Machining

Machining: A subtractive
process used to get desired
shape, size, and finish by
removing surplus material in
the form of chips by a cutting
tool and by providing suitable
relative motion between the
workpiece and cutting tool
Cutting tool: removes excess
material through direct
mechanical contact
M a c h i n e t o o l : p r o v i d e s
necessary relative motion
between the work-piece and
tool

What is it?

Basics of shape generation by machining

Two relative motions (between work and tool)
generally needed to produce surfaces
Cutting speed: line generated by it is called
generatrix: Primary cutting motion
Feed speed: line generated by it is called
directrix: Secondary cutting motion

Relative motions needed for

various types surface generation
Surface
Obtained

Machini Generatrix
ng
(cutting)
Process

Directrix
(feed)

P l a n a r Shapin S t r a i g h t S t r a i g h t
Surface
g
, Line
Line
Planing
Cylindrica Turning Circular
l

Straight
Line

P l a n a r Milling
Surface

Straight
Line

Circular

Surface of Contour P l a i n Circular

Revolutio Turning Curve
n
,Boring

TYPES OF MACHINING PROCESSES

BASED ON ANGLE BETWEEN CUTTING
EDGE and CUTTING VELOCITY
Oblique Machining
Orthogonal Machining
Cutting edge of the tool Cutting edge of the tool is
is inclined with normal
perpendicular to the
to the cutting velocity.
direction of cutting velocity
C u t t i n g F o r c e s A c t Cutting Forces Act Along x
along All Three
and z Directions Only i.e.
Directions i.e. x, y, and z
No Cutting Force along y
Axes.
Direction
Examples:
Examples:
Turning,
Sawing,
Milling,
Broaching,
Drilling,
Parting-Off of Tube Wall
Shaping

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques

I. I. T.

ACCORDING to TYPE of CUTTING TOOL

Machining Processes
Using SINGLE-Point
Cutting Tools

Turning
v Step Turning
v Taper Turning
v Form Turning
v Contour Turing
Facing
Necking
Parting-Off
Boring
v Counter-Boring
v C o u n t e r Sinking
Shaping
Planing

Using MULTI-Point
Cutting Tools

Milling
Drilling
Reaming
Knurling
Tapping
Hobbing
Broaching
Sawing

Using ABRASIVES
as Cutting Tools

Grinding
Honing
Lapping
Super-Finishing
Polishing
Buffing

LATHE MACHINE and its OPERATIONS

Lathes are Machine Tools Designed Primarily to Do
Turning, Facing, and Boring.
Because Lathes also can Do Facing, Drilling, and
Reaming, their Versatility Permits Several Operations

DESIGN and TERMINOLOGY of the ENGINE LATHE

The Essential Components of an Engine Lathe are
1. Bed
2. Headstock Assembly
5. Feed Rod
3. Tailstock Assembly
6. Leadscrew
4. Carriage Assembly
7. Quick Change Gearbox

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques

I. I. T.

Tailstock

Bed
Schematic Diagram of an Engine Lathe
MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques

I. I. T.

Carriage
assembly
C a r r i a g e
a s s e m b l y
provides the
means for
mounting and
moving cutting
tools.
C a r r i a g e
a s s e m b l y
consists of
carriage, cross
slide, compound
rest, tool post

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques

I. I. T.

Feed rod
provides
t
h
e
powered
movemen
t of the
carriage
and cross
slide for
automatic
movement
of tool
used in
t u r n i n g Leadscrew
operation for cutting threads, a leadscrew is
used to provide automatic
movement to carriage.

SIZE DESIGNATION of LATHES

Size of a Lathe is Designated by Two Dimensions:
1. Swing diameter: shows maximum diameter of workpiece that can be rotated on a lathe.
2. Maximum Distance Between Centers: Indicates the
Maximum Length of Workpiece that can be Mounted
Between Centers.

Example: A 14 x
48 Lathe
designates that
the swing is 14
in. and the
maximum
distance
between centers
is 48 in.

Engine lathe,
Speed lathe,
Tool room lathe,
Turret lathe,
Automatic lathe,
Numerical control lathe

Type of
lathes

ENGINE LATHE
Most frequently used in
manufacturing
They are heavy duty
machine tools with all the
components have power
drive for all tool
movements except on
compound rest.
Most engine lathes are
equipped with chip pans
and a built-in coolant
circulating system.

