, in English, gender depends on sex: if a thing
spoken of is of the male sex, the name of it is masculine; if of the female sex, the name
of it is feminine. Thus gender is the mode of distinguishing sex by words, or additions
to words.
English can have but two genders masculine and feminine. All nouns, then,
must be divided into two principal classes - gender nouns, those distinguishing the sex
of the object; and neuter nouns, those which do not distinguish sex, or names of things
without life, and consequently without sex.
Gender nouns include names of persons and some names of animals; neuter
nouns include some animals and all inanimate objects.
There are three ways to distinguish the genders:
By prefixing a gender word to another word.
By adding a suffix, generally to a masculine word.
By using a different word for each gender.
IV.1. Gender shown by prefixes.
Usually the gender words he and she are prefixed to neuter words: he-goat /
she-goat, cock sparrow / hen sparrow, he-bear / she-bear.
IV.2. Gender shown by suffixes.
By far the largest number of gender words are those marked by suffixes.
The ending -ess is added to many words without changing the ending of the masculine:
M. / F.
baron / baroness
count / countess
lion / lioness
host / hostess

82

priest / priestess
However, the masculine ending may be dropped before the feminine -ess is
added: e.g. abbot abbess; negro / negress ; murderer / murderess.
The feminine may also discard a vowel which appears in the masculine: e.g. actor /
actress; master / mistress.
IV.3. Gender shown by different words.
Sometimes, the feminine and the masculine are entirely different words
M. / F.
bachelor/maid
boy/girl
brother/sister
drake/duck
earl/countess
father/mother
gander/goose
husband/wife
king/queen

M. / F.
lord/lady
wizard/witch
nephew/niece
ram/ewe
sir/madam
son/daughter
uncle/aunt
bull/cow
boar/sow

V. Noun Suffixes
These are common endings for nouns. If you see these endings on a word, then you
know it must be a noun.
-dom: wisdom; kingdom;
-ity: capability, flexibility;
-ment: contentment, appointment;
-sion, -tion: celebration, expression;
-ness: toughness, kindness.
-ance, -ence: assistance, existence;
-er, -or: fighter, actor;
-ist: violinist, pianist.
B. EXERCISES
I. There are two or more plural nouns in each sentence. Only one of them is an
irregular plural noun. Underline the irregular plural noun in each sentence and
write the singular form. The first sentence has been done for you.
1. Vincent helped the women choose their costumes. Woman
2. The hunters never noticed the two deer by the apple trees.
3. Are the geese chasing the other farm animals?
4. Do turtles have teeth?
5. The children told their parents about the matches.
6. You should place the knives and spoons to the left of the plates.
7. The children stood on boxes to see the parade.
8. We took pictures of the oxen as they pulled the wagons.
9. Sandy knew that many mice were living in the walls of the old houses.
83

10. Please keep your hands and feet inside the car.
11. All the kings horses and all the kings men ate scrambled eggs.
II. The underlined noun in each sentence is spelled in its singular form. Write the
correct plural form after the sentence. The first one is done for you.
1. There are too many box in our attic. Boxes
2. How many picture did you take on your trip?
3. Cheryl doesnt enjoy washing dish.
4. There are three church in our little community.
5. Our soccer team has had four wins and three loss.
III. In each sentence there is one singular noun that should be plural. Underline
that noun and write the correct form after the sentence. The first one is done for
you.
1. We put ten of our best crystal glass on the table. Glasses
2. All the student in that school wear uniforms.
3. Our watch dont show the same time.
4. Why are all school bus painted yellow?
5. Seven protester were arrested after the riot.
6. We saw some bright flash of light coming from the woods.
7. Why must I pay four different tax on the same income?
IV. There are two or more singular nouns in each sentence. One of those nouns
should be changed to its plural form to be correct. Underline the incorrect noun
and write its proper form after the sentence. The first three have been done for
you.
1. The old dog no longer fought over their food.
dogs
2. I read seven story to my son.
stories
3. Harold lost five of his new book.
books
4. We never noticed the frog that were sitting on the salad.
5. The governor brought all his child to the ceremony.
6. Annabella was outraged when the nurse said she had eleven louse in her hair.
7. There were many flash of light in the sky.
8. Mrs. Dale insisted that her property tax were too high.
9. All my dream came true when you became my wife.
10. Alice, did you remove some shelf from this bookcase?
11. My calf were sore after the race.
12. None of the switch were turned off on that panel.
13. The painter left their ladder in the middle of the driveway.
14. I sent three reply to your e-mail address.
15. All the witch flew over our Halloween party.
16. Penny put many penny in Pattys purple pantry.
17. Apple were the favorite food at the school party.
18. We saw many scary mask on the last night of October.
19. Olivia falls asleep by counting sheep in her mind.
20. I dont believe that John was chased by a bunch of mummy.

84

V. Each sentence below is missing a noun. The singular form of the noun is printed
after the sentence. Write the correct form of the noun on the line. The first five
have been done for you.
1. How many presents are under the tree? present
2. My uncle's pranks are annoying. uncle
3. The members' votes were counted by hand. member
4. The teacher collected the children's papers. child
5. Does this mouse belong to you? mouse
6. You girls are not behaving like ______________! lady
7. I will grant you three ______________. wish
8. My ______________ car is falling apart. father
9. The ______________ are stacked against the door. box
10. The ______________ names are Big and Pig. puppy
11. Please take both your ______________ out of my pudding! foot
12. That ______________ belongs to my grandfather. cow
13. All of this ______________ characters had faults. story
14. Most ______________ colors will change during the fall. leaf
15. ______________ joke did not amuse the minister. Mary
16. The last four ______________ won the best prizes. customer
17. None of the ______________ showed the correct time. watch
18. The ______________ plan would surely get them into trouble. boy
VI. Give abstract nouns from these words:
1. to bear, to catch, to obtain, to strike, to destroy, to seize, to keep, to draw, to
crucify, to manage, to see, to pursue, to deny, to despise, to hide, to dally;
2. wry, proud, fluorescent, social, forlorn, busy, , mild, blue, absent, blue, moist,
delicate, keen, broad, lofty, gay, maladjusted, nimble, perverse, merry,
3. life, brother, coward, patron, traitor, rival, likely thief, mother, partner, pauper
(two forms), hard.
VII. Give the plural of the following nouns:
a. genius, touch, snail, tuft, axe, porch, pebble, parsnip, bough, scarf, coop,
colliery, ecstasy, sheath, nettle, reef, calf, hoof, elf, belief, titmouse, cameo, solo,
species, grouse, mongoose, index, die, wit, pain, brace, compass, ground, minute,
custom, moth, elk, necklace, fiddle, fiasco, hank, hansom, parsley, parish, scoop, tick,
jaw, wrinkle, hyacinth, alley, clog.
b. Rondo, sphinx, miasma, chamois, larynx, persona, necropolis, casino, virtuoso,
bandit, cactus, zero, hippopotamus, fauna, flora, cherub.
VIII. Give the plural of the following words. Translate them into Romanian:
by-street, milktooth, fir-tree, pickpocket, eggshell, wage-freeze, picklock,
wisdom tooth, eyeglass, catchfly, glasseye, knowlittle, court-martial, commander-inchief, test-tube, garden-flower, housewife, stepson, sun-bath, wind-screen, breakdown,
eyelash, do-nothing, boyscout, poet laureate, good-for-nothing, attorney-general,
onlooker, oil-can, goldfish, daybreak, bitch-atter, bulls eye, beau ideal, caroing-knife,
she-sparrow, lieutenant-colonel, science-fiction diary, lawn-mower, mars quake, brushoff, dog-rose, coltsfoot.

85

IX. Choose the correct form of the noun, verb and determinative(s) and explain
your choice; or say where both are correct:
1. Statistics (is/are) used on a large scale in a countrys industry.
2. In a lot of (grottos/grottoes) all over the world, researchers have discovered
(frescos/frescoes) made by the primitive men.
3. Unfortunately, Pauls little brother is not good at (figure/figures).
4. He is a well-known hunter of (bison/bisons), but finds a great pleasure in
hunting (grouse/grouses) as well.
5. After a ten-day journey through the desert, they found a small (oasis/oases).
6. He planted three (score/scores) of bulbs.
7. The annals of Tacitus (is/are) among the best historical sources for the history of
the Roman times.
8. Mumps (is/are) very catching.
9. The committee (was/were) of the opinion that it/they should take further steps.
10. The vast (sand/sands) of the desert made him shiver with fear.
11. The (snow/snows) and (frost/frosts) of the Antarctic made him sway between
(hope/hopes) and (fear/fears).
X. Give the feminine of the following words:
marquis, ram, boar, friar, bullock, executor, wizard, ambassador, buckhedgehog, duck, bachelor, count, bee, fianc, cow, goose, witch, calf, fox, lion, bride,
ram, peacock, lad, swan, cock (rooster), sow, stag, mare, widow, protg, billy-goat,
marquis.

III.3. THE ARTICLE


A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
English has two types of articles: definite (the) and indefinite (a, an.) The use of
these articles depends mainly on whether you are referring to any member of a group, or
to a specific member of a group:
I. Indefinite Articles: a and an
A and an signal that the noun modified is indefinite, referring to any member of a
group. These indefinite articles are used with singular nouns when the noun is general;
the corresponding indefinite quantity word some is used for plural general nouns. The
rule is:
a + singular noun beginning with a consonant: a boy
an + singular noun beginning with a vowel: an elephant
some + plural noun: some girls
But note:
86

a uniform
a European an MP
an L.-plate
/ju:/
/ju:/
/em/
/el/
If the noun is modified by an adjective, the choice between a and an depends on the
initial sound of the adjective that immediately follows the article:
a broken window
an unusual meeting
a European commision
I.1. USES
The indefinite article can be used before singular countable nouns; it cannot be used
before uncountable nouns:
I bought an armchair.
(but NOT: I bought a furniture.)
We use the indefinite article:
when we are referring to one thing, but it is not one in particular:
I'd like a peach.
when we refer to something for the first time. With the second reference, we
use the:
There's a man at the door. 1 think it's the man from the garage.
after to be and have got when we are describing someone or something,
including someone's job, nation or religion:
She's a headteacher. But: She's the headteacher of Park School.
Brian is an Irishman.
Julian is a practicing Buddhist.
He's got a lovely smile.
It's a nice day.
But: It's the nicest day we've had all week.
with a unit of measurement (weight, quantity, time):
12 a kilo, three times a day, once a week
In exclamations:
What a lovely day!
II. The definite article: the
The definite article the signals that the noun is definite; that it refers to a particular
member of a group.
II.1. USES
The definite article can be used before singular and plural countable nouns and
before uncountable nouns. We use it when we want to refer to a specific thing or things.
This includes:
when the content of the sentence specifies which particular one(s) we are talking
about:
The people next door have invited as round for a drink.
I'll wear the dress I bought last week.
when something is referred to for a second time and therefore becomes specific:
They've got a boy and a girl. The girl is at university now.
when we refer to a particular place, person, animal or thing and the speaker and
listener know which one(s) is/are being referred to:
The window cleaner's here.
I think your keys are in the kitchen.
87

when there is only one:


the world, the sun, the weather, the American Civil War
before some collective nouns referring to a whole group of people, including
names of nationalities and political parties or groups:
the British, the Conservatives, the government, the public, the army
before some adjectives (used without a noun) to refer to the group in general:
the rich, the unemployed, the disabled
before parts of the day:
in the morning
before names of ships, newspapers and magazines and some names of musical
groups:
The Daily Mirror, The Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra
before superlatives and ordinals:
It's the best film I've seen.
That's the second time she's failed the exam.
before names of musical instruments when we talk about playing them:
Can you play the piano?
But: I've just bought a piano.
before names of seas, rivers, groups of islands, islands called The Isle of ...,
chains of mountains, deserts, regions and a few names of countries:
the Atlantic Ocean, the River Nile, the Himalayas, the Sahara, the
Southern Hemisphere, the north, the USA, the Netherlands, the Sudan, the
Ivory Coast, the Philippines, the Bahamas, the Isle of Wight

