New Technology, Work and Employment 27:3

ISSN 0268-1072

Impact of telework on exhaustion and job

engagement: a job demands and job
resources model
ntwe_284

193..207

Shruti R. Sardeshmukh, Dheeraj Sharma and

Timothy D. Golden
Teleworking, the increasingly common practice, which involves
working away from the office using technology, entails changes
in the experience of work. Such changes may influence the
demands and resources associated with a job. While research on
burnout has addressed the role of exhaustion and job engagement using the Job Demands-Resources model, existing literature has focused on traditional work modes. This paper explores
the effects on job demands and resources to understand the
processes through which telework impacts the exhaustion and
engagement of the teleworker. We find that the positive effect of
telework revolves around reduced work pressure and role conflict and increased autonomy. The negative effect of telework is
expressed through increased role ambiguity and reduced support
and feedback. Overall, we find that telework is negatively
related to both exhaustion and job engagement and that job
demands and resources mediate these relationships.
Dr Shruti R. Sardeshmukh (shruti.sardeshmukh@unisa.edu.au) came to academia after working in
information technology start-ups for several years. Influenced by her work experience, her research
revolves around human resource issues in technology ventures and in small and medium-sized
entrepreneurial and family businesses. Her research articles have appeared in Journal of Business
Research and Family Business Review, among others. She did her PhD from Rensselaer Polytechnic
Institute in the United States and is a lecturer at the School of Management in University of South
Australia. Dr Dheeraj Sharma (dsharma@iimahd.ernet.in) is associate professor in Indian Institute of
Management, Ahmedabad, India. Dr Sharma earned his doctoral degree from Louisiana Tech University. He has taught and presented research at numerous education institutions in North America,
Europe and Asia. Dr Sharmas publications have appeared and/or are accepted for publication in
Advances in Marketing, Developments in Marketing, Business and Society Review, European Journal of
Marketing, International Journal of Emerging Markets, Journal of Consumer Marketing, Journal of Marketing
Channels, Journal of Marketing Education, Journal of Personal Selling and Sales Management, Journal of
Business Ethics, Journal of Business Research, Journal of Product and Brand Management, Journal of International Business Strategy and Marketing Management Journal, among other prominent publications. His
major research interests are workforce motivation, business to business relationships, international
business and ethics. Dr Timothy D. Golden, PhD (goldent@rpi.edu), is an associate professor of
Management in the Lally School of Management and Technology at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.
His research examines the implications of the rapidly expanding availability and use of technology
within business organisations. His current research focuses on telecommuting, telework and other
forms of virtual work, leader and co-worker relational development, workfamily conflict, professional
isolation and virtual leadership. His research has appeared in leading academic journals, including the
Journal of Applied Psychology, Journal of Management, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Human Relations,
Journal of Vocational Behavior, Academy of Management Executive, Journal of Applied Social Psychology,
Journal of Managerial Issues, Journal of Business and Psychology and Leadership Quarterly, among others.
2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK and 350 Main St, Malden, MA, 02148,
USA

