ENVIRONMENTALLYFRIENDLY

INLANDWATERWAYSHIPDESIGN
FORTHEDANUBERIVER

WorldWideFundforNatureInternational
DanubeCarpathianProgramme
(WWFDCP)

ProjectName:DanubeNavigation
ProjectNumber:9E0726.04
ContractNumber:066/FY09
ProjectExecutedby:DejanRadojcic
ProjectLocation:RepublicofSerbia
DateofAgreement:01January2009
ShortDescriptionofAssignment:Developingconcept
forshipdesignfortheDanubeRiverconditions

Page

ABBREVATIONS,ACRONYMSandNOMENCLATURE

0.

METHODOLOGY 8

1.

TERMSOFREFERENCE9

2.

INTRODUCTION10

2.1.
2.2.
2.3.
2.3.1.
2.3.2.
2.3.3.
2.3.4.
2.4.

WhatisanoptimalIWWship?
10
Importanceofthewaterway 11
RestrictionsoftheDanubewaterway(withitstributaries)

11
TheDanube13
SomecriticalpointsontheLowerDanube

14
TheDanubeTributaries

15
ImpactofclimatechangeonDanubenavigation

17
Concludingremarks

17

3. BASICAPPROACHTOINLANDVESSELHYDRODYNAMICS

19

3.1.
3.2.
3.3.
3.4.

Shallowwaterresistance

Propulsiveefficiencyinshallowwater
Washproblems

Concludingremarks

4. INTERMODALITYANDIWT
4.1.
4.2.
4.3.
4.4.

19
22
22
22

25

26
26
27
28

Transhipmentsandcargohandlingequipment
StateoftheartofIntermodalLoadingUnits(ILU)
Thehinterland

Concludingremarks

5. WATERBORNEPARTOFTRANSPORT

30

5.1.
5.1.1.
5.1.2.
5.1.3.
5.1.4.

30
30
34
37
38

Stateoftheart
Selfpropelledvessel
Bargetrains

Barges

Pushboats

5.2.
5.2.1.
5.2.2.
5.2.3.
5.2.4.
5.3.

Conceptsofresearchedinlandvesselsforcargotransport

41
SelfpropelledvesselINBISHIP

41
PushboatsandbargesforextremelyshallowwaterVEBISandINBATprojects41
SomeotherprojectssimilartotheINBATandINBISHIPprojects

43
Conceptsofadvancedvessels

45
Concludingremarks

46

6.

CHARACTERISTICSOFSELFPROPELLEDCONTAINERVESSELS
ADAPTEDTOTHEDANUBEWATERWAY

6.1.
6.2.
6.3.
6.4.
6.5.

Maximalvesseldimensions
Transporteconomy

Hydrodynamicanalysis
Hullweightconsiderations
Concludingremarks

7.

TECHNICALMEASURESTOMAKEINLANDSHIPSCLEANER
ANDMOREEFFICIENT

54

7.1.
7.1.1.
7.1.2.
7.2.
7.2.1.
7.2.2.
7.2.3.
7.2.4.
7.2.5.
7.2.6.
7.2.7.
7.2.8.
7.3.

Improvementsinhullresistance(withtheaimtoreduceRT)

55
Shipform

55
Shipweightreduction

57
Innovationsinpropulsionandtransmissions(withtheaimtoincreaseDS)59
Screwpropellers

59
Transmissionofpower

60
Propulsorsteeringcapabilities

60
Innovativepropellerbasedconcepts

61
Promisingpropellerbasedpropulsors

62
Otherpropulsors

64
Ratingofpropulsors

66
ImprovementofHullPropulsorinteractions

67
Innovationsinpropulsionplantsandfuels(withtheaimtoreducefuel
consumptionandpollutantemissions)

68
Dieselengines

68
Emissionproblems

68
Exhaustemissionlegislation

69
FindingsfromtheCREATINGproject

69
Innovationsinpropulsionplants

73

7.3.1.
7.3.2.
7.3.3.
7.3.4.
7.3.5.

47
47
49
50
52
52

7.4.
7.5.

Innovationsimportantforbettershiputilisation/navigation(withtheaim
toreduceshipspeedandincreasecosteffectivenessandsafety)
75
Concludingremarks

77

8. PROPOSEDSOLUTIONSFORTHEDANUBERIVER
8.1.
8.1.1.
8.1.2.
8.1.3.
8.2.
8.2.1.
8.2.2.
8.2.3.
8.3.
8.4.

79

Selfpropelledshipfortransportofcontainers

79
ProposedfeaturesofaDanubecontainershipconcept

80
Generalarrangementplanofacontainershipconcept

82
Advantagesofaconceptcomparedtoconventionalships

84
Bargetrainfortransportofbulkcargo

87
Proposedfeaturesofapushboatconcept

88
Generalarrangementplanofapushboatconcept

90
Advantagesofaconceptcomparedtoconventionalpushboats

92
Conversionandretrofittingmeasuresthatcanleadtogreenernavigation92
Thecostofnewbuildings

93

9. CONCLUSIONS

94

REFERENCES

APPENDICIES

99

95

Appendix1TheOECDPublicationInlandWarerways&EnvironmentalProtection100
Appendix2Impactsofclimatechange
104
Appendix3WaveWashProducedbyHighSpeedCraft