III. The zero article (no article)


Articles are not used before plural nouns and singular uncountable nouns which are
used in a general sense.
Books are very important to me.
Have you read the books I brought you last month? Water is the best thing to drink
when you're thirsty. Did you put the water in the fridge?
III.1. OTHER USES OF THE ZERO ARTICLE:
with proper nouns:
James has gone to London.
I'm leaving on Saturday.
with meals:
Have you had breakfast yet?
But: That was a lovely breakfast.
with school, class, college, university, home, work, church, bed, hospital, prison,
town when we talk about going to these places or being in them for their normal
use:
Peters gone to bed.
She's been in hospital for three weeks.
But: There isn't a hospital in the town.
with by + item of transport:
Did you go by train?
with next/last + week, days of the week, etc:
next Wednesday, last night, next time

88

B. EXERCISES
I. Write a or an in the blank.
1. I saw an owl on your roof.
2. They built a real igloo in the park.
3. Erin is ...... honor student.
4. Is Maxwell really ...... horrible student?
5. The speech lasted for ...... hour.
6. Barbara bought ....... better basketball.
7. ...... bald eagle flew above the hill.
8. ..... honest reply would be appreciated.
9. Does ...... ancient city lie beneath the water?
10. How far can ...... gallon of gas go?
11. I think I saw ..... oriole perched on the branch.
12. Would ...... old-fashioned man wear a diamond earring?
13. Did I make ...... mistake by serving the chocolate covered worms?
14. Someone put ...... eel in the bathtub!
15. ..... humorous hippo hugged Helen.
16. We arrived after ...... long afternoon in the automobile.
17. ...... ugly camel answered our eager call.
18. I believe it was ...... accidental meeting.
19. I just picked ..... one ounce apple.
20. She taught ...... exciting lesson.
II. Complete the sentences with a or an, the or no article.
1. 'How much are the leeks?' 'They're 80 pence a pound.'
2. I went to ...... wonderful concert by ...... London Symphony Orchestra.
3. ...... local school is soon to be closed.
4. I usually go to ...... work by ....... train.
5. Is ...... meat in ...... oven?
6. Is this ...... first time you've been to ...... Isle of Man?
7. He's ...... art teacher and she's ...... electrician.
8. A lot of people give ....... money to ....... charity at this time of year.
9. What....... beautiful face that child's got!
10. ....... British usually have ...... butter on their bread.
11. ...... life is very difficult for ....... unemployed these days.
12. ....... Leader of ....... Opposition is in danger of losing her seat at ...... next
election.
13. I like to have ....... cup of ...... tea when I wake up in ...... morning.
14. I saw ...... fox this morning. I think it must have been ...... same one that I saw
last week.
15. Can I have ...... apple?
16. Have you ever seen ...... Acropolis in ....... Athens?
17. ...... police have had a lot of support from ...... general public over this issue.
89

18. ...... shirts on ...... washing-line should be nearly dry now.


19. ...... people don't like him because of his selfish attitude.
20. I bought my sister ...... book and ...... bottle of ...... perfume for her birthday but I
don't think she liked ...... perfume.
III. Put in a(n) or some in front of the following words:
picture, money, newspaper, milk, rice, soap-suds, oil, water, cloud, axe, moth,
information, ewe, heiress.
IV. Put in a(n), the, some, or any, where necessary:
Tarcu is a small river that cuts across lane near my home. I like sitting
by Tarcau on fine afternoons. It was warm last Sunday so I went and sat on
river bank as usual. children were playing games on bank and there were
people rowing on the river. Suddenly one of children kicked ball very hard
and it went towards passing boat. People on bank called out to man in
boat but he did not hear them. ball struck him so hard that he nearly fell into ..
water. I turned to look at children, but there werent in sight.
V. Fill in the spaces where necessary- with the definite or indefinite article;
explain the use of the articles:
That night was third of September, one thousand six hundred and sixty-six, and
that wind famed Great Fire of London. It broke out at bakers shop near
London Bridge, on spot on which Monument now stands as
remembrance of those raging flames, it spread and spread, and burned, for three
days. nights were lighter than the days; in day-time there was immense cloud
of smoke and in night-time there was great tower of fire mounting up
into sky, which lighted whole country landscape for ten miles round.
showers of hot ashes rose into air and fell on distant places; flying sparks
carried conflagration to great distances; church steeples feel down with
tremendous crashes; houses crumbled into cinders by hundred and
thousand. summer had been intensively hot and dry, streets were very narrow,
and houses mostly built of wood and plaster. Nothing could stop tremendous
fire but want of more houses to burn; nor did it stop until whole way from
Tower to Temple Bar was desert.
VI. Fill in the spaces with the definite article or indefinite article where necessary:
1. For exactly the same reason cries excited Phil, hammering on table with
both hands.
2. You really must stay to supper. Youll get very nice wine from Sicily,
far better than youll ever find here.
3. fat brown goose lay at one end of table and at other end, on bed of
creased paper strewn with springs of parsley, lay great ham, stripped of
its outer skin, and beside this was round of spiced beef.
4. Pour one pint of boiling milk over pound of bread cut in slices; as
soon as milk is absorbed and cool, beat bread smooth, adding as you beat half
pound of coffee raisins, three quarters of pound of currants, half
pound of final shred suet, quarter of pound powdered sugar, quarter of

90

teaspoonful each of salt, and glass of wine or brandy grated nutmeg,


and powdered ginger.
5. When he saw it he drew back and his cheeks flushed for moment with
pleasure. look of joy came into his eyes, as if he had recognized himself for
first time. He stood there motionless and in wonder, dimly conscious that
Hallaward was speaking to him, but not catching meaning of his words sense
of his own beauty came on him like revelation. He had never felt it before.
Basil Hallawards compliments had seemed to him to be merely charming
exaggerations of friendship.
VII. Supply articles where necessary:
Of all ... (1) countries of ... (2) former British Empire, it is ... (3) United Kingdom
that I would like to visit most, although I am certain that in ... (4) United States
and ... (5) Canada one can find many ... (6) tourist attraction too. I sometimes
dream that, having landed at ... (7) Heathrow airport, I travel by ... (8) underground
to central London, to ... (9) Piccadilly Circus or ... (10) Marble Arch. I find
accommodation at ... (11) inexpensive hotel, not far from ... (12) Thames, within
... (13) walking distance of ... (14) Buckingham Palace. ... (15) first day I visit ...
(16) National Gallery and ... (17) Tate Gallery and there are so many beautiful things
to see in ... (18) two museums that I have no time left for anything else. On my second
day I wander about ... (19) Bloomsbury, ... (20) intellectual centre of Britain's capital
city, see ... (21) Senate House, where ... (22) University of London has most of its
offices, then ... (23). British Museum and the old houses in ... (24) Russell Square.
Later, I walk around ... (25) Houses of Parliament and listen to ... (26) Big Ben
strike the hour. ... (27) Parliament, as everybody knows, is in ... (28) Westminster
and consists of ... (29) House of Lords and ... (30) House of Commons. ... (31)
visitors can see ... (32) latter at work on some days of ... (33) week.
When my English vacation draws to ... (34) end, I decide to cross ... (35) English
Channel by ... (36) ferry-boat and from there to travel home across the Continent
by ... (37) rail.
VIII. Translate into English:
Dup micul dejun, copii au mers la coal i cam dup un sfert de or, eu am mers
la pia. Pentru c m-am ntors acas mai devreme i soul era nc la serviciu, m-am
hotrt s fac nite tarte pentru ceai. n scurt timp, eram ocupat cu amestecatul
untului i al finii; curnd, plmdeala lipicioas mi acoperi minile. Tocmai atunci,
sun telefonul. Nimic n-ar fi putut fi mai enervant. Am ridicat receptorul cu dou
degete lipicioase i am rmas surprins auzind vocea d-nei Brown. Mi-au trebuit 10
minute s-o conving s m sune mai trziu. n cele din urm am pus receptorul n
furc. Dar ce incurctur! Aluat pe degete, pe telefon, pe clana uii. Abia am ajuns
n buctrie c soneria ri att de tare, nct ar fi trezit i morii. De data aceasta
era potaul care dorea s semnez pentru o recomandat.
IX. Translate into English:
mic cutie chinezeasc, un englez, un vnt destul de puternic, o climar, o viespe,
un nufr, o moar de vnt, un fermoar, un sfat, o curs de oareci, un omer, un an, o
temperatur uniforma, o regul universal, o regin fr pereche, o parvenit, o

91

curte, o creang de tuia, o clan galben, un om fals, o limb de ceas, un preedinte


onorific, o nmormntare onorabil.
X. Translate into English:
Plugarul, motenitorul, afacerea unilateral, ora, studentul inteligent, omul cu un
singur ochi, olandezii, ghiocelul alb, furnica, timpul tulbure, caisa, regiunea arid,
coaja oului, metoda eficient, acul de siguran, recordul nentrecut, familia unit,
galbenuul, vsla, stilul oficial, cuptorul.

III.4. THE ADJECTIVE


A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
If we wish to speak of or to describe objects and people, we cannot use only
nouns. We need another category of words in order to describe the characteristics (size,
position, colour, smell, etc.) of an object or the physical or moral qualities of a person.
In other words, in order to add to the meaning of nouns or to limit their application, we
need to use adjectives.
the heavy bag
an innocent child
the yellow rose
a famous writer
a chilly morning
a beautiful woman
a flexible puppet
a merciless dictator
I. Definition
92

An adjective is a word joined to a noun or other substantive word or expression,


to describe, identify or quantify it.
II. Position
Adjectives usually precede the nouns which they modify*,
It was no doubt a gorgeous landscape
Two beautiful young French students entered the room.
but they can also be used after certain verbs:
Peter was furious.
*Pay attention to exceptions such as: knight errant, court martial, secretary general, the people present.

III. Simple and Compound Adjectives


Adjectives may be divided into a series of classes and subclasses according to
the various criteria taken into consideration.
Descriptive adjectives, the largest class of adjectives, may be divided into
simple and compound adjectives when form is the criterion taken into consideration.
Simple adjectives cannot be decomposed into smaller or simpler parts:
safe, happy, deep, dirty, long, correct, amazing, beautiful, terrible, etc.
Compound adjectives are adjectives made of two or more identifiable words:
a life-giving energy, ice-cold water, a blue-eyed woman, a long-legged bird,
homemade bread, a good-looking man, a short-sleeved coat, the next-door
neighbour, etc.
IV. Suffixes
Adjectives can be identified using a number of formal criteria. Some adjectives can be
identified by their endings. Typical adjective endings include:
-able/-ible
capable, flexible, pleasurable, portable, readable, remarkable
-al
financial, functional, internal, logical, manual
-ful
beautiful, careful, grateful, harmful, useful
-ive
attractive, extensive, intensive, persuasive, selective
-ic
anarchic, cubic, economic, heroic, poetic
-ish
childish, bluish, dwarfish, foolish, whitish
-less
breathless, careless, merciless, restless, speechless, useless
-ly
friendly, kindly. manly, monthly
-ous
courageous, dangerous, disastrous, fabulous, virtuous
-y
chilly, dirty, sandy, stony, sunny
-ing*
amazing, cunning, moving, neighbouring, surprising
-ed*
broken, confused, experienced, paved, latticed
*-ing and -ed may be added to verbs in order to make up participial adjectives.