SPEED LATHE
Speed lathes usually
h a v e o n l y a
headstock, a
tailstock, and a
simple tool post
Usually three or four
speeds
Mainly used for wood
turning, polishing,
or metal spinning
Spindle speeds up to
4000 rpm.
MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques

I. I. T.

Tool room lathe

Greater accuracy and
usually a wider range of
speeds and feeds than
engine lathes.
D e s i g n e d t o h a v e
greater versatility to
meet the requirements
of tool and die work
G e n e r a l l y u s e d f o r
machining smaller
parts

Turret lathe

Hexagon Turret Replaces

the Tailstock
Turret used for mounting
tools and feed into the work
piece
Turret Lathes Use the 11
Station Tooling and so as
to increase production
rate by reducing tool
changing time .
SIX Tools can be Mounted
on the Hexagon Turret
Turret can be Rotated
about the Vertical Axis to
Bring Each Tool into the
Operating Position

RAM TYPE

Ram and saddle

type turret lathe

SADDLE
TYPE

Primary difference is
in mounting and size
of two types.
Ram type is light,
less rigidity and so
for small jobs using
fine cuts
Saddle type heavy,
more rigid, large
jobs and heavy cuts

RAM TYPE

Operation
of
Turning is the process of Machining external
lathe
cylindrical and conical surfaces.
Straight turning: for producing cylindrical shapes
Taper turning: for producing conical shapes
Facing: making edges square and clear
Chamfering: slightly tapering and rounding off of
edges
Threading: for producing threads
Drilling: for creating /producing hole
Boring: for enlarging hope and correcting shape
Parting off or necking: separating or making square
groove
Knurling: making impression for firm gripping
Reaming: finishing purpose

Straight/cylindrical turning

Orthogonal turning

Oblique turning

TAPER TURNING
Cutting tool is fed at an angle to the axis
of rotation producing an external/
internal conical surface.
Tapers generally specified in degrees of
included angle between the sides (or rate
of change in diameter along the length
mm/mm)
FOUR Methods for Taper turning:
Swiveling the Compound Rest: Only for
Short and steep Tapers
Taper turning attachment: for fine taper-ness
less than 0.5mm/mm
Setting over tailstock: low taper in long jobs
NC lathe with programmed both movements of
movement of tool
MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques

I. I. T.

Swiveling the compound rest

Tool is set
at half of
taper angle
w.r.t. lathe
axis and
moved with
compound
rest only

Taper turning
attachment
C r o s s
slide is
made free
and tool
is moved
with help
o
f
attachme
nt at an
angle

Off setting the tail stock

Tool is moved with help

of carriage parallel to the
lathe axis

Contour turning
The tool follows a contour
creating a contoured form on
the turned part instead of
parallel to the axis. Cross slide
is made free to follow the path
of contour.
FORM TURNING
Cutting edge of Tool has a Specific
Form or Shape and is fed radially
inward towards the axis of rotating
work piece.

FACING
Cutting tool is fed radially inwards
(at 90 w.r.t. the axis of rotation) into
the rotating work piece.
End facing: facing by tool moving
radially outward from the center
Shoulder facing: facing the stepped
cylindrical work piece

Chamfering
The tool is fed radially inward
used to cut an angle on the
corner of the cylinder,
forming a chamfer to avoid
sharp edges.
Parting off & necking
Tool is fed perpendicular to
the rotational axis
Necking is a making partial
cutoff
MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques

I. I. T.

DRILLING
The tool (Drill) mounted on the
tailstock of the engine lathes
is fed by hand against a
rotating work piece along the
axis of lathe.

BORING
Tool mounted to tailstock is
fed parallel to the lathe axis
after giving suitable depth of
cut

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques

I. I. T.

REAMING
I t i s s e m i - f i n i s h i n g
operation that enlarges
an existing hole. Tool is
rotated and fed along
rotational axis.
knurling
Roughening the surface of work
piece for better gripping.
No machining operation only coldforming takes place
Process involves pressing of
two hardened rolls against the
rotating work piece with sufficient
force to form impression (the knurl)
like raised diamond pattern.