Impact of telework on exhaustion and job engagement 193

Telework, also known as telecommuting or virtual work, involves using computer

technology to work from home or another location away from the traditional office for
a portion of the work week (Bailey and Kurland, 2002). It is one of the most prevalent
non-standard work practices in modern times (Ashford et al., 2007). Although there are
a variety of forms of telework, which encompass working in satellite offices or other
remote locations away from home, in this article, we view telework as a work mode in
which individuals most commonly allocate their work time between an office and their
home (Nilles, 1994; Madsen, 2003; Mann and Holdsworth, 2003; Golden et al., 2006;
Ntti et al., 2011). In this way, teleworking alters the time and space of traditional office
work, thereby impacting the way work is experienced, with corresponding implications for the teleworkers exhaustion and engagement.
While research on telework has been multidisciplinary and has addressed diverse
topics ranging from information systems to management and transportation
(Raghuram et al., 2010), research related to the potential effect of telework on individuals has received less attention. One particularly important aspect involves any potential
impact telework may have on the exhaustion or engagement of employees. While
burnout research has addressed exhaustion and job engagement among traditional
workers (e.g. Maslach et al., 2001; Maslach, 2003; Bakker et al., 2004), research has been
slow to extend this work to teleworkers (Golden, 2006a). Telework involves physical
and cognitive changes in how individuals carry out their job, and such alterations may
impact the exhaustion and job engagement experienced by individuals. Moreover,
despite calls from researchers to examine explanatory mechanisms (Bailey and
Kurland, 2002; Gajendran and Harrison, 2007), little research has attempted to explain
how telework might act to alter exhaustion and engagement. Understanding how or
why these impacts may occur aids not only researchers in unravelling the complexities
of this work mode, but also informs teleworkers and others looking to make informed
decisions about this rapidly expanding form of virtual work.
In this paper, we empirically investigate the potential impact of telework on exhaustion and job engagement, exploring mediators of these relationships. In concert with
other researchers, we suggest that teleworks location away from the office makes a
difference to working practices and to organisational and personal relationships
(Halford, 2005: 20), which differentially affects many aspects of the work environment.
Essentially, we suggest that telework, due to the physical and cognitive changes in how
individuals experience their work while teleworking, alters important aspects of the job.
By conceptualising the impact of telework in terms of job demands and job resources,
we can incorporate many aspects of the job that may get altered as a result of telework.
The Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) model, through an integration of two processes, the
energetic process involving job demands and a motivational process involving job
resources, creates a holistic model that may illustrate and predict exhaustion and
engagement. Given the differential impact of telework on job demands and resources,
such a model is particularly suited to examine the multidimensional effects of telework
on job exhaustion and engagement. Using the JD-R framework (Demerouti et al., 2001;
Schaufeli and Bakker, 2004), we propose that the extent of telework (EOT) impacts
exhaustion and job engagement through alterations in job demands and job resources.

Theory and hypotheses

Job demands and job resources
Individuals who telework encounter a workspace that is generally away from others by
utilising technology instead of work-related travel (Nilles, 1994), which is apt to have
important implications as physical space has an effect on many organisational outcomes
(Baldry, 1997). We argue that employees separation from the office and absence of a
commute change the conduct of their work and the nature of their job demands and job
resources. The extent to which individuals telework reflects the degree to which they
encounter these altered work experiences. The JD-R model (Demerouti et al., 2001;
Schaufeli and Bakker, 2004) offers a framework that classifies job experiences into two
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general categoriesjob demands and job resources (Bakker et al., 2005). According to
Schaufeli and Bakker (2004: 296), job demands refer to those physical, psychological,
social, or organisational aspects of the job that require sustained physical and/or
psychological effort and are therefore associated with certain physiological and psychological costs. While such job demands are not inherently negative in nature, the high
effort associated with meeting those demands may lead to exhaustion. Given teleworks
saved commute time, inherent separation from others, and the greater reliance upon
more ambiguous and less rich electronic communication (Daft and Lengel, 1986), in
this study, we included time pressure, role ambiguity and role conflict in an effort to
capture the multifaceted impact of telework.
Job resources are those physical, psychological, social, or organisational aspects of
the job that are functional in achieving work goals, reducing physiological or psychological costs, or stimulating personal growth and development (Demerouti et al., 2001:
501). Job resources are therefore important not only to accomplish work objectives but
also personally for the individual (Schaufeli and Bakker, 2004). Such resources therefore impact not only exhaustion but job engagement well. Because telework changes
the physical and psychological distance between the individual and his or her manager
and co-workers (Golden, 2006a), we include potential alterations in autonomy, feedback and social support in order to encapsulate how job resources may be affected by
telework and the corresponding impacts on exhaustion and engagement.
The JD-R framework assumes two processes, the energetic process of being worn out
by high job demands that exhaust the individual, and the motivational process whereby
the lack of resources siphon off resolve which foster mental withdrawal or disengagement (Schaufeli and Bakker, 2004). Given the varied impact of telework on experience
of work, we suggest that these processes within the JD-R framework are important to
understand how the EOT practiced by an individual may impact the exhaustion and
engagement these workers experience. In the next section, we link telework to exhaustion and job engagement, followed by our proposition of job demands and resources as
mediators of these relationships.
Linking telework to exhaustion
Exhaustion in the workplace occurs when individuals feel they are not able to cope with
the demands placed upon them (Hobfoll, 1989; Lee and Ashforth, 1996). As the core
dimension of burnout (Bakker et al., 2000), exhaustion has been defined as the depletion
of emotional and mental energy (Moore, 2000), and can be akin to extreme fatigue
(Demerouti et al., 2003). Telework is apt to be associated with decreased exhaustion, as
teleworking saves emotional energy and time through the avoidance of a commute
(Stephens and Szajna, 1998). It also provides greater flexibility so that other tasks and
activities can be pursued (Guimaraes and Dallow, 1999; Mann and Holdsworth, 2003).
Such control over activities is associated with reduced need for recovery (Binnewies and
Sonnentag, 2008) and therefore exhaustion. With extensive teleworking, individuals can
reallocate time, potentially engaging in more leisure activities (Guimaraes and Dallow,
1999) and experiencing greater stress resistance capacity (Hobfoll, 1989). As the extent of
teleworking increases, exhaustion should therefore decrease.
H1: Telework will have a negative relationship with exhaustion.