However, a large number of very common adjectives cannot be identified in this


way as they do not have typical adjectival form:
bad
dark
honest
red
bright
deep
hot
silent
clever
difficult main
simple
cold
distant
old
strange
common good
quiet
wide
complet
great
real
young
93

e
V. Negative prefixes
Adjectives may also be formed by means of a number of negative prefixes including
the following:
dis-: disagreeable dishonest
un-: uninteresting, unnecessary
il-: illegal, illogical
im-: impossible, impolite
in-: inconvenient, insignificant
ir-: irresponsible, irrelevant
VI. Degrees of Comparison
Comparison is an inflection not possessed by nouns and pronouns: it belongs to
adjectives and adverbs.
When we place two objects side by side, we notice some differences between
them as to size, weight, color, etc. Thus, a lioness may be larger than a lion, a purse may
be heavier than a suitcase, a womans eyes may be bluer than the sky, an idea may be
better than another one, etc. This characteristic of adjectives is called gradability.
Most adjectives in English are gradable, but there are some adjectives which are
non-gradable as they already denote the highest position on a scale:
favourite, main, final, immemorial, infinite, perpetual, organic, sole, sufficient,
supreme, universal, etc.
The degrees of comparison are the comparative, expressing a greater degree of
quality, and the superlative, expressing the greatest degree of quality. These are
properly the only degrees, though the simple, uninflected form is usually called the
positive degree.
VI. 1. The Comparative
The Comparative in English is represented by:
the Comparative of Superiority
the Comparative of Inferiority
the Comparative of Equality
VI.1.a. The Comparative of Superiority
In the case of monosyllabic and easily pronounced adjectives of two syllables,
the comparative is formed by adding the suffix er.
blue bluer, easy easier, fat fatter, happy happier, thin thinner
Most two-syllable adjectives and the adjectives which have three or more
syllables have the comparative with more.
careful more careful, famous more famous
VI.1.b. The Comparative of Inferiority
All adjectives form the Comparative of Inferiority by adding either not so/as ...
as or less ... than.
not as happy as..., less interesting than...
VI.1.c. The Comparative of Equality
All adjectives form the Comparative of Equality by adding as ... as.
94

as happy as..., as interesting as...


Some Comparatives of Equality have a superlative meaning:
as black as coal, as blind as a bat, as clear as crystal, as good, as gold, as
hungry as a wolf, as poor as a church mouse
VI.2. The Superlative
The Superlative in English is represented by:
The Relative Superlative
The Absolute Superlative
VI.2.a. The Relative Superlative
In the case of monosyllabic and easily pronounced adjectives of two syllables,
the relative superlative is formed by adding the ...-est.
blue the bluest, easy the easiest, fat the fattest, happy the happiest, thin
the thinnest
Most two-syllable adjectives and the adjectives which have three or more
syllables have the relative superlative with the most.
careful the most careful, famous the most famous
VI.2.b. The Absolute Superlative
All adjectives form the absolute superlative by adding the adverb very.
very thin, very careful
Other adverbs such as quite, extremely, awfully may also be added to form the
comparative.
quite happy, extremely dangerous, awfully tired
The
Positive
Degree
thin
famous

The
Comparative of
Superiority
thinner
more famous

The
Comparative of
Inferiority
not as thin as
less famous than

The
Comparative
of Equality
as thin as
as famous as

The Relative
Superlative
the thinnest
the most famous

The
Absolute
Superlative
very thin
very famous

Notes:
1. Some two-syllable adjectives have comparatives and superlatives with either the endings er and est
or more and most:
e.g. common commoner/more common the commonest/the most common
simple simpler/more simple the simplest/the most simple
Here are some more: cruel, gentle, handsome, narrow, obscure, polite, remote, shallow, stupid, subtle.
2. Three-syllable adjectives derived from other adjectives by adding the prefix un may also have
comparatives and superlatives with either the endings er and est or more and most:
e.g. unhappy unhappier/more unhappy the happiest/the most happy
unlucky unluckier/more unlucky the unluckiest/the most unlucky

VII. Irregular Comparison


Some adjectives and adverbs in English have irregular comparatives and superlatives.
Here is a list that includes the majority of them.
good/well
better
the best
evil/bad/ill worse
the worst
little
less/lesser
the least
much/many more
the most
old
older/elder
the oldest / the eldest
95

far
late
near

farther/furthe
r
later/the
latter
nearer

the farthest / the furthest


the latest / the last
the nearest / the next

B. EXERCISES
I. Complete the following sentences with an adjective formed from one of the
verbs or nouns below:
act, care, change, comfort, describe, dread, enjoy, forget, grace, motion, power,
rely, submit, tire, truth
1. We had a lovely weekend; it was thoroughly enjoyable.
2. He never remembers my birthday; I don't know why he's so ..............
3. The problem is that there's nothing we can do about it; we're completely ............
4. I believe what he says because he's always been ............... in the past.
5. She never seems to run out of energy; she's completely ....................
6. She's a very ............... writer; she gives you a very good feel for the places and
characters in her stories.
7. Don't worry. If he's said he'll be there, then I sure he will. He's very ...............
8. His problem is that he always does exactly what people tell him to do: he's
just so ....................
9. You're so ................... you're always dropping things.
10. I love to watch good ballet dancers: they're so .......................
11. The cat stayed ................... as it waited to pounce on the bird.
12. It's a very ....................... climate; the weather can be completely different from
one day to the next.
13. It's important to keep ...................... after you retire.
14. The seats in first class were really ............. I could easily have fallen asleep in
them.
15. The situation out there is ............ More and more people are dying every day.
II. Fill each of the blanks with a suitable adjective from the list.
devoid, free, certain, inclined, liable, concerned, filled, elect
1. Those ......... with the political implications of the new policy are very worried.
2. The outgoing President was accompanied by the President ..........
3. I'm ......... to think that it would be better to finish this later.
4. These buildings are ......... to collapse in a strong earthquake.
5. I was absolutely ......... I'd left it on the table.
6. The landscape was completely ......... of any sign of human habitation.
7. Please feel ......... to use the phone if you need to.
8. The ex-prisoner is ............ with remorse for what he has done.
III. Circle the adjectives listed a, b, c or d, that can fill each gap. One, two, three or
all of them may be possible.
1. The ... child was comforted by his aunt.
96

a. sick b) afraid c) frightened d) ill


2. They had stories ... about their travels through India.
a. unlikely b) galore c) a-plenty d) countless
3. A speedy solution is ....
a. main b) principal c) chief d) crucial
4. He was taken ... by the ferocity of the criticism.
a. aback b) unawares c) surprised d) unaccustomed
5. The ... train is almost never on time.
a. last b) late c) early d) stopping
6. This is ... reward for twenty years of loyal service.
a) due b) scant c) meagre d) proper
IV. Give the adjectives corresponding to the following words:
interest, beauty, sand, oppress, relevance, cloud, therapy, dirt, nation,
fascinate, attract, science, part, obsess, race, youth, enjoy, mountain, use,
question, depth, vary, economy, control, envy, technology, strength, length,
rely, mercy, influence, art, describe, child, noise, love, understand, trouble,
contempt, grace, illustrate, province, eat, attention, shame, logic, repeat.
IV. Copy the table into your notebook and put the adjectives in the box
into the correct columns.
patient , relevant, attractive, literate, flexible, regular, legal, agreeable, mature,
convenient, tasteful, moral, replaceable, responsible, significant, possible,
legible, honest, rational, explicable, justified, mortal, reversible, destructible,
perfect, friendly, soluble, polite, logical, interesting, separable

un-

it-

imimpatient

in-

ir-

dis-

V. Copy the table into your notebook and write the adjectives in the correct
columns. Put them into pairs of adjectives with similar meanings.
surprising, starving, nice, filthy, devastated, wonderful, hungry, delicious, big, tasty,
furious, ugly, impossible, small, hideous, terrified, good, enormous, tired, thirsty,
amazing, angry, vital, parched, dirty, upset, important, terrible, frightened, minute,
exhausted, perfect, difficult
gradable
non-gradable
surprising
am a z i n g
VI. Give the degrees of comparison of the following adjectives and use them in
sentences of your own: beautiful, thin, interesting, bad, little, old, good, lucky,
common, little, unhappy.
VII. Complete the sentences with adjectives derived from the words in capital

97

letters at the end:


1. Even those who lived through the Holocaust found it . (TO COMPREHEND)
2. My job was to try and understand something that was not ... (TO
UNDERSTAND)
3. The characters of the novel are people struggling to resume lives that war had
rendered ..... (MEANING)
4. The fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and the events in former Yugoslavia convinced
film director Francisco Rosi of the ... relevance of the book's theme. (TO
ENDURE)
5. Sometimes I would watch war films and think it was all too histrionic and too ....
(THEATRE)
6. The liberators were met with .... enthusiasm. (TO INFECT)
7. If art consists of the .... and the ..., then this musician's art fails on the latter
account. It is too easily imitated, in a way that Charlie Parker's seemingly ....
melodism never was. (TO DEFINE, TO IMITATE, EFFORT)
8. Your cousin is a consummate liar. He told me an ... story about how he had
helped rob a bank in the City of London. (TO BELIEVE)
9. The way he behaved to his poor ex-wife is both ... and ...
(TO FORGIVE, TO
FORGET)
10. Uncle Tom's Cabin showed how ... cruelty was from the institution of slavery
and how fundamentally ... were free and slave societies. (TO SEPARATE, TO
RECONCILE)
11. The cheese was repulsively... . (ODOUR)
VIII. Complete the following idiomatic comparisons:
as blind as a ... (1); as drunk as a ... (2); as mad as a ... (3); as light as a ... (4); as dark
as ... (5); as strong as an ... (6); as fit as a ... (7); as poor as a ... (8); as dead as a ... (9); as
clear as ... (10); as old as the ...(11); as keen as ... (12); as bright as a ... (13); as cool as
a ... (14); as busy as a ... (15); as stubborn as a ... (16); as deaf as a ... (17).
IX. Translate into English:
1. Ultimele tiri sunt ncurajatoare.
2. Mie mi-au plcut ambele fete, dar eu cred c cea mai mic e i cea mai drgu.
3. Sfaturile pe care mi le dai sunt ntotdeauna utile.
4. Brbatul cu umerii lai si puse pe el haina neagr cu mneci lungi i plec n
grab.
5. Am mncat puin astzi aa c mi-e o foame de lup.
6. Este firesc ca polonezii s vorbeasc poloneza, turcii s vorbeasc turca, iar
finlandezii s vorbeasc finlandeza.
7. Cu ct se ntuneca mai tare, cu att mai speriat era: nu voia s fie vzut de
nimeni.
8. Cltoriile n spaiul cosmic devin tot mai frecvente.
9. Se uit pe furi la femeia mbrcat n negru.
10. Avem amintiri att de frumoase despre locul acesta nct ne-am gndit c o s-l
revizitm.

98

III. 5. THE PRONOUN


A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
I. Definition
Pronouns are used to refer to people and things without naming them. They
replace nouns or noun phrases, making texts less repetitive.
II. Classification
There are several types of pronouns:

99

personal
possessive
reflexive
demonstrative
indefinite
reciprocal
relative
interrogative

II.1. Personal pronouns


a. Form: - as a subject: sg. I
you
he/ she/ it
pl. we
you
they

- as a complement: sg.

me
you
him/ her/ it
pl.
us
you
them

b. Uses:
The pronoun I is always written with a capital letter.
All the verbs in English (excepting Imperatives) must have a pronominal
subject:
They dislike inefficiency.
You and one are used impersonally meaning everyone, no one or anyone.
You/ one should always tell the truth.
They is used impersonally denoting a collective agent telling something:
They say he is dishonest.
It is used for people or things with an unknown gender, with a noun to refer to
persons and in expressions about the weather, temperature, time, dates and
distances:
Where is my book? It is on the shelf.
Who is at the door? It is Olivia.
Its cold outside.
What time is it? Its nine oclock.
How far is it to Chicago? Its ten miles.
II. 2. Possessive pronouns
a. Form:
sg.
mine
pl.
ours
yours
yours
his/ hers
theirs
b. Use: - possessive pronouns replace possessive adjectives. The noun missing was
mentioned before:
This is my book. This book is mine.
Were using his car, not her car. Were using his, not hers.
II. 3. Reflexive pronouns
a. Form: sg. myself
yourself
himself/ herself/ itself

pl.