107
Appendix4PossibleShipPollutants

111

112
Appendix5ApplicationofSPStoDanubeBargeHullStructure
Appendix6StatisticsonInlandWaterwayTransportandDanubeTransport
116
Appendix7RecentIMOactivities

120

ABBREVATIONS,ACRONYMSandNOMENCLATURE

Abbreviations

ADN
EuropeanagreementconcerningtheinternationalcarriageifdangerousgoodsinIWT
ADND/ADNR CarriageofdangerousgoodsontheDanube/Rhine
AIS

AutomaticIdentificationSystem
ATM
AdvisingTempomaat
BD

Biodiesel
BDB
BiodieselBlend
CEC
CentralEuropeanCountries
CCNR
CentralCommissionfortheNavigationontheRhine
CPP
ControllablePitchPropeller
CRP
ContraRotatingPropeller
DGTREN
EuropeanCommission,GeneralDirectorateforEnergyandTransport
DMCanal
DanubeMainCanal
DPC
DanubeProjectCentre,Belgrade
DST
DevelopmentCentreforShipTechnologyandTransportSystems(VBD),Duisburg(DE)
ECDIS
ElectronicChartDisplayandInformationSystem
ECE

UnitedNationsEconomicCommissionforEurope
EE

EastEuropean
EILU
EuropeanIntermodalLoadingUnit
EPA
EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(UnitedStates)
ERT

EmissionReductionTechnologies
EST
EnvironmentallySustainableTransport
ESTR
EquivalentSemiTrailers
ETA
EstimatedTimeofArrival
FC

FuelCell
FEU
FortyfeetEquivalentUnit(ISO40container)
FPP

FixedPitchPropeller
GL

GermanischerLloyd
GMS
Grossmotorschiff
GRP
GlassReinforcedPlastic
HWL
HighWaterLevel
ILU

IntermodalLoadingUnit
IMP
IntegralMotorPropeller
INE

InlandNavigationEurope
ISO

InternationalStandardOrganization
IT

InformationTechnology
ITTC
InternationalTowingTankConference
IWT
InlandWaterTransport
JRB

YugoslavShippingCompany
IWW
InlandWaterWay
LNG
LiquefiedNaturalGas
LNRL
LowNavigationandRegulationLevel
LoLo
LoadonLoadoff
LR

LloydsRegister

LSF

MARIN
NGE
O/D
PIANC
PMF
RCD
RDP
RIS

RoLa
RoRo
SCR

SEEC
SES

SPP

SPS

SWL
TEN
TEU
ToR
VBD
WEC
WP

WWF

LowSulphurFuel
MaritimeInstituteofNetherlands,Wageningen
NaturalGasEngine
OriginDestination
PermanentInternationalAssociationofNavigationCongresses
ParticulateMatterFilter
RecreationalCraftDirective(UnitedStates)
RimDrivenPropeller
RiverInformationServices
RoadRailcombinedtransport
RollonRolloff
SelectiveCatalyticReduction
SouthEastEuropeanCountries
SurfaceEffectShip
SurfacePiercingPropeller
SandwichPlateSystem
SafeWorkingLoad
TransEuropeanNetwork
TwentyfeetEquivalentUnit(ISO20container)
TermsofReference
VersuchsanstaltfurBinnenschiffbaue.V.Duisburg(nowDST),Germany
WestEuropeanCountries
WorkPackage
WorldWideFundforNature

ProjectsAcronyms

COMPRIS

ConsortiumforOperationalManagementPlatformforRiverInformation
Services(FP5Project)
COVEDA
ContainerVesselsfortheDanubewaterway(DPCProject)
CREATING
ConceptstoReduceEnvironmentalimpactandAttainoptimalTransport
performancebyInlandNaviGation(FP6Project)
EUDET
EvaluationoftheDanubewaterwayasakeyEuropeanTransport
resource(FP4Project)
INBAT
InnovativeBargeTrain(FP5Project)
INBISHIP
NewOpportunitiesforInlandWaterwayTransport(BRITEEURAMProject)
KLIWAS
Consequencesofclimatechangefornavigablewaterwaysandoptionsforthe
economyandinlandnavigation(NationalGermanproject)
MUTAND
MultimodalRoRoTransportontheDanuberiver(DPC&DSTproject)
PASCAT
PartialAircushionSupportedCatamaran(GROWTHProgramme)
PELS
ProjectEnergysavingAirLubricatedShips(NationalDutchresearchproject)
SMOOTH
SustainableMethodsforOptimaldesignandOperationofShipswithairlubricaTed
Hulls(FP6Project)

SPIN
StrategiesforPromotingInlandNavigation(GROWTHProgramme)
VEBIS
Improvementoftheefficiencyofinlandwatertransportation(GermanProject)
ELWIS,DORIS,ALSODanube,CRORIS,YURISNationalRISprojects