 Face plate: for holding irregular

shape w/p
Lathe centers: for holding long
jobs
Chuck:
3 jaw chuck for circular or
hexagonal section
4 jaw chuck for irregular
shapes
Magnetic chuck for holding
soft metal

Work holding
devices

Mandrel

Mandrel:
holding hollow
shape w/p
machining of
faces

for
disc
for
side

Collet: for holing

small diameter tool
and work pieces

Collet

CUTTING TOOLS USED In a LATHE

Single Point Cutting Tools
Bit-Type Cutting Tools
Form Tools (tapering and Threading Tool)
common cutting tool materials
v For conventional machining processes, cutting
tool material must be at least 35% to 50%
harder than work material at the actual
temperature of machining
1.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

tool steels
high speed steel (hss)
cemented carbides
coated carbides
ceramics
cermets (ceramic material in a metallic binder)
polycrystalline diamond (pcd) and (CBN)

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques

I. I. T.

Geometry of
single point
cutting tool

2nd mid term onwards

NOTE: TO ENCOURAGE A) BOOK
READING, B) SINCERE LISTENING OF
LECTURES AND C) PREPARATION OF
OWN NOTES, NO FURTHER PPTS OF
LECTUERS WILL BE UPLOADED.

FUNDAMENTALS of DRILLING OPERATIONS

Drilling is a machining operation of creating a hole in a
work-piece which can be through holes or blind holes,
performed with a rotating cylindrical tool having TWO
cutting edges called a twist drill.
Rotating drill is fed into the stationary work-piece to
form a hole whose diameter is determined by the drill
diameter.

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques

I. I. T.

OPERATIONS RELATED to DRILLING

REAMING: A Semi-Finishing Operation to
Slightly Enlarge an Existing Hole
To Provide Better Tolerance on Hole Diameter
To Improve Surface Finish
T A P P I N G : To M a k e I N T E R N A L
Threads on an Existing Hole Using
Taps

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques

I. I. T.

COUNTER-BORING:
Making of INTERNAL STEPPED HOLE in
which a Lager Diameter Follows a
Smaller Diameter Partially into the
Hole
COUNTER-SINKING:
Similar to Counter-Boring, Except
that the Step in the Hole is Cone
Shaped for Flat-Head Screws and
Bolts.
CENTERING or CENTER-DRILLING:
D r i l l i n g o f a S t a r t i n g H o l e t o
Accurately Establish its Location for
Subsequent Drilling.

TYPICAL SEQUENCE of
OPERATIONS in a
HOLE MAKING

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques

I. I. T.

CUTTING TOOLS USED in DRILLING

A Twist Drill has THREE Basic Parts: Body, Point, and
Shank
A Twist Drill has TWO Helical Grooves Called Flutes
Separated by Lands.
Flutes Act as Passageways for Extraction of Chips From
the Hole
Point of the Twist Drill has the General Shape of a Cone
having a Typical Value of 1180.

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques

I. I. T.

Geometry of Twist Drill.

DRILLING MACHINE
Drilling is Most Commonly Performed on a Drill Press.

DRILL PRESS Consists

of Following Parts
1. Base,
2. Column
3. Power-Head
4. Spindle
5. Worktable
These may be bench
or floor mounted
depending on the
size
D r i l l c a n b e f e d
m a n u a l l y o r
automatically
MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques

Upright Drill Press.

I. I. T.

TYPES of DRILLING MACHINES

MAIN
TYPE

Applications

1. BENCH Holes up to 0.5 in. Diameter

can be Drilled. Very High
Speed up to 30,000 rpm
2.
Speeds Ranges from 60 to
UPRIGHT 3500 RPM
3.
RADIAL

For Large Workpieces that

Cannot Easily be Handled
Manually.

4. GANG

Mass Production variety of

purposes such as Holes of
Different Sizes, Reaming,
Counterboring, on a Single
Part.

TYPES of DRILLING MACHINES

MAIN
TYPE

Applications, Designation

5. MULTI- Mass Production Machines with as many

SPINDLE as 50 Spindles Driven by a Single
Power head and Fed Simultaneously
into Work.
6. DEEPHOLE

For Drilling Long (Deep) Holes in

Rifle Barrels, Connecting Rods, and
Long Spindles.

BENCH TYPE

UPRIGHT DRILLING MACHINE

Milling
Milling is a machining operation in which a workpart is fed past a rotating cylindrical tool called
milling cutter is multi point cutting tool.
In milling axis of rotation of the cutting tool is
perpendicular to the direction of feed.
While in drilling, the cutting tool is fed in a
direction parallel to its axis of rotation.