100

ourselves
yourselves
themselves

b. Uses:
With reflexive verbs like to enjoy oneself, to amuse oneself, to help oneself, to
hurt oneself, to cut oneself, to wash oneself:
Please help yourself with some cake!
He hurt himself during the game.
But some verbs which are reflexive in other languages are not reflexive in
English: to dress, to comb, to shave, to meet.
Sue and Joe met last year.
To show an action performed for or on oneself:
She looked at herself in the mirror.
Why are you so angry with yourself?
To emphasize the doer of an action:
The president himself attended the meeting.
II. 4. Demonstrative pronouns
a. Form:
this, that (singular referent); these, those (plural referent)
b. Uses:
The pronouns are in number agreement with the noun they replace:
This (umbrella) is mine. That is his.
These (discs) are mine. Those are his.
This, these refer to objects that are near the speaker; that, those refer to objects
in the distance, not near the speaker:
This is here, that is there.
The former the latter have the meaning of the first and, respectively, the
second of two; they have the same form for singular and plural:
Andy and Janet are cousins: the former is a student, the latter is a pupil.
II. 5. Indefinite pronouns
a. Form: - all; both; much; many; more; most; little; a little; few; a few; another; the
other; others; the others; either; neither; each; everybody; everyone; everything; some;
any; no one/ none; somebody/ thing/ one; anybody/ thing/ one; nobody; nothing;
enough; several; one.
b. Uses:
The series ending in body refers to people, that ending in thing refers to
things.
Everybody is at home.
Everything is possible here.
The pronouns beginning with some- are used in affirmative sentences and in
interrogative sentences when an affirmative answer is expected; those beginning
with any- are used in negative sentences when they follow a negative verb or a
negative word, or in interrogative sentences when we are not sure about the
answer:
I have something to tell you.
Shall I give you something to read?
I didnt see anybody.
Is anybody at home?
Both refers to only two people, things and is used with plural verb:
The boys are both sleeping.
101

Either and neither refer to two people or things; either means one or the other,
neither means not one and not the other:
Which book do you prefer? Neither/ either.
Much means a great amount or quantity of; many means a great number of:
Much of his information was vital for us.
Many of us have seen this film.
Little means not much and is used for uncountable nouns; a little means at
least some:
Little is known about him.
Is there any soup left? Yes, a little.
Few and a few refer to countable nouns; few underlines the smallness of a
number; a few means at least some:
We expected many guests but only few came.
A few of us managed to arrive in time.

II. 6. Reciprocal pronouns


a. Form: each other; one another indicating that two people do the same thing, feel the
same way or have the same relationship.
b. Uses:
The two constructions are normally interchangeable:
We sent each other/ one another gifts.
There are some verbs which indicate reciprocity and do not use a reciprocal
pronoun; however, if the speaker wants to emphasize the relationship, a
reciprocal pronoun may occur:
When they met, they embraced and then they kissed (one another).
II. 7. Relative pronouns
a. Form: who, whom, whose, whoever, which, whichever, that, what
b. Uses:
Who, whom, whose (shows possession), whoever refer to persons:
This is the boy who/ whom I told you about.
The woman whose car is parked there is my cousin.
Which refers to animals or things:
Thats the film which he likes best.
Whoever, whichever, whatever refer to something or someone that is unknown:
Ill help whoever needs me.
Show me whatever you have.
II. 8. Interrogative pronouns
a. Form: who, whose, whom, what, which
b. Uses:
Used as the subject or object of a clause, or the object of preposition:
Who has broken the vase?
What is she doing now?
In idiomatic expressions:
What about? = what do you think about?
I cant tell which is which/ who is who.
102

He has used a what-do-you-call it= I dont know its name.

B. EXERCISES
I. Rewrite the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first one and
contains the word(s) in brackets:
1. We only have a week left. (all)
2. All the participants will be sent an agenda. (every)
3. This idea wont work, and the other one also wont work. (neither)
4. We only want a weaker dollar. (all)
5. The two proposals are interesting. (both)
6. Dr. Jones is one of my colleagues. (mine)
7. Two theories proposed by him proved correct. (his)
8. This is your electric drill. (yours)
9. There is nothing to read at home. (anything)
10. It was Mary who asked that stupid question. (herself)
II. Fill in with the suitable reflexive pronouns:
1. There isnt much to do on weekends, so we have to amuse
2. Jerry has fallen off the ladder this morning and has injured
3. The students were happy because they could watchon the video.
4. You can letinto the house with the small key.
5. As she was not hungry, she had to forceto eat.
6. The boy lockedin the bathroom.
7. We were surprised when we sawin that large mirror.
8. The light in the stairway switchesoff after two minutes.
9. The soldier didnt know that the gun was loaded so he shot
10. My sister is going to France soon, so she is teachingFrench.
III. Fill in with some; any; someone; anyone; none; somebody; anybody; nobody;
something; anything; nothing:
1. I cant see my wallet; must have taken it.
2. Do you haveto add?
3. If you have no money, I can lend you
4. I rang the bell two or three time, butanswered.
5. He must beimportant.
6. is more important than good health.
7. You can find practicallyyou want in this shop.
8. I think theresat the door. Were you expecting?
9. I have some very good wine. Would you like?
10. She wanted to drink some coffee but there wasleft.
11. of us has ever heard such an interesting story.
12. This time I cant dofor you.
13. Im going to the supermarket since I want to buy
14. There isin my bag; its empty.

103

IV. Fill in the blanks with the corresponding relative pronouns:


1. The womanis crossing the street now is one of my teachers.
2. This is the school inEinstein learnt.
3. The child toyou gave that toy was very happy.
4. Professor Jones, forI have great respect, has taught us many interesting things.
5. The gentlemanI have just greeted is a famous scientist.
6. The coffeeyou have made is very strong.
7. Pollution is a problemmust be solved as soon as possible.
8. The problemswe did yesterday were difficult for us.
9. This is the manson won the competition.
10. The chairyou are sitting on is an antique.
V. Make up questions to which the following sentences are the answers. Refer to
the words in italics by using interrogative pronouns:
1. We are going to buy a new central heating.
2. That car over there is Johns.
3. We saw a lot of strikers in the street.
4. London is the capital of Great Britain.
5. The teacher is explaining a new theory.
6. That project belongs to me.
7. Ill choose the red one.
8. She asked him about that scholarship.
9. I asked them for a cup of tea.
10. She begged the child to keep quiet.
VI. Transform these sentences replacing alone with by + a reflexive pronoun
according to the model:
My daughter prefers to do her homework alone.
My daughter prefers to do her homework by herself.
1. I dont live alone: I have two roommates.
2. Most people dont enjoy going to a dance alone.
3. Did you really do it alone?
4. We wont be able to build this machine alone.
5. He plans to go the there alone.
VII. Fill in the blanks with the right reciprocal pronouns:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

You and I love


The three girls havent spoken to for a long time.
I hope jack and Julie get on with
My nephew called on me yesterday. We hadnt seen for more than two years.
Our children and theirs took an instant dislike to
Alec and I stayed up late last night. We had a lot to say to
Our former classmates are very happy to meet
The two boys looked at
Although Angela and Sarah say that they are friends, I know that, in fact, they
hate
10. The four children took their schoolbags and said goodbye to
104

VIII. Translate the following sentences into English using pronouns wherever
possible:
1. Nu este nici o frm de adevr n ceea ce spune ea; nu-i adevrat c ea personal
s-a dus acolo.
2. Este timpul s plecm, nu-i aa?
3. I-am cutat pe Frank i Patrick mai bine de o or i, n cele din urm, i-am gsit
pe amndoi n parc.
4. George a fost cel care a intrat primul n atelier.
5. Pe cine ai mai ntlnit acolo?
6. Cartea pe care am cumprat-o luni este foarte interesant.
7. Casa al crei acoperi este rou a fost vndut unui american.
8. Dup ce s-au uitat unul la altul cu insisten, cei doi au izbucnit n rs.
9. Colegii notri nu au gsit pe nimeni acolo iar laboratorul era zvort.
10. Cine altcineva te-a mai vzut intrnd aici?
11. i Maria i Lucy au promis c vor fi aici la ora cinci, ar nici una nu a venit nc.
12. Cu excepia ctorva polonezi i a noastr, toat lumea a plecat n excursie.
13. Cui i-ai dat raportul scris?
14. Cum de mi-ai gsit adresa? Cine i-a dat-o?
15. A cui este maina de lng poarta noastr?
16. Ce altceva a fi putut face?
17. Care este haina ei? Sunt trei aici i nici una nu este a mea.
18. Primele exerciii sunt corecte, celelalte sunt greite.
19. Care dintre biei i-a spart geamul?
20. Prietena mea are doi biei: unul este medic iar cellalt este cercettor n
domeniul tehnic.

III.6. THE NUMERAL


A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
I. The Cardinal numeral
1. FORM:
1 one

11 eleven

21 twenty-one

105

106 a (one) hundred and six

2 two
12 twelve
30 thirty
3 three
13 thirteen
40 forty
4 four
14 fourteen 50 fifty
5 five
15 fifteen
60 sixty
6 six
16 sixteen
70 seventy
7 seven17 seventeen 80 eighty
8 eight
18 eighteen 90 ninety
9 nine
19 nineteen 100 one hundred
10 ten
20 twenty

621 six hundred and twenty-one


806 eight hundred and six
1,000 one thousand
1,000,000 a (one) million
1,000,000,000 a (one) billion

2. USES:
Notes:
- The figure 0 can be read in the following ways:
- in mathematics: nought [no:t]
- for temperature: zero
- for telephone numbers, TV , radio, long numbers: oh [u]
- in sport scores: nil [nil] (in team games); love [lv]
- There is nos after hundred, thousand, million, etc., except when followed by
of:
hundreds of people (meaning lots of).
-When the cardinal number contains a full stop, the number(s) that occur after
the full stop indicate a fraction: 7.25 (seven point twenty-five)
- When the numbers are over 999 and are written in figures, they get a comma or
a blank:
1, 987 or 1 987
2, 513, 608 or 2 513 608
Common ways of calculating
a. addiction:
2+3=5
(two plus three is/are five)
b. subtraction:
93=6
(nine minus three is/ are six)
c. multiplication:
6 x 5 = 30
(six multiplied by five is/ equals thirty)
d. division:
40 : 5 = 8
(forty divided by five is/ equals 8)
5
e. powers:
3 = 241
(three to the power five is two hundred and fortyone)
f. root:
25 = 5
(the square root of twenty-five is five)
3
27 = 3
(the cube root of twenty-seven is three)
Fractions
a. Common fractions:
one half
numerator/ denominator
three fourths
one fourth
2/3 two thirds
6/35 six thirty-fifths
b. Decimal fractions:
35.89
thirty-five point eight nine
0.5
nought point five
0.03
nought point nought three

Measurements
106

a. linear measure:
1 inch = 2.54 cm
12 inches = 1 foot (ft)
3 feet = 1 yard (yd)
1 mile = 1.6093 metres
3 miles = 1 league = 4.83 kilometres

1.00
1.15
2. 30
3. 05
9. 45
6. 55
10. 40
15. 00
23. 15

b. nautical measure
6 feet = 1 fathom
100 fathoms = 1.829 metres

Telling the time


Its one oclock a.m. / Its one a.m.
Its a quarter past one.
Its half past two/ Its two thirty. (modern)
Its five past three.
Its a quarter to ten/ Its nine forty five (modern)
Its five minutes to seven.
Its twenty minutes to eleven.
Its three oclock in the afternoon/ Its three sharp.
Its a quarter past eleven at night/ p.m.