Linking telework to job engagement

Maslach et al. (2001) describe job engagement as characterised by energy, involvement
and efficacy. Schaufeli et al. (2002) and Schaufeli and Bakker (2004) define engagement
as a persistent, positive affective-motivational state of fulfilment in employees that is
characterised by vigour, dedication and absorption. As those who telework extensively
are physically and psychologically separated from their workplace, they are apt to
identify less strongly with the work organisation (Wiesenfeld et al., 1999), viewing
themselves as more independent (Guimaraes and Dallow, 1999). Moreover, as the
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Impact of telework on exhaustion and job engagement 195

extent of teleworking increases, there are apt to be fewer and less salient reminders of
their belonging to the organisation (Wiesenfeld et al., 1999), as the physical cues such as
symbols, buildings and office dcor are increasingly absent from their daily routine.
This suggests that with extensive telework, job engagement will decrease.
H2: Telework will have a negative relationship with job engagement.

Job demands as a mediator of the teleworkexhaustion relationship

As noted earlier, we propose that job demands act as mediators of the relationship
between the EOT and exhaustion. In the following section, we propose telework
introduces alterations in the job demands experienced by individuals in the form of
time pressure, role ambiguity and role conflict. These alterations occur due to the very
nature of this work mode, given teleworks characteristic absence of a commute,
remoteness and the separation from others in the office (Bailey and Kurland, 2002;
Sullivan, 2003; Golden et al., 2008). For brevity, we focus on the linkages between the
EOT and job demands, because these linkages have not yet received theoretical or
empirical attention and the linkage between job demands and exhaustion is more fully
developed (e.g. Demerouti et al., 2001; Schaufeli and Bakker, 2004).
Time pressure
The effect of telework on exhaustion is likely to occur through alterations in job
demands that stem from changes in the time pressure individuals experiences. By
working from home or another preferred location, teleworking saves the stress and
strain of lengthy commutes that otherwise contribute to exhaustion (Mann and Holdsworth, 2003; Golden, 2006b; Wilks and Billsberry, 2007). By reducing travel to and
from the office, telework also conserves time and offers the opportunity to apply saved
time to other work or personal tasks, easing time pressures. Moreover, the pressure of
being on time (Gajendran and Harrison, 2007) to avoid the label of tardiness can itself
be a stressor, and telework helps to abate that time pressure. Often, teleworkers work
longer hours (Baruch, 2000; Dimitrova, 2003), yet the flexibility offered by teleworking
to restructure the task demands to better suit the time available can reduce the time
pressure (Mann and Holdsworth, 2003; Wilks and Billsberry, 2007). As the extent of
teleworking increases, time pressures are apt to decrease as individuals exhibit greater
discretion to reallocate work periods and apply saved commute time reducing time
pressure. Such reduced time pressure has been found to ease mental fatigue (Bakker
et al., 2004) and decrease exhaustion (Moore, 2000). As a result, given the increasing
impact of the EOT on reducing time pressure, exhaustion will decrease accordingly.
H3a: Time pressure will mediate the relationship between the extent of teleworking and exhaustion.

Role ambiguity
Role ambiguity involves uncertainty about the expectations involved in performing a
task or carrying out activities in ones role (Ilgen and Hollenbeck, 1991). Telework is
likely to increase the role ambiguity experienced due to the greater difficulties in
communication imposed by being both away from the office and relying upon electronic communication media. Because of the physical separation from the office, teleworking has been associated with feelings of being cut-off from others and increased
isolation (Cooper and Kurland, 2002; Golden et al., 2008; Whittle and Mueller, 2009),
increasing uncertainties about how to react to events in the office. Moreover, given that
communication media such as email and telephone have limited interactivity and a
decreased capacity for transferring the full range of cues to interpret interactions
compared with face-to-face communication (Daft and Lengel, 1984; 1986), teleworkers
are apt to experience greater ambiguity, which consumes additional mental and emotional energy and contributes to exhaustion. With greater uncertainties in context, the
meaning of events and the subtleties of interaction, greater role ambiguity as a result of
extensive teleworking is likely to increase exhaustion.
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H3b: Role ambiguity will mediate the relationship between the extent of teleworking and exhaustion.