Nomenclature

cT

CC

dwt
DP

FNh

FnL
g

hWLNRL
hAHWL
H

mlig

mc

nH

PB

PD

Ri
RT

Rv

Rw

Vesselbeam(m)
Trainformationcoefficient(RT/Ri)
Coefficientofcontainertransportefficiency(no.containerskm/h/kW)
Deadweight(t)
Propellerdiameter(m)
Freeboard(HT)(m)
Froudenumberbasedonwaterdepth(v/(gh))
Froudenumberbasedonwaterlinelength(v/(gL))
Gravitationalacceleration(m/s2)
Waterdepth(m)
WaterdepthbyLNRL(m)
AirclearanceoverHWL(m)
Vesselheightordepth(m)
Vessellength(m)
Lightshipmass(t)
Containermass(t)
Numberofcontainersonboard

Numberofcontainerlayers
Installedpower(kW)
Deliveredpower(kW)
Resistanceratio(Rwh/Rw)
Individualresistanceofeachbarge(kN)
Totalresistance(kN)

Viscousresistance(kN)

Subscripts

Wavemakingresistance(kN)
hFinitewaterdepth(shallowwater)
Vesseldraught(m)

Infinitewaterdepth(deepwater)
Vesselspeed(km/h)

OAOverall
Propulsiveefficiency
Shaftefficiency

0. METHODOLOGY
Introductorypart(Sections2,3and4)
First,asanintroduction,restrictionsoftheDanubewaterway(anditstributaries)aregiven,as
restrictions in water depth, lock size and bridge heights dictate main ship dimensions. This is
followed by sections (probably complicated to a nontechnical reader) on shallow water
hydrodynamics which is important for design and operation of every vessel intended to
navigate in inland waterways. Basic knowledge about transhipment possibilities, intermodal
loadingunits,logisticsandassociatedproblemsisalsoessentialastheseinfluenceshipdesign.
Waterbornetransport(Sections5and6)
Waterborne transport is in the focus of this study, so stateoftheart of selfpropelled vessels
andbargetrainsfollows.Specialattentionisgiventodesignofselfpropelledcontainervessels
fortheDanubewaterway(Section6)asthey,perse,actuallydonotexist(likeontheRhine).
Measurestomakeinlandshipscleanerandmoreefficient(Section7)
Adiscussionfollowsonshipcomponents(propulsors,machinery,etc.)andachievementsthat
leadtofuelefficiency;thisisimportantforthedesignofinnovativeDanubevessels.Theseare
recent achievements in ship resistance, propulsion, engines, construction and ship utilization.
Someoftheachievementsthatarementionedwillbeimplementedinthedesignsofproposed
conceptsfortheDanube(giveninSection8).
ProposedconceptsfortheDanubeRiver(Section8)
Finally,thereportgivesasectionondesignofconceptsforcontainerandbulkcargotransport.
These concepts fulfil contemporary ecological demands, apply innovative technologies, and
obey the existing waterway restrictions explained above. The designs proposed are a
selfpropelledvesselforcontainertransportandbargetrainforbulkcargotransport.
Appendices
Topicstreatedintheappendicesgivesomeextrainformationusefulforthesubject.

Severalpartsofthisreportoriginatefromotherstudiesandpapersthatwerewrittenorco
written by the author of this study (namely, SPIN, CREATING, COVEDA etc.). In the
parentheses, after each section title, references are given from where most of the
text/materialoriginatesfrom.Consequently,referencesaregivenwherevernecessary,except
incasesexplainedabove.

1. TERMSOFREFERENCE

ThemostimportantitemsoftheTermsofReference(ToR)are:

Information on shallow draught ship technology is needed to fine tune WWFs

argumentsandpositionininlandnavigationontheDanube.

Knowledgeoninlandnavigationandinnovativeshipdesignsthatprovidetechnicallyand
economicallyfeasiblealternativestopresentconceptsandtechnologyshouldbegiven.

Proposedsolutionsshouldbeinharmonywithpresentecologicaldemands,i.e.should
require less or no new infrastructure/river modification that negatively impacts river
ecosystemsanddynamics.

Technical solutions should be proposed that adapt ships to the Danube River, in
particulartotheshallowsectorsontheLowerDanube,butthatarealsoabletooperate
ontheDanubetributariesandDanubeMainCanal.

Transportofcontainerandbulkcargoshouldbeconsidered;attentionshouldbepaidto
upgrading/retrofittingpresentvesselsandtothenewships.

2. INTRODUCTION[SPIN,COVEDA]

2.1.

WhatisanoptimalIWWship?

There are several definitions of optimal ship, one of them, according to Zigic (2008), define
optimalshipas:

Modernandenvironmentallyfriendly
Withlowexhaustemissions
Withlowfuelconsumption
Economicalinoperation
Highlycompatiblewiththewaterway
Havecapabilitytoaligntotheriver
Haveminimalimpactsonbankvegetationandfishfauna.

Allowedwaterdepth,thatchangesalongtheriverandduringtheseason,shouldbespecially
analysedasitinfluencestransportperformancethroughshipcarryingcapacityandspeed(see
Figure2.1).