Expressing age
a. Using to be followed by a number:
He is fifteen (years old).
b. Using the preposition of after a noun, followed by a number:
She was a girl of twelve.
c. With the help of a compound adjective: number + a singular noun referring to a
period of time + old:
A fifteen-year-old boy
d. When we refer to the approximate age we can use in + pronoun + teens/ twenties/
fifties etc. or over + number:
She was in her teens then, now shes in her mid-fifties.
I think he is over sixty.

Telephone numbers
Each digit of a telephone number is spoken separately; if there are two identical
numbers occurring together, we say double 2/4/8 etc.:
142093 (one for two oh nine three)
566791 (five double six seven nine one)

II. The ordinal numeral


1. FORM
1st the first
2nd the second
3rd the third
4th the fourth
5th the fifth
6th the sixth

11th the eleventh


40th the fortieth
th
th
12 the twelfth 50 the fiftieth
13th the thirteenth
60th the sixtieth
th
14 the fourteenth
70th the seventieth
th
15 the fifteenth
80th the eightieth
20th the twentieth
90th the ninetieth
107

7th the seventh


8th the eighth
9th the ninth
10th the tenth

21st the twenty-first


30th the thirtieth

100th the one hundredth


1,000th the one thousandth

2. Uses:
a. When we want to identify something by indicating where it comes in a sequence:
January is the first month of the year.
This is the seventh time when Im calling her!
Notes:
- dates may be written in the following ways:
April 1, 1946/ April 1st, 1946/ 1st April 1946/ 1st of April 1946
- ordinal numbers can also be written in an abbreviated form:
the 1st; the 2nd; the 52nd; the 76th, the 98th
III. The Multiplicative numeral
1x
2x
3x
4x

It shows the proportion in which a quantity is increased:


single, once
10x
tenfold, ten times
double/ twofold, twice 100x a hundredfold, a hundred times
triple/ threefold, thrice
fourfold, four times
IV. The Distributive numeral

It shows the distribution or grouping of objects:


one by one
two by two/ by twos/ in twos
ten by ten/ by tens/ in tens
in dozens (in sets of twelve)
in score (in sets of about twenty)

B. EXERCISES
I. Read the following numbers and fractions:
408; 1/3; 6.08; 5,728; 25,100; 9/10; 964; 198/4; 673; 68/12; 0.7; 10.58
II. Read the times of the clock:
3:25; 6:45; 9:00: 1:15; 4:50; 23:35; 18:00; 8:35

108

III. Read the following dates and phone numbers:


21 June 1998
118605
2 April 1805
225799
5 August 1789
179300
3 December 1866
126603
30 May 2006
0234557891
23 July 2007
0722006784
IV. Answer the following questions:
1. What time do you get up?
2. What time do you have breakfast?
3. What time do you leave home?
4. What time do you usually get to university?
5. What time does your first class start on Mondays?
6. What time do you have a break?
7. What time do you have dinner?
8. What time do you go out with your friends at the weekend?
9. What time do you go to bed?
10. What will you be doing in ten years time?
11. When is your birthday?
12. When is Christmas?
13. When is our national holiday?
14. When is the first day of the year?
15. Whats the date today?
16. Whats the date when Einstein was born?
V. Read and solve the following mathematical operations:
1+8
3x6
2/3
10 + 3
7 x 10
8/9 x 2/7
9 + 18
120 x 4
6/7: 3/14
30 21
15: 3
23
100 75
100: 5
22 + 32
1,250 500
0.5 + 0.7
10.06 4.02
VI. Use the following words in sentences of your own:
forty; love; thirty-one; nought point five; hundreds; dozen; gross; three fourths;
tenfold; once; three times; over ninety; one by one; twice as many.
VII. Translate into English:
1. Copiii au intrat n coal doi cte doi.
2. Am citit sute de pagini n ultimele sptmni.
3. Tocmai am cumprat dou duzini de cutii de chibrituri.
4. Cred c maina are acum mai mult de 100 km/ or.
5. Biletul tu este rezervat pentru data de 22 iunie.
6. Un sfert din locuitorii acestui orel lucreaz n acel centru comercial.
7. Numai dup ce am citit problema de trei ori am reuit s o neleg.
8. Noi splm maina de dou ori pe lun.
9. Speculantul dorea s obin un ctig ntreit de pe urma facerii.

109

10. Am ntlnit-o o dat sau de dou ori dar nu am vorbit cu ea niciodat.


11. Regina Elisabeta II este actualul monarh al Marii Britanii.
12. A treilea capitol mi s-a prut mai uor de citit dect cel de-al doilea.
13. Care este rspunsul tu la cea de a douzeci i una ntrebare?
14. Invenia lui a adus un profit nzecit fabricii la care lucreaz.
15. Brbatul n vrst de cincizeci de ani de care mi-ai povestit mi-a prut mult mai
tnr.
16. Radical din optezi i unu fac nou.
17. Ea ne sun o dat la dou zile doar ca s vad ce mai este nou.
18. Toi oamenii influeni sunt ntrebai despre cum au fcut primul milion de dolari.
19. Nu uita c trebuie s te trezeti la ora ase fix mine diminea.
20. Sunt sigur c acest castel a fost construit cu mai mult de o sut de ani n urm.

III.7. THE ADVERB


A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
I. Definition
Basically, adverbs often tell us when, where, why, or under what conditions something
happens or happened. In other words, they may describe the time, place, manner or
cause of an action. Here are some examples:
Type
Example

110

Time
I paid him a visit yesterday.
Place
The party is going to take place here
Manne
She tapped him gently on his shoulder.
r
Adverbs are words that can modify:
A verb: He drove slowly.
an adjective: He drove a very fast car.
another adverb: She moved quite slowly among the trees.
a clause: Unfortunately, he was fired yesterday.
II. FORM
Many adverbs are formed by adding -ly to an adjective:
Adjective bright
honest
gradual
silent
brightl honestl graduall silentl
Adverb
y
y
y
y

sudden
suddenl
y

Note: When the adjective ends in ic, the adverb is formed by adding the suffix ally:
e.g. basic - basically, numerical - numerically

However, this is not a reliable way to find out whether a word is an adverb or not as:
many adjectives may end in ly: e.g. kindly, friendly, elderly, lonely, lovely
motherly, etc.
many adverbs do not end in -ly and some have the same form as the
corresponding adjective.
adjective adverb
fast
fast
late
late
early
early
hard
hard
much
much
enough
enough
III. Comparison
Like adjectives, many adverbs are gradable and they may form comparatives and
superlatives in a similar way to adjectives.
The
Positive
Degree
fast
rapidly

The
Comparative
of Superiority
faster
more rapidly

The Comparative of
Inferiority
less fast than
not so/as rapidly as

The
Comparative
of Equality
as fast as
as rapidly as

The Relative
Superlative
the fastest
the most rapidly

The
Absolute
Superlative
very fast
very rapidly

IV. Some adverbs require a subject-verb inversion. There are at least eighteen types of
inversion:
1. negative adverb
Never do I sleep.
Only at night can I study.
In no way could I help you with your Japanese grammar question.
I believe that only rarely will I need your help.
111

Not until I got home did I realize that my shoes were untied.
Question form is obligatory. It is used with all verbs. Notice that sometimes the
inversion occurs right after the negative intro form and sometimes it occurs in the next
subject and verb.
2. intro adverbial
Into the room ran the lady.
First comes love, then comes marriage.
After A comes B, then comes C, next comes D.
Down came the rain and washed the spider out.
Inversion is optional. It is used with be-verbs, linking verbs, and verbs of
direction. Notice that sometimes we have an adverb, like first and down and sometimes
we have an adverb phrase like into the room or after A. These adverbs and adverb
phrases usually show location or direction. This type of inversion usually only occurs
with be-verbs, linking verbs and verbs that show direction or movement, like come, go,
run, etc.
3. comparatives
Cheetahs run faster than do antelopes.
You speak Chinese better than do I.
Inversion is optional. It is used with all verbs. We normally only have inversion
here if we are comparing subjects of the verb, not objects.
4. here is, here are, here comes, here come
Here is some good food for you to try.
Here are the books that I dont need anymore.
Here comes the bus!
Inversion is obligatory. It is usually used only with these verbs.

B. EXERCISES
I. Underline the appropriate adjective or adverb.
1. They drove under a low / lowly bridge.
2. She has travelled wide / widely.
3. Make sure you're here at seven o'clock sharp / sharply.
4. She loved him dear / dearly.
5. We'll be there short / shortly.
6. Three-toed sloths live deep / deeply in the Amazon forest.
II. Give the adverbs corresponding to the following adjectives:
useless, deep, voluntary, formal, strong, heavy, certain, anxious, scientific, various,
original, slight, kind, local, absent, easy, graceful, idle, sudden, rapid, violent,
comparative, complete, accurate, local, attentive, light.
III. Complete each sentence using too or enough and one of the following
adjectives or adverbs: dark, deep, difficult, early, far, heavy, interesting, late,
loud, old, rich, thirsty, well.
1. They didn't catch the train because they didn't leave home...
2. You are... to understand such things.
112

3. Our neighbours couldn't sleep because the music in our room was...
4. We couldn't do that problem because it was...
5. We were... to drink a well dry.
6. You couldn't take a photograph because it is... here.
7. The cupboard was... to be moved by the child.
8. This book is... to be read by all of you.
9. They couldn't hear her voice because she was... away.
10. Mr. Brown is... to afford such an expensive car.
11. We got to the theatre... and so we missed the first act.
12. This river is... to be crossed.
13. George spoke... to win the speech prize.
IV. Use the adverbs in the brackets in the right degree of comparison:
1. He usually gets here much (early) than the others.
2. However, I can swim (well) than your brother.
3. Mike plays football (badly) of all the players.
4. She speaks English (fluently) as a native speaker.
5. The wind blew (hard) yesterday than I did on Sunday.
6. Jack knows English grammar (well) of all the students.
7. She usually enjoys films (much) than plays.
8. She didn't do this part (thoroughly) as the first part.
9. She certainly hopes to finish her work (fast) than that.
10. Mr. Williams explains things (clearly) of all teachers.
V. Put the following adverbs in the right position:
1. We have seen that statue (never).
2. The boy is very active after meals (often).
3. I learn many new English words in our English class (usually).
4. Does the foreman eat lunch with the other workers (ever)?
5. The food in this restaurant is good (seldom).
6. I have time to see visitors in the afternoon (rarely).
7. My father smokes in the office during the day (never).
8. Why don't you speak to your neighbour (ever)?
9. Mr. Brown dictated reports to his secretary (often).
10. Were you ready for breakfast by eight o'clock (already)
VI. Paraphrase the following sentences using an adverb in place of the words in
italics:
1. William jumped two meters with ease.
2. The policeman left the room in a hurry.
3. My daughter was sleeping in peace.
4. Although outnumbered, our troops fought like heroes.
5. The farmer gazed with pride at his vegetables.
6. The tramp looked with hunger at the bread the old lady gave him.
7. The Chinese vase was broken by accident.
8. The prisoners were beaten without mercy.
9. Jonathan works all the sums in his head.
10. Now we can look forward to the future with hope.