Role conflict
Role conflict, which refers to conflict associated with the job itself, involves the incompatibility of demands facing an individual (Ilgen and Hollenbeck, 1991), and results
from the incongruity or incompatibility of what is expected (Rizzo et al., 1970). Separation from the office, and a corresponding work context in which the individual has
greater control over interruptions from co-workers and others, is likely to enable the
individual to better resolve conflicting demands from different office-based role
senders. Because of the work location being away from others, teleworkers are less
prone to encounter unanticipated yet immediate requests from co-workers and supervisors that might occur in common areas like hallways and cafeterias, and therefore are
better able to control potential role incompatibilities. As the degree of teleworking
increases, role conflict is therefore likely to decrease. As role conflict introduces strain,
consumes emotional and physical energy (Um and Harrison, 1998), and can lead to
exhaustion (Hang-yue et al., 2005), the decreased role conflict associated with extensive
teleworking is likely to reduce exhaustion.
H3c: Role conflict will mediate the relationship between the extent of teleworking and exhaustion.

Job resources as mediators of the telework-to-exhaustion and

telework-to-engagement relationships
Job resources may also act as mediators of the relationships between the EOT and both
exhaustion and engagement. In the following section, we therefore propose that telework introduces alterations in the job resources experienced by individuals in the form
of autonomy, feedback and social support as a result of distance from the office. For
brevity, we again focus on the linkages between EOT and job resources, because these
linkages have received little prior research attention, while the linkages between job
resources and both exhaustion and job engagement are more fully developed (e.g.
Demerouti et al., 2001; Schaufeli and Bakker, 2004).
Autonomy
The effect of telework on exhaustion and job engagement is likely to occur through
alterations in job resources in the form of increased autonomy the individual experiences by teleworking. Autonomy refers to the extent to which individuals have control
over how work is to be accomplished (Langfred, 2000). Because of separation from
others, professional-level teleworkers such as those studied here are less bound by
office routines (Riley and McCloskey, 1997) and are able to shift work tasks to more
preferable periods of the day (Duxbury and Higgins, 1992; Dimitrova, 2003). These
teleworkers are also able to exercise greater discretion in conducting their job activities,
as there is likely to be less managerial oversight (Dubrin, 1991). With greater autonomy,
individuals are better able to conduct work activities according to their own preferences, which can reduce exhaustion by alleviating strain and mitigating energy depletion and thus exhaustion. Moreover, employees with greater autonomy are also apt to
be more engaged in their job, because the feelings of invigoration and dedication
associated with autonomy often spur greater job involvement (Bakker and Demerouti,
2007). With greater control and enhanced feelings of discretion in the conduct of their
job, teleworkers are therefore apt to be more involved and dedicated to their job,
displaying higher job engagement.
H4a: Autonomy will mediate the relationship between the extent of teleworking and (4a1) exhaustion; (4a2) job engagement.

Feedback
Because of separation from others and increased reliance upon electronic communication media that are less rich than face-to-face interactions (Daft and Lengel, 1986),
teleworkers are apt to experience greater challenges in communicating, which may
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Impact of telework on exhaustion and job engagement 197

adversely impact the feedback they receive. As electronic media, containing fewer cues
and contextual indicators (Rice and Gattiker, 2001), can constrain the free flow of
information, the greater reliance upon electronic media associated with extensive teleworking is likely to decrease feedback. Teleworking has also been associated with
increased isolation (Cooper and Kurland, 2002; Simpson et al., 2003; Golden et al., 2008),
feelings of being cut-off from others and a lack of connection and feedback (Cooper
and Kurland, 2002). The decreased feedback associated with extensive teleworking is
also likely to impact both exhaustion and job engagement. With less feedback, individuals are apt to exert greater effort seeking information about important tasks or
resolving misunderstandings and conflict. This additional effort required by the
decrease in feedback can drain energy, leading to higher exhaustion. Moreover, with
decreased feedback and constrained flow of information, these individuals are also apt
to be less engaged in their job. By experiencing feelings of isolation and a lack of
interaction or connection with others (Cooper and Kurland, 2002; Simpson et al., 2003),
the lower amount of feedback teleworkers receive is likely to dampen enthusiasm in
the job, leading to lower engagement.
H4b: Feedback will mediate the relationship between the extent of teleworking and (4b1) exhaustion; (4b2) job engagement.