HORIZONTAL TYPE

VERTICAL TYPE

 Geometric form created by milling is a plane

surface and other geometries are created either by
controlled cutter path or the cutter shape.
Typical feature of milling:
it is an interrupted cutting operation
vthe teeth of the milling cutter enter and exit the
work during each revolution.
vso cycle of impact force and thermal shock in
every rotation.
vthe tool material and cutter geometry must be
designed to withstand these conditions.

TYPES of MILLING OPERATIONS

PERIPHERAL MILLING
FACE MILLING
axis of tool is parallel to the axis of tool is perpendicular to the
surface being machined
surface being machined
machining is performed by cutting machining is performed by cutting
edges on the outside periphery edges on both the end and
of the cutter.
outside periphery of the cutter.

TYPES of PERIPHERAL or
PLAIN MILLING

TYPES of FACE MILLING

(a) slab milling: basic form of

peripheral milling in which the cutter
width extends beyond the workpiece on both sides.

(a) conventional face milling:

the diameter of the cutter is
greater than the work-part
width, so that the cutter
overhangs the work on both
sides.

(b) slot milling (slotting): the (b) partial face milling: the
width of the cutter is less than the cutter overhangs the work on
work-piece width. very thin cutter only one side.
can be used to mill narrow slots or to
cut a work-part in two, called saw
milling.

TYPES of PERIPHERAL MILLING TYPES of FACE MILLING

(c) side milling: cutter machines ( c ) e n d m i l l i n g : t h e c u t t e r
the side of the workpiece.
diameter is less than the work
width, so a slot is cut into the part.

(d) straddle milling: the same as (d) profile milling: this is a form
side milling, only cutting takes of end milling in which the outside
place on both sides of the work.
periphery of a flat part is cut.

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques

I. I. T.

TYPES of PERIPHERAL
according to the rotation
direction of the cutter two types:
(e) up or conventional: the
direction of motion of the cutter
is opposite to the feed direction.

TYPES of FACE MILLING

(e) pocket milling: another form
of end milling, this is used to mill
shallow pockets into flat parts.

(f) down or climb milling: the (f) surface contouring: a balldirection of cutter motion is in nose cutter is fed back and forth
the feed direction
across the work along a curvilinear
path at close intervals to create a
3-dimensional surface form.

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques

I. I. T.

DIFFERENCES
UP Milling
The direction of motion of
the cutter is opposite to the
feed direction.
It is milling against the
feed."
Cutting force direction is
tangential to the periphery of
the cutter which tends to lift
the work piece as the cutter
exits the material.

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques

DOWN Milling
The direction of cutter
motion is in the feed
direction
It is milling with the feed."
Cutting force direction is
downward, tending to hold
the work against the
milling machine table.

I. I. T.

TYPES of MILLING MACHINES

Type
(a) column and
knee type
(general purpose)

Applications
for slab, side, or straddle milling.
well suited for face and end
milling operations
for milling to produce twist
drills), milling cutters, and helical
gear teeth, etc.

(b) bed type

(manufacturing)

for making heavy cuts

simultaneous milling of two or
three surfaces in a single pass

(c) planer milling

machines

for machining a wide variety of

surfaces on heavy workpiece in a
single setup.

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques

I. I. T.

Milling cutter
Milling cutters are classified on the basis of
methods of mounting and direction of rotation.
Method of mounting
arbor cutters have a center hole for mounting on
an arbor.
shank cutters have either a tapered or a straight
shank.
vtapered shanks cutters can be mounted
directly in the milling machine spindle.
vstraight shank cutters are held in a chuck.
MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques

I. I. T.

 BASED ON DIRECTION OF ROTATION (Applies only to

Face and End Milling Cutters)
v A right-hand cutter must rotate counterclockwise
when viewed from the front end of the machine
spindle.
v A left-hand cutter must rotate clockwise.

Arbor for a Horizontal Spindle Milling

Typical geometry of milling cutter

GRINDING
Grinding is a finishing process using abrasives (i.e. Al2O3,
SiC, B4C, Diamond, CBN, etc.) bonded in form of Wheel
operating at Very High Surface Speeds.
Similar to the Milling, Cutting in grinding can be either the
Periphery or the Face of the Grinding Wheel.