113

VII. Fill in the blanks with hard or hardly :


1. She was so tired that she could... speak.
2. They tried... but they didn't succeed.
3. At the end of the trip she had... any money.
4. How could you lend him such a valuable dictionary when you... knew him?
5. If you want to pass such a difficult exam, you will have to work...
6. The room was so crowded there was... anywhere where to leave the luggage.
7. You must know the answer; think...
8. This time she... ate anything.
9. Don't hit him too...
10. It was raining... when we left the house.
VIII. Complete each sentence with an adverb. Form these adverbs from the
following adjectives: bad, bright, careful, fast, fluent, foolish, good, happy, hard,
immediate, merry, polite, punctual, thorough.
1. Why are you so rude? You should behave...
2. My daughter has improved her English lately: she doesn't make grammar
mistakes and she speaks...
3. It was a beautiful day: the sun was shining..., the birds were singing... and the
children were playing...
4. Sammy is a good football player. He always plays...
5. Why are you driving so... today? You may have an accident.
6. ... we heard a terrible noise.
7. I opened the door... lest mother should hear me.
8. Our manager is a... educated man.
9. Bob did not study this lesson as... as the other ones.
10. I don't know what happened to him that evening, but he behaved...
11. Only by working... will you manage to pass such a difficult exam.
12. As she doesn't want to learn the new words, she speaks French... and she
writes it even...
13. I am not late. I have arrived...
14. As this is an urgent matter, we must solve it...
IX. Answer the questions using the adverbs in brackets followed by inver sion:
1. Was John dismissed as soon as he had been promoted? (no sooner)
2. Has she ever stayed in such an expensive hotel? (never before)
3. Can you pass this difficult exam without working hard? (only by)
4. Does she know much about this? (little)
5. Have you ever eaten such good cakes? (never)
6. Did Sandra go both to the cinema and to the theatre? (not only ... but also)
7. Shall I find such interesting museums anywhere else? (nowhere else)
8. Will you visit these people again? (never again)
9. Will he be permitted to leave? (under no circumstances)
10. Did the telephone ring immediately he had entered the room? (scarcely)
X. Translate into English:

114

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Jimmy joac fotbal la fel de bine ca i fratele su acum.


Nicieri n alt parte nu vei gsi atta nelegere.
Niciodat nu am mai vzut o femeie mai frumoas.
Ceaiul este prea fierbinte ca s-l beau repede.
De-abia atunci nelese vorbele tatlui su.
Nu i-am vzut pe copii de ieri diminea.
De-abia am ajuns la caban c a i nceput s polu.
Unele plante cresc mai repede n locuri mai ntunecate.
Din fericire, folosim aceast cldire doar temporar.

III.8. THE CONJUNCTION


A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
A conjunction is a word that connects other words or groups of words. It can
connect nouns, verbs and clauses:
Bob and Dan are friends (nouns)
He will drive or fly (verbs)
115

It is early but we can go (clauses)


Call the movers when you are ready. (clauses)
A definition may overlap with that of other parts of speech, so what constitutes a
conjunction should be defined for each language. In general, a conjunction is an
invariable grammatical particle and it may or may not stand between the items it
conjoins. The definition can also be extended to idiomatic phrases that behave as a unit
with the same function as a single-word conjunction (as well as, provided that, etc.).
The most cohesive signals are connectives like therefore, which make a fairly
explicit relation between two clauses: that of reason. And, on the other hand, is the
vaguest of connectives. Sentences may be contrasted by either but or and, but logical
connectors denoting a contrast have been put under but, because that coordinator is
more commonly used with contrasted sentences. These two together with or make three
logical connectors which are explicit connectors and refer to the following relationships:
* and listing: -enumeration
- addition: -reinforcement
- equation
- transition
- summation
- apposition
- result
- inference
* but contrast
- concession
* or reformulation
- replacement
Although it has a restrictive use, the conjunction for can be seen as a sentence
connector. On a gradient between pure coordinator and pure subordinator for and so
that (meaning with the result that) occupy an important place. Yet and so resemble
coordination in some respects. Nor represents a clear case of coordination. It contains a
negative feature, which introduces some syntactic difference. Both, either, neither as the
first items in a correlative pair with and, or nor are not in themselves coordinators, since
like nor they can be preceded by a central coordinator (and or or).
There are three types of conjunctions: coordinating, subordinating and
correlative
a. Coordinating conjunctions are the ones which connect two equal parts of a
sentence. The most common ones are and, or, but, and so which are used in the
following ways:
* and is used to join or add words together: They ate and drank.
* or is used to show choice or possibilities: He will be here on Monday or
Tuesday.
* but is used to show opposite or conflicting ideas: She is small but strong.
* so is used to show result: I was tired so I went to sleep.
Note that you can also use the conjunctions "but" and "for" as prepositions.
b. Subordinating conjunctions connect two parts of a sentence that are not equal. A
subordinating conjunction introduces a dependent clause and indicates the nature of the
relationship among the independent clause(s) and the dependent clause(s).

116

Some of the more common subordinating conjunctions such as:


after
before
unless
how
whether
although
if
until/till
once
as
since
when
since
because
than
while
that
Subordinating conjunctions can introduce a direct object, indirect object, causal,
temporal, conditional clause or contrast/concessive subordinate clause.
She told me that her father had died. (direct object clause)
After she had learned to drive, Alice felt more independent.(temporal clause)
Gerald had to begin his thesis over again when his computer crashed.
(temporal clause)
If the paperwork arrives on time, your cheque will be mailed on Tuesday.
(conditional clause)
Midwifery advocates argue that home births are safer because the mother and
baby are exposed to fewer people and fewer germs. (causal clause)
Although he had a lot of money, he never married. (concessive clause)
c. Correlative conjunctions are pairs of conjunctions that work together. Correlative
conjunctions always appear in pairs -- you use them to link equivalent sentence
elements. (Technically correlative conjunctions consist simply of a co-ordinating
conjunction linked to an adjective or adverb.)
The most common correlative conjunctions are:
both . . .and
either . . . or
neither . . . nor
not only . . . but also
Both Jan and Meg are good swimmers
Bring either a Jello salad or a potato scallop.
Corinne is trying to decide whether to go to medical school or to go to law
school.
The explosion destroyed not only the school but also the neighbouring pub.
Note: some words which appear as conjunctions can also appear as prepositions or as
adverbs.

B. EXERCISES
I. Choose the best answer for these questions:
1. Which conjunction is used to connect two equal parts of a sentence?
a. either; b. until; c. but; d. since; e. after
2.

117

Which conjunction is used to connect two unequal parts of a sentence?


a. so; b.or; c.but; c. if; d.and
3. Which conjunction is used with the correlative neither?
a.
and; b. nor; c. but; d. so; e. or
II. Choose the conjunction which fits best in the sentence:
1. I am hungry I don't want to eat.
a.
but; b. so; c. after; d. before; e. or
2. He will eat he gets home.
a.
or; b. because; c. when; d. and; e. since
3. Do you want pizza .. a hamburger?
a. than; b. so; c. while; d. as; e. or
4. I would tell you I knew.
a.
and; b. unless; c. if; d. or; e. so
5. Come get it.
a.
but; b.explain; c. and; d. when; e. so
6. He ate . he was hungry.
a. if; b.so; c.or; d.although; e. because
III. Choose the conjunction that most appropriately completes the sentence.
1. Alice moved to New York.__________, her mother stayed in Boston
a. What's more
b. However
c. Therefore
d. but
2. You have disobeyed me.___________, I will not help you again.
a. Besides
b. Even so
c. Therefore
d. so
3. Harrison is kind._____________, he is generous.
a. Furthermore
b. Nevertheless
c. Therefore
d. But
4. Television is entertaining, ___________ it is instructive.
a. moreover
b. so
c. or
d. and
5. Mr. Adams was an invalid, ___________he had an active career.
a. whats more

118

b. but
c. therefore
d. otherwise
6. I live too far to visit you often. ________, you are never home.
a. besides
b. even so
c. otherwise
d. so
7. I prepared my English lesson. ___________, I wrote my French paper.
a. however
b. whats more
c. consequently
d. and
8. The road was wet and slippery, _________ there were many accidents.
a. furthermore
b. nevertheless
c. so
d. therefore
IV. Rewrite these sentences as conditionals
Model: Unfortunately I didn't see him, so I couldn't give him your message .
If I had seen him, I could have given him your message
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Unfortunately he didn't pass his exams or he might have gone to university.


He didn't realize what was happening or he would have run away.
Fortunately I didn't hear what she said or I would have been very angry.
They got in because you didn't lock the door properly.
It only happened because you didn't follow the instructions.
Luckily she didn't find out or she would have been furious.
It's lucky we booked a room or we would have had nowhere to stay.
It's a good job we weren't going any faster or someone could have been killed.
He was so tired that he went home at lunchtime .

IV. Match the two parts of these conditional sentences.


1. You can borrow the money, ...
2. He'll probably get lost, ...
3. Had I known you were coming,.. .. ,
4. George says he will come, ...
5. You are not allowed to park in the school, ...
6. Should he telephone while I'm out, ...
7. Henry Ford said you could have any colour you wanted, ...
8. Fred will be at school next week, .. ,
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

would have invited you to lunch.


would you ask him to call back later?
provided he has recovered from his cold.
unless you are a member of staff.
as long as it was black.

119

f. provided he can stay overnight.


g. so long as you promise to pay it back.
h. unless someone shows him the way.
V. Rewrite these sentences to include a 'to'-infinitive purpose clause introduced by
the words given in brackets.
Model: Everyone was pushing because they wanted to get to the front of the queue.
(in order to)
Everyone was pushing in order to get to the front of the queue.
.
1. Try to write clearly. That way you will avoid being misunderstood. (so as to)
2. A lot of people learn English because they want to study in English. (in order to)
3. What do I need to know, if I want to be a good doctor? (in order to)
4. She turned up early because she wanted to get the room ready. (in order to)
5. If you want to have a hundred students, you will need at least three teachers. (in
order to)
6. I came to live in the country because I wanted to have trees around me instead of
buildings. (so as to)
7. They had to eat grass and drink melted snow if they wanted to stay alive. (in
order to)
8. He wanted to keep his car out of sight so he left it in the road. (in order to10 I
wanted to get to Madrid so I had to travel overnight from Barcelona. (to)
VI. The sentences below all have though, although, or even though. Use one of these
phrases to complete them.
we only arrived just in time; we had no time for lunch;
she kept her coat on;
he was difficult to understand; you're not as tall as he was; he still wasn't tired;
I used to when I was younger; the weather was awful;
I really like John.
Model: Although we were desperately hungry, we had no time for lunch.
.
1. We enjoyed our holiday, even though
2. .., even though it was very warm.
3. I don't play the piano now, although
4. You look very like your grandfather, although
5. Though he hadn't stopped working all day,
6.., even though his English was very good.
7., although he can be very annoying at times.
8. Although we set off early,
VII. Rewrite these sentences with Just as.
Model: I knew he would complain about everything, and he did.
He complained about everything just as I knew he would.
1. You said they would arrive late, and they did.
2. Everyone believed he would run away, and he did.
3. Most people thought the play would be a success, and it was. .
4. We hoped he would dowell at school, and he did.
5. We all thought Mary would win, and she did.