Social support
Teleworking is likely to adversely impact the social support received from others
(Haddon and Lewis, 1994) because of the fraying of relationship quality induced by
separation from others and the greater reliance upon electronic communication. For
example, Nunes (2005: 140) states that employees carry the assumption that, telework
will probably lead to a more distant attitude from the employers. Research suggests
co-workers are less satisfied with those who telework (Golden, 2007) and that those
back in the office may view them somewhat sceptically (McDonald et al., 2008). The
greater reliance upon leaner electronic media may also lead to depersonalisation
(Kiesler et al., 1984), reduced trust among co-workers (Hill et al., 2009) and greater
process and relationship conflict (Hobman et al., 2002), reducing pleasant co-worker
interactions (Leiter and Maslach, 1988). Similarly, both exhaustion and job engagement
are likely to be impacted by the decreased social support associated with extensive
teleworking. Lower social support can lead to more severe consequences of psychological and physiological stress (Maslach et al., 2001), resulting in greater exhaustion.
Moreover, with decreased social support and without high quality supportive relationships and connectedness, those who telework extensively are likely to experience
lower involvement and engagement in the job (Bakker et al., 2003; Schaufeli and
Bakker, 2004).
H4c: Social support will mediate the relationship between the extent of teleworking and (4c1)
exhaustion; (4c2) job engagement.

Research design and methods

Sample
The data for this study were obtained from a large supply chain management company
based in the Midwestern United States. Of the potential 1,100 telecommuters contacted,
417 (37.9 per cent) completed responses were received. There were 296 male (71 per
cent) and 121 female (29 per cent) respondents. On average, respondents had spent at
least 1 year telecommuting, suggesting they had sufficient telecommuting experience
to respond to our survey. Consistent with the organisations norms for working weekdays between 8 am to 5 pm, employees in this sample were full-time employees who
generally worked 40 hours per week, with occasional additional hours leading up to
deadlines. Teleworkers spent between 8 and 40 hours per week in this work mode,
with most teleworking no more than 4 days per week. Respondents were professionallevel employees primarily responsible for working with a group of clients rendering
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third-party logistics services and solutions. Because all the respondents were employees of the supply chain management company, there were no self-employed respondents in the sample. Respondents had an average income above $42,000, and were
generally well educated with over 75 per cent holding a bachelors degree or higher.
Respondents had a mean age of 2635 (10 per cent, 1825; 52 per cent, 2635 years; 29
per cent, 3645 years; 5 per cent, 4655 years; 5 per cent, above 56).
Measures
All constructs were measured using a 6-point scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree)
to 6 (strongly agree) unless noted otherwise.
Time pressure was measured using a 5-item scale developed by Amabile et al. (1996).
An example item was I feel a sense of time pressure in my work (a = 0.82).
Role ambiguity was measured by a 5-item scale adopted from Rizzo et al. (1970). For
example, one item was Clear, planned goals and objectives exist for my job (a = 0.87).
Role conflict was measured by an 8-item scale (Rizzo et al., 1970; House and Rizzo,
1972; Kelloway and Barling, 1990). A sample item was I do things that are apt to be
accepted by one person and not accepted by others (a = 0.89).
Autonomy was measured by a 9-item scale by Breaugh (1989). A sample item was I
have the freedom to schedule my work as per my desire (a = 0.92).
Feedback was measured using a supervisor feedback 3-item scale (Bakker et al., 2003).
Sample item was I receive sufficient information about the results of my work
(a = 0.87).
Social support was measured by two subscales developed by Karasek (1998). This
scale measured the social support from both the supervisor and colleagues: In my job,
it is easy to talk to my colleagues and My manager is willing to listen to my personal
problems (a = 0.94 for co-worker; a = 0.85 for managerial).
EOT was measured using the item developed by Golden and Veiga (2005) and used
in a number of studies (e.g. Golden, 2006b; Golden et al., 2006). It asks respondents to
indicate the number of work hours (per week) spent telecommuting. On average,
respondents teleworked 33.34 hours per week, ranging from 8 to 40 hours per week,
with few teleworking nearly full time.
Job engagement was measured with a 6-item scale adapted from Britts (1999) study.
Items included statements such as I invest a lot of myself to perform my tasks as well
as possible and I am strongly engaged in my working tasks (a = 0.88).
Exhaustion was measured using an 8-item scale developed by Maslach and Jackson
(1981). A sample item was I feel used up at the end of the work day (a = 0.91).
Analysis
Following Anderson and Gerbings (1988) two-step procedure, we assessed the properties of the scales by estimating a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) model. The
resulting purified scales were then used for simultaneous estimation of the structural
model for testing the hypotheses. The CFA model, which included all the constructs,
did not indicate a good fit. Based on low factor loadings, high residuals and modification indices, one item each was deleted from the autonomy and exhaustion scales
(Anderson and Gerbing, 1988). All further analysis was done using this respecification.
The resulting model produced good fit indices (e.g. c2 = 2511.08, d.f. = 1036, comparative
fit index = 0.974, root mean square error of approximation = 0.042), indicating a good fit.
The convergent validity of the scales was supported, as all the estimates of average
variance extracted were higher than 0.50 (Bagozzi and Yi, 1988) and t-values pertaining
to all the items were each greater than 2.0 (at p < 0.000). Further, the discriminant
validity for the scales was supported based on comparison of squared correlations
between factors (Fornell and Larcker, 1981). The composite reliabilities ranged from
0.84 to 0.97, well above the acceptable level of 0.70.
To test for common method bias we followed the procedure for Harmans one-factor
test (Podsakoff and Organ, 1986). We also tested for nonresponse bias by comparing
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Impact of telework on exhaustion and job engagement 199