Face

Periphery
MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques

I. I. T.

 Comparison between Grinding and Milling in terms of:

v Size: finer in grinding than milling
v number of Cutting teeth: more in grinding than
milling
v Orientation of cutting teeth: random in grinding
and the same is fixed in milling
v Cutting Speeds: Higher in grinding speed than
Milling
v Self-Sharpening Feature exists with grinding but
not with milling
MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques

I. I. T.

TYPES of GRINDING OPERATIONS

Grinding is mainly for Finish Parts of part Created by
Other Operations.
Accordingly, Grinding Machines have been Developed
to Grind
vPlain Flat Surfaces,
vExternal and Internal Cylinders, and
vContour Shapes such as Threads.
vTool Rooms operations for processing Cutting
Tools.
Main Types of Grinding Operations are
1. Surface Grinding,
2. Cylindrical Grinding,
3. Centerless Grinding,
4. Creep Feed Grinding,
5. Other Grinding Operations
MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques

I. I. T.

Surface Grinding
Surface Grinding for Plain Flat Surfaces.
Workpiece is Normally Held in a Horizontal Orientation.
Peripheral Grinding:
Performed using
Periphery of the
Grinding Wheel
r o t a t i n g t h e
Horizontal Axis,

Face Grinding: Performed

using Flat Face of the wheel
which Rotates about the
Vertical Axis.

In either case, the Relative Motion of the Workpiece is Achieved by

Reciprocating (Flat) or by Rotating (Circular) the Work Past the
Wheel.

Cylindrical Grinding
Used for Rotational Parts.
Cylindrical Grinding Operations can be Divide into TWO Basic Types:
(A) External Cylindrical Grinding; (B) Internal Cylindrical
Grinding.

External Cylindrical Grinding

Also Called Center-Type Grinding to Distinguish it from
Centerless Grinding, is Performed much like a Turning
Operation.
MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques

I. I. T.

 There are Two Types of Feed Motion Possible,

v Traverse Feed: Grinding Wheel is Fed in a Direction Parallel to
the Axis of Rotation of the Workpiece (Fig. a)
Infeed: Typical range from 0.0075 to 0.075mm.
A Longitudinal Reciprocating Motion parallel to work axis is
sometimes to either the Work or the Wheel to Improve Surface
Finish.
v Plunge-Cut: Grinding Wheel is Fed Radially into the Work.
Formed Grinding Wheels use this type of Feed Motion (Fig. b)

APPLICATIONS:
Parts Include Axles, Crankshafts, Spindles, Bearings and
Bushings, and Rolls for Rolling Mills

Internal Cylindrical Grinding

The Workpiece is Usually held in a
Chuck and Rotated
Wheel Diameter must be Smaller than
the Original Bore Hole so needs High
Rotational Speeds in Order to Achieve
the Desired Surface Speed.
Grinding Wheel is Fed in either of Two
Ways: Traverse Feed or Plunge Feed
APPLICATIONS:
Used to Finish the Hardened Surfaces
of Bearing Races and Bushing
Surfaces.

Centerless Grinding
The Workpiece is NOT Held Between Centers so Reduction in
Work Handling Time therefore for High volume Production.
EXTERNAL Centerless Grinding: Consists of Two Wheels
v Grinding Wheel: Rotating at Surface Speeds of 1200 to
1800 m/min.
v Regulating Wheel: Rotating at Lower Speeds and is Inclined
at a Slight Angle to Control through Feed of the Work

Long Rods are Supported by a Rest Blade

and Fed through Between the Two Wheels

INTERNAL Centerless Grinding:

Two Support Rolls are Used to Maintain the
Position of the Work in Place of the Rest Blade.
v The Regulating Wheel is Tilted at a Small
Inclination Angle to Control the Feed of the Work
Past the Grinding Wheel.
vADVANTAGE: Provides Very Close Concentricity
Between Internal and External Diameters on a
Tubular Part Such as a Roller Bearing Race

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques

I. I. T.

Creep Feed Grinding (Developed Around

1958).
Grinding using Very High Depths of Cut and
Very Low Feed Rates.
Depths of Cut in Creep Feed Grinding are
1,000 To 10,000 Times Greater than in
Conventional Surface Grinding and Feed Rates
are Reduced by About the Same Proportion.

Conventional Surface Grinding

Creep Feed Grinding

Other Grinding Operations

TOOL GRINDERS: used for Sharpen and Recondition Cutting
Tools.
JIG GRINDERS: Used to Grind Holes in Hardened Steel Parts
to High Accuracies e.g. Press Working Dies and Tools.
ABRASIVE BELT GRINDING: Uses Abrasive Particles
Bonded to a Flexible Cloth Belt Support by Roll or Platten
Located Behind the Belt, and Work is Pressed Against it.