Figure2.1Influenceofwaterdepthonshippayloadandspeed(Source:Zigic,2008)
Operationalcostsaredramaticallyreducedwithincreaseofwaterdepth,i.e.increaseofvessel
draught. Nevertheless, during the low water levels, the ship should be able to operate with
restrictedeconomicaleffects.Thesameshipshouldbeabletooperateindeeperwatertoo,but
will then be less efficient than the ship initially designed for deepwater operation only.
Extremely shallow water, however, is often regarded as severe operational conditions.
Therefore,transportcosts,howevercalculated,areverymuchinfluencedbywaterdepth.
Alltransportmodestogreaterorsmallerextenthavesomenegativeimpactsonwater,air,soil
bioticbalance,climaticconditions, health,andeconomy,tonameafew.Amongstthem,IWT
seemstohavetheleasteffectsthatcanbequantified,forinstancethroughdirectandindirect

10

costs (see Appendix 6, and leaflets on Environment and Sustainability by INE

www.inlandnavigation.org and Power of Inland Navigation by BVB). Direct costs are more or
lessobvious,butindirectcostsaresomehowhiddenanddifficulttoquantify.Thereareother
impactswhichareevenmoredifficulttoquantify,forinstanceaccidents,congestion,impacts
onhumans,floraandfaunaetc.Anoptimalship,therefore,shouldcausetheleastimpactsthat
arementionedabove.Thiscanbeachievedbya)applyingcontemporarydesignmeasures,and
b) through making design compromises (sometimes it is necessary to sacrifice/reduce cost
effectivenesstoobtainanoverallgoodandenvironmentallyacceptablevessel).

2.2.

Importanceofthewaterway

Generallyspeaking,themaincharacteristicsofallinland(river)vesselsaremoreorlesssimilar,
i.e.theyhaverestricteddraught(T)duetotherestrictedwaterdepth(h).However,somerivers
are deeper or are regulated and have minimal guaranteed water depth throughout the year,
while others are shallower and/or unregulated. The most important European rivers differ
mainlyintheabovementionedtheRhineisdeeperandregulated(which,however,requires
many investments into fairway maintenance) while the Danube, although much longer and
wider, is relatively shallow and unregulated river with large variations in water depths.
Consequently, the main difference between Rhine and the Danube vessels is their draught,
whichhasveryimportantconsequencesonseveralothershipparameters.
Furthermore,theRhinepassesthroughthemostdevelopedpartofEurope,probablytheworld,
so it is quite normal that several technical solutions applied on the Rhine vessels are
copied/transferred to other river vessels, in this particular case to the Danube vessels.
However,itshouldbeunderlinedthatoftenitisnotpossibletocopy/transfereveryserviceor
technical solution due to the alreadymentioned waterway differences. Other differences are
alsoimportant,forinstancehinterlandandinfrastructuredevelopmentalongtheRhineandthe
Danube corridor (see Section 4.3), which actually dictate volume and type of cargo,
transhipmentfacilities,intermodalloadingunitsetc.

2.3.

RestrictionsoftheDanubewaterway(withitstributaries)

CharacteristicsofinlandvesselsfortheDanubewaterwaydependverymuchonthewaterway
itself,i.e.itsdepth,heightofthebridgesandsizeoflocks.Therefore,themaincharacteristicsof
theDanubewaterwayanditstributariesshouldbestatedhere(seeFigure2.2).

11

Figu
ure2.2LockksandportsontheDanu
ube(Source:TTSGroup))

12

2.3.1. TheDanube
Accordingtoitsphysicalandgeographicalcharacteristics,theriverDanubeisofficiallydivided
bytheDanubeCommissionintothreemainsectors:UpperDanube(SectorI),MiddleDanube
(Sector II) and Lower Danube (Sector III). Each of these sectors is subdivided into sections
accordingtodifferentnavigationalconditions(Table2.1).TheEUDETProjectshowed,however,
that such division is partly out of date, and proposed a new division of the Danube, which
differentiatethecanalised(articulated)sectionsfromthefreeflowingpartsofthewaterway.
AlthoughtheEUDETdivisionrelatesbettertothepresentstateofDanubewaterway,thereis
still not enough statistical analysis (especially concerning water depth) to cover it properly.
Even in the EUDET study, waterway statistics are mostly given according to the Danube
Commissionclassicalsubdivision.
Themostimportantstatisticalinformation,fromthepointofviewofvesseldesign,iswaterway
depth and the air clearance under the bridges. So, in Table 2.2 an attempt is made to re
examinedifferentsources(e.g.EUDETandWESKA)todeducetheappropriatedataforwater
depth at LNRL* and critical bridge heights at HWL**, and to implement them to the EUDET
divisionoftheDanubewaterway.Numbersinbracketsindicatethatdifferentdatawerefound
inthereferences.
Table2.1DivisionofthewaterwaybytheDanubeCommission
Section

From

Danubekm

To

Danubekm

2415
2227
2135
1929

Passau
Linz
Vienna
Gonyu

2227
2135
1929
1791

1791
1646
1048

Budapest
MoldavaVeche
Drobeta

1646
1048
931

931
170

Braila
Sulina

170
0

UpperDanubeSectorI
I1
I2
I3
I4

Kelheim
Passau
Linz
Vienna

MiddleDanubeSectorII
II1
II2
II3

Gonyu
Budapest
MoldavaVeche

LowerDanubeSectorIII
III1
III2

Drobeta
Braila

LNRL:LowNavigationandRegulationLevelisthewaterlevelthatcorrespondstotheflowavailablefor94%of
durationofthenavigableseason,i.e.excludingthewinterperiodsofbreakofnavigationaffectedbyice.
**
HWL: High Water Level is the water level that corresponds to the flow occurring at 1% of duration of the
navigableseason.