Table 1: Descriptive statistics and correlations of study variables

1
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)

9 Mean SD

Time pressure
1
4.42
Role ambiguity
0.19*
1
3.60
Role conflict
0.21*
0.19*
1
4.29
Autonomy
0.19* -0.1
-0.08
1
3.49
Feedback
-0.16* -0.22** 0.22** 0.20*
1
4.21
Support
0.09
0.23*
0.19*
0.18*
0.27** 1
4.08
Exhaustion
-0.39** 0.30** 0.22** -0.23** -0.19* -0.31** 1
3.92
Engagement
0.26** -0.24** -0.25** 0.22*
0.19*
0.29** -0.29** 1
3.97
-0.19*
0.18* -0.24** 0.20** -0.22** -0.19* -0.18* -0.17* 1 33.34
Extent of
telework (hours
per week)

1.44
0.90
1.32
1.27
1.11
1.58
1.01
1.22
4.92

*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01.

Figure 1: Graphical presentation of the model

*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01.

mean responses from early respondents with late respondents (Armstrong and
Overton, 1977). Results suggested neither bias was a concern (Table 1).
In order to test the hypotheses, a structural model using the purified scales was
estimated using AMOS (Byrne, 2001). As shown in Figure 1, the model included
direct paths from telework to time pressure, role ambiguity, role conflict, autonomy,
feedback and social support. Paths from autonomy, feedback and support to exhaustion and job engagement were also specified. Additionally, paths from time pressure,
role ambiguity and role conflict to exhaustion were specified. Thus, job demands and
job resources served as mediators for the relationship between EOT and exhaustion
and job engagement.
Three models were examined to assess the mediation effect. Initially, an unmediated
model (Model 1) was developed. Model 2 included full mediation and the final model
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Table 2: Models and results

Structural
estimates

Extent of telework exhaustion

Extent of telework engagement
Time pressure exhaustion
Role ambiguity exhaustion
Role conflict exhaustion
Job autonomy engagement
Feedback engagement
Social support engagement
Job autonomy exhaustion
Feedback exhaustion
Social support exhaustion
Extent of telework time pressure
Extent of telework role ambiguity
Extent of telework role conflict
Extent of telework job autonomy
Extent of telework feedback
Extent of telework social support