120

VIII. Rewrite these sentences with so ... that.


Model:The hill was very steep. I had to get off my bike and walk
The hill was so steep that I had to get off my bike and walk
1. Her writing was very small. I could hardly read it.
2. The winter was bitterly cold. All the streams were frozen
3. His favourite shoes were very badly worn. He had to throw them away
4. He looked very young. Everyone took him for a student.
5. Ken got very excited. He kept jumping up and down
IX. Now rewrite these sentences with such ... that.
Model: The hill was very steep. I had to get off my bike and walk
It was such a steep hill that I had to get off my bike and walk
1. He was a dreadful liar. Nobody believed anything he said.
2. It proved to be a very difficult problem. Nobody could solve it.
3. We had a very good time. We didn't want to go home
4. His clothes were very old. They were falling apart
5. The food was very good. We all ate far too much
X. Translate the following sentences into English:
1. Haidei s ne intlnim din nou lunea viitoare, adic pe 12 iulie.
2. Unele fiine cum ar fi ursul i arpele hiberneaz n timpul iernii.
3. Ce-ar fi sa trecem pe la el dup amiaz, s spunem pe la ora 5 ?
4. "Unde este voin este i putin" spune un poroverb englezesc. i, fratele
meu, de exemplu, a muncit din greu, iar acum este inginer n cea mai mare uzin
din ora.
5. Erau o mulime de oameni la petrecere, cum ar fi familia Brown, familia Smith,
familia Johnson, care se cunoteau.
6. E pacat ca nu mergi la cinema cu noi.
7. Nu se tie cine a spart vaza aceea.
8. Orice ai spune sau ai face nu mai are nici o importan.
9. Oricine l vede rmne uimit.
10. Ceea ce ncearc ea s ne explice este c la ora aceea nu era nimeni acas.
11. Convingerea noastr este c a neles aceste lucruri i c i va face datoria.
12. S-au referit apoi la ceea ce citiser cu o zi n urm.
13. mprumuta bani oricui l ruga. Ne-am sculat foarte devreme ca s admirm
rsritul soarelui.
14. Am probleme cu maina nc de cnd am cumprat-o.
15. Ei au reacionat ca i cum n-ar fi tiut nimic de acel concurs.

III.9. THE PREPOSITION


121

A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
a. A preposition links nouns, pronouns and phrases other words in a sentence.
The word or phrase that the preposition introduces is called the object of the
preposition. It describes a relationship between other words in a sentence. In itself, a
word like "in" or "after" is rather meaningless and hard to define in mere words. For
instance, when you do try to define a preposition like "in" or "between" or "on," you
invariably use your hands to show how something is situated in relationship to
something else.
A preposition usually indicates the temporal, spatial or logical relationship of its
object to the rest of the sentence as in the following examples:
The book is on the table.
The book is beneath the table.
The book is leaning against the table.
The book is beside the table.
She held the book over the table.
She read the book during class.
In each of the preceding sentences, a preposition locates the noun book in space
or in time.
Prepositions are nearly always combined with other words in structures called
prepositional phrase. Prepositional phrases can be made up of a million different words,
but they tend to be built the same: a preposition followed by a determiner and an
adjective or two, followed by a pronoun or noun (called the object of the preposition).
This whole phrase, in turn, takes on a modifying role, acting as an adjective or an
adverb, locating something in time and space, modifying a noun, or telling when or
where or under what conditions something happened.
A prepositional phrase is made up of the preposition, its object and any
associated adjectives or adverbs. A prepositional phrase can function as a noun, an
adjective, or an adverb. The most common prepositions are:
about, above, across, after, against, along, among, around, at, before, behind,
below, beneath, beside, between, beyond, but, by, despite, down, during, except, for,
from, in, inside, into, like, near, of, off, on, onto, out, outside, over, past, since, through,
throughout, till, to, toward, under, underneath, until, up, upon, with, within, and
without.
Consider the professor's desk and all the prepositional phrases we can use while
talking about it.
You can sit before the desk (or in front of the desk). The professor can sit on the
desk (when he's being informal) or behind the desk, and then his feet are under the desk
or beneath the desk. He can stand beside the desk (meaning next to the desk), before
the desk, between the desk and you, or even on the desk (if he's really strange). If he's
clumsy, he can bump into the desk or try to walk through the desk (and stuff would fall
off the desk). Passing his hands over the desk or resting his elbows upon the desk, he
often looks across the desk and speaks of the desk or concerning the desk as if there
were nothing else like the desk. Because he thinks of nothing except the desk, sometimes
you wonder about the desk, what's in the desk, what he paid for the desk, and if he
could live without the desk. You can walk toward the desk, to the desk, around the desk,
by the desk, and even past the desk while he sits at the desk or leans against the desk.

122

All of this happens, of course, in time: during the class, before the class, until
the class, throughout the class, after the class, etc. And the professor can sit there in a
bad mood [another adverbial construction].
Those words in bold are all prepositions. Some prepositions do other things
besides locate in space or time (My brother is like my father. Everyone in the class
except me got the answer.), but nearly all of them modify in one way or another. It is
possible for a preposition phrase to act as a noun (During a church service is not a good
time to discuss picnic plans;In the South Pacific is where I long to be ), but this is
seldom appropriate in formal or academic writing.
Prepositions can be classified into: prepositions of time, of place, of movement,
of time.
b. Prepositions of Time: at, on, and in
We use at to designate specific times.
The train is due at 12:15 p.m.
We use on to designate days and dates.
My brother is coming on Monday.
We're having a party on the Fourth of July.
We use in for nonspecific times during a day, a month, a season, or a year.
She likes to jog in the morning.
It's too cold in winter to run outside.
He started the job in 1971.
He's going to quit in August.
c. Prepositions of Place: at, on, and in
We use at for specific addresses.
Mrs. Smith lives at 55 Boretz Road in Durham.
We use on to designate names of streets, avenues, etc.
Her house is on Boretz Road.
And we use in for the names of land-areas (towns, counties, states, countries, and
continents).
She lives in Durham.
Durham is in Windham County.
Prepositions of Location: in, at, and on and No Preposition
IN
AT
ON
NO
(the) bed*
class*
the bed*
PREPOSITION
the bedroom
home
the ceiling
downstairs
the car
the library*
the floor
downtown
(the) class*
the office
the horse
inside
the library*
school*
the plane
outside
school*
work
the train
upstairs
uptown
* You may sometimes use different prepositions for these locations.
d. Prepositions of Movement: to and No Preposition

We use to in order to express movement toward a place


They were driving to work together.
She's going to the dentist's office this morning.

123

Toward and towards are also helpful prepositions to express movement. These
are simply variant spellings of the same word; use whichever sounds better to you.
We're moving toward the light.
This is a big step towards the project's completion.
With the words home, downtown, uptown, inside, outside, downstairs, upstairs,
we use no preposition
Grandma went upstairs
Grandpa went home.
They both went outside.
e. Prepositions of Time: for and since
We use for when we measure time (seconds, minutes, hours, days, months,
years).
He held his breath for seven minutes.
She's lived there for seven years.
The British and Irish have been quarreling for seven centuries.
We use since with a specific date or time.
He's worked here since 1970.
She's been sitting in the waiting room since two-thirty.
f. Prepositions with Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs.
Prepositions are sometimes so firmly wedded to other words that they have
practically become one word. (In fact, in other languages, such as German, they would
have become one word.) This occurs in three categories: nouns, adjectives, and verbs.

NOUNS and PREPOSITIONS


approval of
awareness of
belief in
concern for
confusion about
desire for

fondness for
grasp of
hatred of
hope for
interest in
love of

need for
participation in
reason for
respect for
success in
understanding of

ADJECTIVES and PREPOSITIONS


afraid of
angry at
aware of
capable of
careless about
familiar with

fond of
happy about
interested in
jealous of
made of
married to

need for
participation in
reason for
respect for
success in
understanding of

VERBS and PREPOSITIONS


apologize for
ask about
ask for
belong to
bring up
care for
find out

fond of
happy about
interested in
jealous of
made of
married to

124

proud of
similar to
sorry for
sure of
tired of
worried about

A combination of verb and preposition is called a phrasal verb. The word that is joined
to the verb is then called a particle. Please refer to the brief section we have prepared
on phrasal verbs for an explanation.
Idiomatic Expressions with Prepositions
agree to a proposal, with a person, on a price, in principle
argue about a matter, with a person, for or against a proposition
compare to to show likenesses, with to show differences (sometimes
similarities)
correspond to a thing, with a person
differ from an unlike thing, with a person
live at an address, in a house or city, on a street, with other people
Unnecessary Prepositions
In everyday speech, we fall into some bad habits, using prepositions where they are not
necessary. It would be a good idea to eliminate these words altogether, but we must be
especially careful not to use them in formal, academic prose.
She met up with the new coach in the hallway.
The book fell off of the desk.
He threw the book out of the window.
She wouldn't let the cat inside of the house. [or use "in"]
Where did they go to?
Put the lamp in back of the couch. [use "behind" instead]
Where is your college at?
Prepositions in Parallel Form
When two words or phrases are used in parallel and require the same preposition to be
idiomatically correct, the preposition does not have to be used twice.
You can wear that outfit in summer and in winter.
The female was both attracted by and distracted by the male's dance.
However, when the idiomatic use of phrases calls for different prepositions, we must be
careful not to omit one of them.
The children were interested in and disgusted by the movie.
It was clear that this player could both contribute to and learn from every game he
played.
He was fascinated by and enamored of this beguiling woman.
We use the Gerund after the following phrases:
accuse of

They were accused of breaking into a shop.

agree with

I agree with playing darts.

apologize for

They apologize for being late.

believe in

She doesn't believe in getting lost in the wood.

blame for

The reporter is blamed for writing bad stories.

125

complain about

She complains about bullying.

concentrate on

Do you concentrate on reading or writing?

congratulate sb. on

I wanted to congratulate you on making such a good speech.

cope with

He is not sure how to cope with getting older.

decide against

They decided against stealing the car.

depend on

Success may depend on becoming more patient.

dream about/of

Sue dreams of being a pop star.

feel like

They feel like going to bed.

get used to

You must get used to working long hours.

insist on

The girls insisted on going out with Mark.

look forward to

I'm looking forward to seeing you soon.

prevent sb. from sth.

How can I prevent Kate from working in this shop?

rely on sth.

He doesn't rely on winning in the casino.

succeed in

How then can I succeed in learning chemistry?

specialize in

The firm specialized in designing websites.

stop sb. from

I stopped Andrew from smoking.

talk about/of

They often talk about travelling to New Zealand.

think of

Frank thinks of playing chess.

warn sb. against

We warned them against using this computer.

worry about

The patient worries about having the check-up.

B. EXERCISES
I. Complete the following sentences with the correct preposition: at, in, or on.
1. Will you wait for me _____ the bus stop?
2. Jane is _____ her bedroom.

126

3. Daria's books are lying _____ the floor.


4. The girls didn't want to spend a long time _____ the carnival.
5. I let the cat sit _____ my lap, but then suddenly it jumped _____ my face!
6. Do you live _____ the city or _____ the country?
7. Trent arrived _____ the school building just in time.
8. The rancher built a fence to keep his cows _____ the pasture.
9. Kevin and Mack are out practicing _____ the football field.
10. From afar, Heathcliff could see a light _____ the window.
11. The old house had so much grime _____ the windows that Bradley could hardly
see inside.
12. The shepherd boy grazed his flock _____ the grassy hillside.
13. The audience threw tomatoes _____ the terrible comedian.
14. Wrestling isn't real; those guys _____ the ring are just pretending.
15. David works _____ the field of network administration, while Marty works
_____ web design.
16. The car stalled and got stuck _____ the street.
17. Audrey lives _____ Third Street.
18. If William doesn't make any money on his book, he'll be out _____ the street.
19. I'll use my cellular phone when I'm _____ the bus, but never while I'm _____ the
car.
20. Passengers are not allowed to use electronic devices _____ airplanes during
takeoff and landing.
II. Find the correct preposition:
I'm Peter and I live ..Germany. summer I like to travel ..Italy, because
..the weather and the people there. Last summer I took a plane ..Munich to Rome.
..the airport we went to our hotel ..bus. We stopped ..a small restaurant for a
quick meal. The driver parked the bus..the restaurant. Nobody could find the bus and
the driver, so we waited..the restaurant ..one hour. The driver was walking .the
small park .the restaurant which we didn't know. So we were angry .him. But my
holidays were great. We sat .campfires and went dancingthe early mornings.
III. Choose the correct preposition.
1. I'm tired.. waiting for you (of/ with/ on/ in)
2. I haven't smoked.. ages. (since/ for/at/to)
3. The police car chased the robbers .. the streets. (among/between/through/on)
4. You can look the word ..in a dictionary. (on/up/through/with)
5. She had problems ..reading the instructions. (to/by/in/with)
6. I'm looking . my key. Has anyone found it? (for/after/of/to)
7. The song was written .Madonna. (of/ from/ by/ on)
8. I can't come to the party. Don't wait ..me. (at/for/after/on)
IV. Fill in with the appropriate preposition:
1. My friend is good..playing volleyball.
2. She complains.bullying.
3. They are afraid .losing the match.
4. She doesn't feel ..working on the computer.