13

Table2.2TheEUDETdivisionoftheDanubewithmainrestrictionsofthewaterway

Section

Danubekm

ECEClass

Remark

Depthby
LNRL
(m)

Airclearance
overHWL(m),if
lowerthen7.5m

Minimallock
dimensions(m)
Beam Length

KelheimStraubing

24142324

VbVIb

canalised

2.9

6.03

12 190

Straubing
Vilshofen

23242249

VIa

freeflowing
(shallow)

2(1.7)

4.73

VilshofenMelk

22492038

VIb

canalised

2.8

6.36

2 24 230

2.3(2.5)

6.65

MelkDurnstein

20382008

VIb

freeflowing
(shallow)

DurnsteinVienna

20081921

VIb

canalised

2.8

2 24 230

ViennaCunovo

19211853

VIc

freeflowing
(shallow)

2.2(2.5)

6.7

2 24 230

18531811

VII

canalised

2.5

234 275

18111646

VII

freeflowing
(shallow)

2.0(2.5)

6.7

16461215

VII

freeflowing(good)

2.5

1215863

VII

canalised

Wellover2.5

234 310

863346

VII

freeflowing

2.3

346240

VIc

freeflowing(good)

2.7

240170

VII
VIIVIc
VIa

freeflowing

2.4

maritimesection

7.32

Cunovo
Palkovicovo
Palkovicovo
Budapest
Budapest
Slankamen
SlankamenIron
GatesII
IronGatesIIBala
Arm
Bala/BorceaArm
Giurgeni
GiurgeniBraila
BrailaSulina
BalaArm
Cernavoda
Cernavoda
Giurgeni

1700
346299

VIc

freeflowing
(shallow)

Couldbe
bypassed

299240

VII

freeflowing(good)

Over2.5

Cernavoda
Constanta

640

VIc

navigablecanal

Wellover2.5

ChiliaArmBlack
Sea

1160

VII

freeflowing(good)

Over2.5

Note:Navigabilityofthefairwayisalsoinfluencedbythenaturalprofileofawatercoursethalweg(riverpathwithmaximum
depthand/orvelocity).

2.3.2. SomecriticalpointsontheLowerDanube
In order to improve navigation conditions, necessary water depth, width and minimal curve
radiusaccordingtotheDanubeCommissionrecommendationsshouldbeatleast2.5m,150
180mand1000mrespectively.Nevertheless,duetovariousreasonswaterdepthonseveral

14

sectors,andinparticularonsomeLowerDanubesectors,islessthanrecommended.Justone
exampleofcriticalsectors(identifiedbytheEUsTENTProgramme)are:

Danubekm375to175(CalarasiBraila),and
Danubekm531to521(Batinsector).

Amongst these, the Danube between km 346 and 300 (Bala Branch outlet to Black SeaCanal
outlet at Cernavoda, Figure 2.3) is particularly critical for navigation during the dry seasons,
withwaterdepthonsomesectorsofaround1.5monly.Consequently,shipsoftenhavetouse
adetourviaBalaBorceaBranchwhichincreasesnavigationlengthtotheBlackSeaCanalfor
around110km.Moreover,onewaynavigationandconvoydismantlingisoftennecessaryinthe
BorceaBranch.

Figure2.3CriticalpointsonCalarasiBrailasector(Source:ISPA)

2.3.3. TheDanubeTributaries
TheDanubehasmorethan30navigabletributaries,butonlythosehavingtheECEclassIIIand
abovearegiveninTable2.3.SincethetributarieshaveamuchlowerclassthantheDanube,
allowedvesseldimensionsarealsodepictedinTable2.3.TheRhineMainDanubewaterwayis
showninFigure2.4.

15

Table2.3NavigableetributariessandcanalsoftheDanu
ube
(Source:Manualon
nDanubeNaavigation)

2.4RhineMainDanubeWaterway((RotterdamSulina3467km)
Figure2
(Sou
urce:ManualonDanubeeNavigation)

16

2.3.4. ImpactofclimatechangeonDanubenavigation
It is difficult to estimate possible impacts from the climate change on Danube navigation.
AccordingtoProspectsonthedevelopmentofinfrastructureandnavigationontheDanube,
inthefuturetherewillprobablybemoreperiodsofintenserainfall(dangerofhighwater),but
alsomoreandlongeraridperiods.
AccordingtoarecentPIANCReport(seeAppendix2),shippingcompaniestrytorespondtothe
phenomena of low water levels and floods in a way that it assures the reliability of inland
navigation through adaptation of the fleet and new vessels of different design as well as
light loading of current vessels and use of vessels with decreased draught. Increased and
decreasedwaterlevels(andthereforewatervelocitiestoo);changeintimingofseasonalhigh
andlowwaterandshorterdurationofrivericealsodemandbettermanoeuvringcapabilitiesof
ships. The Federal Institute for Hydrology of the German Ministry of Transport is presently
funding project KLIWAS, whose purpose is to develop a sound statement about the span of
possible climate changes. In the same context see also proceedings of recent conference
RhineschifffahrtundKlimawandel.