Model 1

Model 2

Model 3

c2 = 408.749,
d.f. = 35,
GFI = 0.922,
CFI = 0.945,
RMSEA = 0.05,
AIC = 324.44

c2 = 335.241,
d.f. = 28,
GFI = 0.922,
CFI = 0.963,
RMSEA = 0.04,
AIC = 234.12

c2 = 307.543,
d.f. = 26,
GFI = 0.948,
CFI = 0.978,
RMSEA = 0.04,
AIC = 184.24;
Model
Comparisons:
Model 1:
Dc2 = -101.206,
d.f. = 7, p < 0.01;
Model 2:
Dc2 = 27.698,
d.f. = 2, p < 0.01

-0.061
-0.046

-0.085
0.119
-0.137
0.109
-0.209
-0.089

0.072
0.137
0.119
0.246
0.155
0.129
-0.268
-0.079
-0.298
-0.059
0.084
-0.132
0.86
-0.206
-0.066

-0.078
-0.074
0.088
0.155
0.138
0.299
0.227
0.189
-0.337
-0.108
-0.276
-0.098
0.128
-0.156
0.124
-0.215
-0.099

(-2.00)*
(-1.96)*

(-2.01)*
(2.19)*
(-3.30)*
(2.18)*
(-2.97)*
(-2.04)*

(2.09)*
(-3.29)*
(-2.76)*
(-2.59)*
(2.64)*
(-1.82)
(-2.94)*
(-1.82)
(-3.26)*
(-1.82)
(1.85)
(-3.21)*
(1.1.86)
(-2.84)*
(-1.80)

(-2.28)*
(-2.08)*
(2.42)*
(4.19)*
(3.07)*
(3.23)*
(2.79)*
(2.28)*
(-3.54)*
(-2.09*)
(-3.82)*
(-2.28)*
(2.77)*
(-3.58)*
(2.46)*
(-3.02)*
(-2.14)*

*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01.

included both a direct and indirect effect of the EOT on exhaustion and engagement.
The final model achieved a good fit: c2 = 307.543, d.f. = 26, CFI = 0.978, RMSEA = 0.04
(see Table 2).

Results
Because the overarching model indicated a good fit, individual hypotheses were tested
by observing the coefficients and their significance in the model. All the hypothesised
relationships were supported. The mediating role of job demands and resources on the
relationships between telework and job engagement and exhaustion was examined
using the four-step procedure recommended by Baron and Kenny (1986), and the
results suggest partial mediation effects. To strengthen the notion of partial mediation
further, we compared three models. The first model (Model 1) examined the direct
effects of the EOT, the second model (Model 2) tested a full mediation and the third
model tested a partial mediation (Model 3). All the model statistics are available in
Table 2. Model comparisons with the chi-square difference test and Akaike information
criterion indicated that the partial mediation model was the best fitting model.
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Discussion
In this paper, we investigated if telework impacts exhaustion and job engagement, and
if these impacts occur as a result of alterations in job demands and job resources. The
results supported our hypotheses, indicating that the impact of telework on job engagement and exhaustion is partially mediated by job demands (time pressure, role ambiguity and role conflict) and job resources (job autonomy, feedback and job support).
More specifically, we found that telework was negatively related to time pressure
(-0.098) and role conflict (-0.156), and positively related to role ambiguity (0.128).
Telework was also positively related to autonomy (0.124), and was negatively related to
feedback (-0.215) and social support (-0.099). Consistent with the JD-R model literature, we found that job demands were positively related to exhaustion, while resources
were positively related to engagement and negatively related to exhaustion. Tests for
mediation supported the hypotheses that job demands and resources mediated the
relationship between the EOT and both exhaustion and engagement. Based on these
results, it appears that telework alters the job demands and resources available to an
employee, and these changes, in turn, affect exhaustion and engagement.
Our results indicate that telework was associated with a reduced time pressure
experienced by the employee. Teleworking research argues for a reduction in timerelated stress (Guimaraes and Dallow, 1999; Golden et al., 2006) as a result of telework.
In fact, Peters and van der Lippe (2007: 431) call it a time-pressure reducing strategy
as the individual employee can save time spent commuting to the workplace.
However, we found that the effect was quite small, indicating that the time savings due
to the lack of a commute may not translate directly into reduced work pressure. There
may be several reasons for this. Mutual investment theory (Tsui et al., 1997) suggests
that when employees receive benefits from the employer, they may be willing to invest
more in the organisation. Therefore, as the employees get the opportunity to telework,
they may feel the need to contribute more, which may add to time pressures as they
attempt to accomplish more for the organisation that grants them the opportunity to
telework. Moreover, teleworkers may feel pressured to produce more for their organisation, in order to be perceived as valuable and dispel any suspicions from office-based
colleagues that they are loafing at home.1
Telework had a complex effect on role stressors; it reduced role conflict, but
increased role ambiguity. While the mitigation of role conflict is a positive effect of
telework, the constrained communication associated with telework can increase role
ambiguity. Role stressors such as role conflict and role ambiguity are consistently
associated with reduced job satisfaction and higher turnover intentions (Slattery et al.,
2008), desire to leave (Tremblay and Roger, 2004) and eventually poor performance
(Gilboa et al., 2008). Reducing ambiguity by increasing clarity in job design and communication can, therefore, help employees adjust to the changes associated with teleworking. Consistent with results from Raghuram et al. (2001), by using clearer job
design, better communication to mitigate job ambiguity and better human resource
development practices (Martnez-Snchez et al., 2007), organisations can benefit from
the positive effects of telework, while keeping the negative aspects to a minimum.
Our data also suggests telework was negatively related to job engagement. This
finding is also consistent with findings by Mann and Holdsworth (2003) that teleworking had a negative emotional impact on employees. To explore the reasons behind the
negative effect of telework on engagement, we investigated the role of job resources as
a mediator, and found that even though telework was linked to increased autonomy, it
was also linked with reductions in support and feedback. The reduced feedback and
support can arguably be due to a lack of richness of the communication media and
separation from colleagues (Hobbs and Armstrong, 1998; Mann and Holdsworth,
2003). By effectively using richer communication media (such as videoconferencing)
and appropriate employee socialisation practices, organisations may be able to mitigate
some of the negative effects of telework. Further, ensuring that the teleworking
employee is not isolatedproviding structured social interaction through richer communication mediamay lessen the negative effects of teleworking.
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Limitations and future directions