127

5. We are looking forward .going out at the weekend.


6. Laura dreams ..living on a small island.
7. Andrew apologized .being late.
8. Do you agree ..staying in a foreign country?
9. The girls insisted .going out with Kerry.
10. Edward thinks climbing trees in the afternoon.
V. Check these rules, then say which question is correct:
1) Continents - in; e.g. in Asia, in Europe
2) Countries - in; e.g. in China
3) Cities, towns, districts, provinces, counties, areas and villages - in; e.g. in Beijing,
in Kowloon.
4) Islands - on; e.g. on Lantau, on Hong Kong Island
Islands - groups of islands- in; e.g. in the Dao Yu Islands, in the Spratleys
5) Mountains - single mountains - on; e.g. on Yellow Mountain, on Mount Everest,
on the Peak
Mountain ranges - in; e.g. in the Himalayas
6) Lakes and Rivers- on (e.g. on the surface) in (under the surface); e.g. a boat on
the West Lake, swimming in the West Lake
7) Seas and Oceans- in; e.g. in the Pacific Ocean, in the South China Sea
8) Places that are different for different people- at ; e.g. at home, at university, at
work, at the doctor's, at my friend's flat
1. a. Brazil is of South America
b. Brazil is at South America.
c. Brazil is on South America.
d. Brazil is in South America.
2. a. New York is of the United States.
b. New York is at the United States.
c. New York is on the United States.
d. New York is in the United States.
3. a. I live on Bucharest.
b. I live at Bucharest.
c. I live in Bucharest.
4. a. Mount Everest is the tallest mountain of the Himalayas.
b. Mount Everest is the tallest mountain at the Himalayas.
c. Mount Everest is the tallest mountain on the Himalayas.
d. Mount Everest is the tallest mountain in the Himalayas.
5. a. Hong Kong is of the South China Sea.
b. Hong Kong is at the South China Sea.
c. Hong Kong is in the South China Sea.
6. a. I live of home.
b. I live at home.
c. I live on home.
VI. Identify the missing prepositions in the text and write them in the table below
the text. Some lines are correct; mark them with an X. Two examples are given:
The Final Exam

128

1 Two football players were taking an important final exam. If


2 they failed, they would be academic probation and not
3 allowed to play the Sugar Bowl the following week. The exam
4 was fill-in-the-blank. The last question read,
5 "Old MacDonald had a ........"
6 Bubba was stumped. He had no idea the answer. He knew
7 he needed to get this one right to be sure he passed. Making
8 sure the professor wasn't watching, he tapped Tiny the 9 shoulder.
10 "Pssst. Tiny. What's the answer the last question?"
11 Tiny laughed. He looked around to make sure the professor
12 hadn't noticed then he turned Bubba. "Bubba, you're so
13 stupid. Everyone knows Old MacDonald had a farm."
14 "Oh yeah," said Bubba. "I remember now." He picked up his
15 No.2 pencil and started to write the answer the blank. He
16 stopped. Reaching to tap Tiny's shoulder again, he
17 whispered, "Tiny, how do you spell farm?"
18 "You are really dumb, Bubba. That's so easy. Farm is 19 spelled E-I-E-I-O."
1

on

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

10

VII. What is the correct combination of prepositions for each paragraph?


1. A man walks _ a health food restaurant _ a day _ the office, sits down and orders a
nice big dish _ brown rice and stir-fry veggies. He grabs a handful _ peanuts _ the
bowl _ the counter _ the cash register while he's waiting _ his order, and as he starts
to chew he hears a voice say, "That's a beautiful tie; is that silk? Very nice choice!"
A. into, after, at, of, of, from, on, by, for
B. in, before, in, of, of, in, on, by, for
C. at, after, off, of, of, from, on, by, for
D. out of, along, at, of, of, from, on, by, for
2. Wondering who would make such a strange comment, he around and doesn't see
anyone _ him who could've speaking _ him. _ a shrug, he pops a few more uts _ his
mouth.
A. next to, at, after, in
B. near, to, with, into
C. close to, along with, on, out of
D. near, to, without, at
3. Next he hears a voice, "Those shoes are stylish, my man. they Italian leather?
They look great!" whirls around again but sees no one _ him. He glances sly around
and then _ his shoes, which he tucks selfsly _ the stool.
A. near, to, beneath
B. by, off, under
C. close to, to, under
D. near, at, under

129

VIII. In some of the lines of the following text there is one unnecessary
preposition. It is either incorrect or does not fit in with the sense of the text.
For each numbered line find this preposition and write it down on the right:
1 An engineering student was walking across campus when
2 another engineer rides up in a shiny new motorcycle.
3 Where did you get such a great bike?, asked the first.
4. The second engineer replied: Well, I was walking along
5 yesterday, minding my own business when a beautiful
6 woman rode up on this bike.
7 She threw the bike at the ground, took off all her clothes
8 and said Take what you want!
9 The first engineer nodded in approvingly
10 Good choice; the clothes probably wouldnt have fit in.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

IX. Translate into English:


1. Ei i place s asculte radioul, dar nu este ntotdeauna impresionat de
calitatea programelor.
2. Trebuie s v conformai regulilor jocului.
3. Alegei trei numere la ntmplare i nmulii-le cu cinci.
4. Nu tiam c te intereseaz istoria medieval.
5. Dei eram foarte grbii, ea a insistat s ne oprim i s cumprm cteva
ziare.
6. Produsele companiei noastre sunt mereu in conformitate cu standardele de
calitate.
7. Fusese acuzat ca ii furase poeta acelei doamne in negru.
8. Cu ce mergi la serviciu n fiecare diminea? Cu metroul sau cu autobuzul?
Sau poate cu maina?
9. John a fost pedepsit pentru c nu i-a fcut tema la timp.
10. De ce te uiti aa la mine? Te-am rugat s ai grij de pisic, iar tu ai lsat-o
s ias n strad?

130

III.10. THE INTERJECTION


A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
An interjection is a word added to a sentence to convey emotion. It is not
grammatically related to any other part of the sentence. We usually follow an
interjection with an exclamation mark. Interjections are uncommon in formal academic
prose, except in direct quotations.
Interjections are short exclamations like Oh!, Um or Ah! They have no real
grammatical value but we use them quite often, usually more in speaking than in
writing. When interjections are inserted into a sentence, they have no grammatical
connection to the sentence. An interjection is sometimes followed by an exclamation
mark (!) when written.
Interjections like er and um are also known as "hesitation devices". They are
extremely common in English. People use them when they don't know what to say, or to
indicate that they are thinking about what to say. You should learn to recognize them
when you hear them and realize that they have no real meaning.
The table below shows some interjections with examples.
interjectio
n

Meaning

example

ah

expressing pleasure

"Ah, that feels good."

expressing realization

"Ah, now I understand."

expressing resignation

"Ah well, it can't be heped."

131

expressing surprise

"Ah! I've won!"

expressing grief or pity

"Alas, she's dead now."

expressing pity

"Oh dear! Does it hurt?"

expressing surprise

"Dear me! That's a surprise!"

asking for repetition

"It's hot today." "Eh?" "I said it's hot


today."

expressing enquiry

"What do you think of that, eh?"

expressing surprise

"Eh! Really?"

inviting agreement

"Let's go, eh?"

expressing hesitation

"Lima is the capital of...er...Peru."

expressing greeting

"Hello John. How are you today?"

expressing surprise

"Hello! My car's gone!"

calling attention

"Hey! look at that!"

expressing surprise, joy etc

"Hey! What a good idea!"

hi

expressing greeting

"Hi! What's new?"

hmm

expressing hesitation, doubt or


disagreement

"Hmm. I'm not so sure."

expressing surprise

"Oh! You're here!"

expressing pain

"Oh! I've got a toothache."

expressing pleading

"Oh, please say 'yes'!"

ouch

expressing pain

"Ouch! That hurts!"

uh

expressing hesitation

"Uh...I don't know the answer to that."

uh-huh

expressing agreement

"Shall we go?" "Uh-huh."

um, umm

expressing hesitation

"85 divided by 5 is...um...17."

expressing surprise

"Well I never!"

introducing a remark

"Well, what did he say?"

alas
dear

eh

er
hello, hullo

hey

oh, o

well

Characteristics:
1. it is an exclamatory word that usually expresses a strong emotion.
A word may stand alone
Hooray!
Help!
2. Followed by an exclamatory mark (!)
It may be followed by a related sentence.
Hooray! We won the championship!
Help! I can't hold on any longer!

132

2. A word of strong emotion ends in exclamation point (separate from rest of sentence)
Hey! Leave my friend alone!
Wow! I never thought she's go out with him!
3. a word of mild emotion ends in comma (part of the sentence)
Oh, sit still!
Say, are you busy?

B. EXERCISES
I. Underline the interjection in each sentence:
1. Brrr! The theater is as cold as ice!
2. Aha! There are some empty seats!
3. Ouch! Someone stepped on my toe!
4. Well, I suppose I should have studies more.
5. I wish that giggling would stop. Shhh!
6. Say, who told you about the party?
II. Use an appropriate interjection of your own for each of the emotions listed.
1. relief _________________ 4. astonishment_________________
2. joy _________________ 5. severe pain _________________
3. confusion _________________ 6. anger _________________
III. Rewrite each sentence below. Begin with the interjection in parentheses. Add
the correct punctuation after each interjection and at the end of each sentence.
1. They're announcing the winners (Psst)
_____________________________________________________
2. I guess I'll have to make a speech (Well)
_____________________________________________________
3. That wasn't so bad after all (Phew)
_____________________________________________________
4. I don't know if I can stand it any longer. (Help)
_________________________________________________
V. In each blank, write an appropriate interjection for the feeling shown in
parentheses.
Interjection Emotion
oh, good heavens surprise
aw, darn, oh, no disappointment
ouch pain
wow, goodness joy
uh hesitation
tsk impatience
Model: (Pain)! That really hurts. Ouch
1. (Surprise), I didnt expect to see you here.
2. (Impatience), I wish youd hurry up.
3. (Hesitation), I dont know the answer.
4. (Joy)! What a great present.
5. (Pain)! I cut my finger.
133

6. (Surprise)! We won the game.


7. (Hesitation), I dont know which way to go.
8. (Joy), that was a terrific movie.
9. (Pain), I bumped my head.
10. (Disappointment), were late again.
VI. Fill in each blank with an appropriate interjection. Use commas or exclamation
marks as punctuation.
Model: Wow! We had a fabulous trip.
1. I cant figure out, where we are.
2. I just banged my knee.
3. I didnt think the paper was due today.
4. I cant wait all day.
5. The picnic has been rained out again.
6. Thats the biggest balloon Ive ever seen.
7. Im so happy youre here for a visit.
8. That was a close call.
9. There isnt enough snow to go skiing.
10. You must be kidding.

134

Potrebbero piacerti anche