TOOL GRINDERS
MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques

ABRASIVE BELT GRINDING

I. I. T.

GRINDING WHEEL
Grinding Wheel is Usually Disk-shaped and is
Precisely Balanced for High Rotational Speeds.
A Grinding Wheel Consists of Abrasive Particles held by
Bonding Material in position.
Parameters of the Grinding Wheel used for
designation:
(1) Type of Abrasive Particle Material,
(2) Size of Abrasive Particles,
(3) Bonding Material,
(4) Wheel Grade,
(5) Wheel Structure
All these parameters affect Desired Performance of
Grinding in terms of surface roughness and metal
removal rate i.e. rate of cutting.

Grinding Wheel Parameters

1. ABRASIVE PARTICLE MATERIAL: Desired Properties
of an Abrasive Material Used in Grinding Wheels
Include
vHigh Hardness
vHigh Wear Resistance
vHigh Toughness
vFriability: Capacity of the Abrasive Material to
Fracture when the Cutting Edge of the Grain
Becomes Dull, thereby Exposing a New Sharp
Edge.
Hardness, Wear Resistance, and Toughness are
Desirable Properties of Any Cutting Tool Material.
Commonly Abrasives are
vAluminum oxide (Al203),Silicon carbide (SiC),
Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN), Diamond
MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques

I. I. T.

2. SIZE of ABRASIVE PARTICLES: (also called

Grit Size) affects Surface Finish and Material
Removal Rate.
Small Particle Size Produces Better
Finishes, while Larger Particle Size Produce
Larger Material Removal Rates.
Selection of Abrasive Particle Size also
Depends on the Type of Work Material.
Harder Work Materials Require Smaller
Particle Size to Cut Effectively, while Softer
Materials Require Larger Particle Size.
MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques

I. I. T.

3. BONDING MATERIALS: The Bonding Material Must

vHold the Abrasive Grains Rigidly so as to get desired
the Shape and Structural Integrity of the Grinding
Wheel.
vShould be able to Withstand under
vthe Centrifugal Forces
vHigh Temperatures generated during Grinding
vGood impact Resistance to avoid Shattering in
Shock Loading
vAllowing debonding of Worn Abrasive Grains so that
New Grains are Exposed.
Commonly Bonding Materials in Grinding Wheels:
Vitrified bond:
(A)Silicate Bond:.
(B) Rubber Bond:
(D) Resinoid Bond:
(E) Shellac Bond:
(F) Metallic Bond:

4. GRINDING WHEEL STRUCTURE: Refers to the Relative Spacing of

the Abrasive Grains in the Wheel. A Grinding Wheel Contains Air
Gaps/Pores, Abrasives and Bond Material.
The Volumetric Proportions of Grains, Bond Material, and Pores
can be Expressed as Pg + Pb + Pp = 1; Where
Pg = Proportion of Abrasive Grains; Pb = Proportion of Bond
Material, and Pp = Proportion of Pores (Air Gaps) in the Total
Wheel Volume
Wheel Structure is termed as "Open" or "Dense
between abrasives

as per spacing

An Open Structure has large Air Gaps than the Abrasives and
reverse is true for dense structure.
Bond
A Dense Structure is One in
Material
which P is Relatively Small, And
p

Pg is Larger.

Open Structures offers high MRR

and poor surface finish .
Dense Structures are Used to
Obtain Better Surface Finish and
Dimensional Control.
MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques

I. I. T.

5. GRINDING WHEEL GRADE: Indicates the Bond

Strength of the Grinding Wheel in Retaining the
Abrasive Grits during Cutting.
Depends on the type and Amount of Bonding
Material.
Grade is termed as Soft , medium, Hard .
"Soft" Wheels Lose Grains Readily, while Hard"
Wheels Retain their Abrasive Grains.
Selection of grade
Soft Wheels are Generally Used for Applications
Requiring Low Material Removal Rates and
Grinding of Hard Work Materials.
Hard Wheels are Typically Used to Achieve High
Material Removal Rates and for Grinding of
Relative Soft Work Materials.
MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques

I. I. T.

Grinding Wheel Designation

The Grinding Wheel Parameters are Concisely
Designated in a Standard Grinding Wheel
Marking System Defined by the American
National Standards Institute (ANSI).
Designated Using Numbers and Letters to Specify:
in sequence of Abrasive Type, Abrasive Grit Size,
Wheel Grade, Wheel Structure, and Bond
Material.

New scheme