Although this research offers new insights into the complex impact of telework on
important work outcomes such as exhaustion and engagement, there are several limitations. First, although we study here a common form of telework, which generally
involves allocating time between an office location and home (Nilles, 1994; Pratt, 1999;
Madsen, 2003; Mann and Holdsworth, 2003; Golden et al., 2006; Ntti et al., 2011), other
forms of telework that involve alternate locations or full-time presence away from the
office are not investigated. Additionally, we focus exclusively on job-related factors in
developing an understanding of work exhaustion and engagement, and as such we do
not take into account individual difference variables such as self-efficacy, adaptability
or personality and motivational trait factors (ONeill et al., 2009). With our focus on
job-related factors, we also do not investigate other aspects of the teleworkers home
context, such as workfamily conflict (Maruyama et al., 2009), which teleworkers could
face as a result of their presence in the home. Therefore, building upon other studies
(Golden et al., 2006), understanding the effect of workfamily and familywork conflict
in the context of telework is an important area of future research. Additionally, because
the study was correlational rather than an experimental manipulation of variables,
we can not infer causality from this data. It is possible that causal and reverse-causal
relationships could exist between job demands and exhaustion (Demerouti et al., 2004)
and between job resources and engagement (Llorens et al., 2007). Finally, many of the
effect sizes found in this study are considered small by Cohens (1988) definition.
However, methodological scholars also suggest effect sizes need to be viewed within
context (Cortina and Landis, 2009), and as argued earlier, the effects found here are
both cumulative and part of an important complex story.

Conclusions
Through a greater understanding of the implications of telework for exhaustion and
engagement, this study offers a useful analytical framework to understand an increasingly interconnected work environment. Our analysis of telework illustrates its multifaceted effect on job demands and resources and subsequent effect on exhaustion and
engagement. The positive effect of telework revolves around reduced work pressure
and role conflict, as well as increased autonomy. The negative effect of telework is
expressed through increased role ambiguity and reduced support and feedback.
Organisations may be able to mitigate the detrimental effects associated with teleworking by introducing greater clarity in job description, structures and communication,
and structuring organisational practices to improve communication and feedback.
Telework is increasingly common in many urban and rural areas. It also has a
complex effect on teleworking employees work experience, exhaustion and engagement. Understanding how or why such impacts may occur aids not only researchers in
unravelling the complexities of this work mode, but also informs teleworkers and
others looking to make informed decisions about this trend.
Acknowledgement
This research was partially supported by Research and Publication Division at Indian
Institute of Management-Ahmedabad.
Note
1. We would like to thank an anonymous reviewer for this suggestion.

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