2.4.

Concludingremarks

Waterdepth
a)

OntheUpperDanubethemostcriticalstretchisbetweenStraubingandVilshofenwith
hWLNRL<2m(accordingtosomestatisticseven1.7m).

b)

SeveralsectorsontheUpperDanube(upstreamtoBudapest)have
hWLNRL=2.02.3m.

c)

AfewsectorsontheLowerDanube(downstreamofIronGatesII)have
hWLNRL=2.32.4m.Accordingtosomestatisticswaterdepthoncriticalsectorsisas
lowas1.5m,sodetourviaother(longer)routesisnecessary(Figure2.3).

d)

Elsewhere,hWLNRL>2.5m.OntheMiddleDanubethedepthisoftenover5m.

Bridgeheightorairclearance

ThemostcriticalbridgeheightsareagainontheUpperDanube,i.e.thebridgesinDeggendorf
andPassauwithhAHWL=4.73mand6.36m,respectively.TheheightofRMDcanalbridgesis
around 6 m. All other bridges upstream from Budapest are around 6.7 m. Downstream from
BudapesthAHWL>7.5m.

17


Sizeoflocks
MostoftheDanubelockshavestandardEuropeandimension.Themostcriticaloneisupstream
ofStraubingat12x190m(asalllocksofRDMcanal),whiletherestontheUpperDanubeare
2x24x190m.ThelocksbuiltbyexEastEuropeanCountriesareeven2x34x275(310)m
(seeFigure2.5).

Figure2.5Djerdap1lock(Serbianside)fullandempty(Source:WitteveenBos)

Implicationsonshipdesign
Taking into account that a) an IWW vessel should be designed according to the particular
waterway,andb)thatallaroundclearancebetweenthevessel(orhercargo)andbridge/river
bottom/lockside should be at least 0.3 m, the maximal allowed vessel dimensions, with
possibleminorrestrictionsinsailingduringthedryseasons,are
For the whole Danube including the stretch upstream of StraubingVilshofen, as well as
throughtheDMCanal:T<1.7m(probably2m),B11.45m.
DownstreamofVilshofen:T<2.0m(probably2.5m),B23.4m.
The length of selfpropelled vessels is practically unrestricted, while coupling train formation
willbediscussedlater(seeTables2.2,2.3and5.1).Theairdraughtdependsonthebridges(see
Tables2.2and2.3).

18

3. BASICAPPROACHTOINLANDVESSELHYDRODYNAMICS[SPIN]

Fuel consumption depends on power needed for propelling the vessel with a certain speed
(neglectingtheconsumptionofgeneratingsetsandotherminorconsumersonboard).Various
engine emissions (pollution) are also proportional to power installed (if variations which
dependonenginetypeareignored).Obviously,itisofprimaryimportancetoreducethepower
needed for moving the ship. This power is called the Brake power (PB); it depends on vessel
speed(v),resistance(RT)andefficiencyofthepropulsors(D).Inparticular
PB=RTv/DS.
Althoughthisstatementmaylookcomplicatedtononengineers,elementarydiscussionofthe
abovementionedwillclearlyindicatepossiblewaysforpowerreduction.Inaddition,someof
thestatementswhichfollowwillbeneededlaterinthetext.

3.1.

Shallowwaterresistance

Shallow water hydrodynamics is of primary importance for inland vessels and particularly for
fast inland vessels. In shallow water, vessel resistance is very much different than in deep
water,andmayplaythemostimportantroleininlandvesseldesign(seepowerspeeddiagram,
Figure 3.1). Resistance RTh shows a pronounced peak (resistance increases) at the critical
Froudenumber(criticalspeedwhichdependsonwaterdepth).Thismaybeexplainedwiththe
growth,whichisthenfollowedbytheloss,oftransversewaves.So,althoughintheexpression
above the total resistance RT was mentioned, in the shallow water only one resistance
component the wave making resistance RW changes dramatically (total resistance RT
consists of viscous resistance RV and wave making resistance RW). This phenomenon may be
well expressed through the ratio of shallow water wave resistance to deep water wave
resistancer=RWh/RW.Followingthislogic,threespeedregionsmaybedetected:
subcriticalregionwheretheeffectsofwaterdeptharealmostnegligible
criticalregionwhereRWhincreasesdramatically(risgreaterthan1)
supercriticalregionwhereRWhmaybesmallerthanRW(risabitsmallerthan1).
Theincreaseofwavemakingresistanceresistanceratiorinthecriticalregionisofprimary
importanceforfastvesselsanddependsmainlyontheratioofh/L(whereLisvesselswaterline
length).Thisiswelldepictedbya3DdiagramgiveninFigure3.2(HofmanandRadojcic1997,
Hofman and Kozarski 2000), where FnL = v/(gL) is Froude number based on ship waterline

19

length. Similarly,
S
the
e socalled shallow
s
water resistancce charts, sh
hown in Figu
ures 3.3 and
d 3.4,
indicate by gray scaling the crittical region black and
d darkgray zones
z
should be avoideed. In
Figure3.4,Fnh=v/((gh)isthed
depthFroud
denumber(rrelationbetw
weentwoFrroudenumb
bersis
FnL = Fnh(h/L)). Alll three diaagrams are obtained by relativeely complicaated theoreetical
calculatio
ons.Neverth
heless,thed
diagramssho
ownareunivversal,simpleandthereeforeusefulsince
theinflueentialparam
metersthataaretiedtogeetherareonlyL,handvtheotherrshipparameters
(shipform
manddimen
nsions)arep
practicallynotimportantandmayb
beneglected.
Furtherm
more,accord
dingtoHofm
manandRadojcic(1997)theonlywaaytoavoidtthecriticalreegion
(negativee influence of water depth)
d
is to
o avoid thee critical reegion itself, i.e. the sp
peeds
correspo
onding to Fnh
0, FnL 0.30.4 and low values off h/L. This means
m
that good
n 0.91.0
inlandve
essels,particularlytheffastones,sh
houldbede
esignedacco
ordingtothe
ewaterdep
pthh,
orinbro
oadersense,according tothepartticularwaterway.Conseequently,th
herightchoiceof
vessel sp
peed and waterline
w
length should be decided in the veryy early design phases, since
thereisn
ntanypossibilitytoimp
provethepo
oorperform
manceslater on(thisisn
notthecasewith
deep water seagoin
ng vessels). Note, howeever, that co
ommercial vessels
v
naviggate at relattively
lowspeeedsinthesubcriticalreggion(corresp
pondingtoFFnh<0.60.7
7).

Figure3.1
1Powerspeeeddiagram
m(subcriticaalregion)ofa
shipsailin
ngindifferen
ntwaterdep
pths(Sourcee:SPINRhinee)

20

Figure3.2Shallowwaterresistanceratio

FL

Fh

0.70

1.40

super-critical region

super-critical region
3.0

1.5

0.60

1.20

2.0

2.0

1.5

3.0

4.0

1.0

0.50

1.00

critical region
0.40

0.80

critical region
5.0
4.0

1.0
0.30

0.60

5.0

sub-critical region

0.20

0.10

0.00
0.10

sub-critical region

0.40

0.20

0.15

0.20

0.25

0.30

0.35

0.40

0.45

0.50

h/L

0.00
0.10

0.15

0.20

0.25

0.30

0.35

0.40

0.45

0.50

h/L

Fig.3.3Shallowwaterresistancechart Fig.3.4Shallowwaterresistancechart

21

3.2.

Propulsiveefficiencyinshallowwater

Thedenominatorintheaboveequation(DS)iscalledthetotalpropulsiveefficiency,but
sinceSisaround0.95regardlessofwaterdepth(i.e.transmissionlossesareusually5%),only
Disoffurtherinterest(Disthepropulsiveefficiency,alsocalledquasipropulsiveefficiency).
Propulsiveefficiencyvariationsinshallowwaterareexactlyoppositetoresistance,i.e.around
thecriticalFroudenumber,Ddecreasescomparedtothevalueindeepwater(curveDasa
f(Fnh) has a pronounced hollow around the critical speed, specifically around Fnh 0.9). This
hollow(Dreduction),amongotherreasons,isexplainedbyincreasedpropellerloadingdueto
increasedresistanceinshallowwater(HofmanandRadojcic1997,Radojcic1998).

3.3.

Washproblems

High speed vessels generate large waves (followed by increase of wavemaking resistance),
which may cause environmental problems (bank erosion) and endanger other users of the
waterway. Waves generated by forward motion of a ship are called wavewash or just wash.
The main wash problem is associated with the passage through a critical speed range and is
particularly pronounced in shallow waters (see Figures 3.5 and 3.6). More about wave wash,
andinparticularaboutwavewashproducedbyhighspeedcraft,isgivenintheAppendix3.

Figure3.5Typicalshallowwaterwavesystem(Source:MARIN)

3.4.

Concludingremarks

Inland (shallow water) vessels should be designed (matched) according to waterway

characteristics,i.e.thevesselsmainparameters(draught,length,propellersizeetc.)should
beadjustedtothespecificwaterway.

22

Intheshallowwater,threecharacteristicregimesexist(seeFigure3.6):
Subcritical(accordingtoITTC,belowFnh=0.7)
Critical, where PB increases dramatically due to increased resistance and decreased
propulsiveefficiency
Supercritical, where PB may be smaller than in deep water due to smaller resistance
andsomewhatlargerpropulsiveefficiency.

Figure3.6Changingofwavepatternofashipmovingatdifferentspeeds(Source:SPINRhine)

23

Byfarmostinlandvesselssailinthesubcriticalregime.Onlysomespecial,veryfast,inland
vessels are capable of reaching the supercritical regime (in that case, they should pass
through the critical regime as fast as possible due to enormous increase of demanded
power).

The regimeborders (and appropriate speeds) depend on the water depth h, which varies
from one river/riversector to another river/riversector. Consequently, subcritical/
critical/supercriticalspeedrangeisdifferent,forinstance,fortheRhineandtheDanubeor
forUpperandMiddleDanube.

Highspeedvesselsgeneratelargewake(wash)whichmaycauseseriousbankerosion.So,
the critical and nearcritical speeds should be avoided due to environmental reasons as
well.

24

4. INTERMODALITYANDIWT[26thDuisburgColloquium]

By definition, intermodal freight transport means the transport of goods in one loading unit,
usingtwoormoremodesoftransportsuccessively,withouthandlingthegoodsthemselves.As
such, intermodal transport has its main potential in long distance transport. Efficient use of
intermodal transport also requires implementation of logistics see Figure 4.1. (here, ISO
containersandswapbodiesshouldberegarded,respectively,asstackableILUandunstackable
ILUswapbody).

IW MULTIMODAL POSSIBILITES
IMPLEMENTATION
OF LOGISTICS
-Lo
Lo

ISO
CONTAINER

HIGH DEVELOPED INFRASTRUCTURE

(PORTS, RAILWAY, ROADWAY)

Ro

Ro

SWAP
BODY
SEMI
TRAILER

LOW DEVELOPED INFRASTRUCTURE

DR. VEHICLE
+
SEMITRAILER

TRANSPORT
EFFICIENCY

Fig.4.1IWmultimodalpossibilities

For intermodality that integrates IWT, the following links of the transport chain are generally
necessary:

25

In both cases that are depicted in Figure 4.1 LoLo (container) technology and RoRo
technology the first and last links (land transport) are more or less the same and are
unavoidable.Therefore,furtherconsiderationinthisstudyislimitedtotherestofthetransport
chain,i.e.twotranshipmentsandwaterbornetransport.
The Intermodal Loading Units (ILU) in IWT are containers, semitrailers or swapbodies.
Consequently,thepayloadisthegrossmassofloadedcontainer,semitraileroraswapbody.
However,forRoRovesselsitisthedeckarea,notthemassofpayloadthatiscriticalinfact
thekeymetricisthelengthofstandardlane,i.e.itisthelanemetersthataresold.Thus,for
RoRo vessels the payload should be considered as payarea, whereas the key parameter for
the container vessel is the number of TEUs, i.e. the payload should be considered as pay
volume. In any case, proper relation between cargo space and cargo weight is of utmost
importance;wellbalancedshipshaveagoodratioofcargovolumetocargoweight.

4.1.

Transhipmentsandcargohandlingequipment

As is well known, the transhipment of containers and other stackable ILUs to/from container
vesselshastobedonevertically(hencetheabbreviationLoLoforLoadonLoadoff),contrary
tothehorizontaltranshipments(onwheels)ofvariouskindsofcargo(RollonRolloff).
LoLotranshipmentofcontainersisefficientonlyifdedicatedequipmentisused,asforinstance
spreaders, expensive gantry cranes (for massive transhipment of containers), reach stackers
(for smaller terminals), etc. Otherwise, transhipment will be relatively slow and therefore
inefficient.Furthermore,forsuccessfulutilizationofcontainertechnologyitisoftennecessary
to have transhipment equipment also at final destination and origin points in the hinterland,
ratherthanjustintheports,withthenecessaryexpertiseandexperienceinuseatallpoints.
Nonstackableswapbodiesaresometimesalsotranshippedvertically,bygrapplerarms(side
lift instead of toplift). In that case some additional space between swapbodies is needed.
FurtherdiscussionabouttranshipmentpossibilitiesofvariousILUsisbeyondthescopeofthis
study.

4.2.

StateoftheartofIntermodalLoadingUnits(ILU)

Stackable ISO containers often called maritime containers are assumed here and their 20
feetequivalentunits(TEU)are6.06x2.44x2.44m(accordingly,40feetcontaineris12.19m
long). Other ILUs (domestic containers, swapbodies, semitrailers) are slightly wider having
2.50to2.60mouterwidthandallowmorepalletstobepackedintothem.Thatis,maritime
containershavelowerpalletcapacity,rangingfrom76%to82%utilization,whilethecapacityof

26

domesticcontainersrangesfrom9398%.ItisexpectedthattheshareofstackableILUs(swap
bodies) in European IW shipping will increase. This may amplify a deficiency caused by
incompatible standards, i.e. the current standardbeam container vessels have maximal
externalbeamof11.45mandmaximalinternalholdwidthof10.10m,suchthatfourcontainer
layersabreast,each2.50mwide(max),couldbestowed.ButthemajorityofpalletwideILUs
are2.55mwidebecausepackingofpalletsinto2.50mouterwidthILUsissomewhatdifficult.A
feasiblesolutiontothisshipholdsizevs.ILUsizeproblemcouldbemixedstowingofmaritime
containers(2.44mwide)andILUs(2.55mwide).Also,increaseofstandardvesselbeamfrom
11.45 m to 11.65 m is possible but requires an acceptance of the recommended clearance
between vessel and lock sides to be less than 0.3 m. European ILUs (EILU), which fulfil all
requirementsforcompatibilitywithEuropallets,arestackableswapbodiesClassC745which
are7.45x2.55x2.90m(longertypewouldbeupto45feetlong).Bytheway,presentlythe
dominantEuropeanILUsareswapbodiesthatarenotstackable.
Only the maritime containers (TEUs) are usually considered in IWT, although the most
promising and dominant units in IWT in the next 20 or so years are expected to be both
maritime ISO containers (for international deepsea/overseas trade) and stackable, pallet
optimized long EILUs for intraEuropean trade see Current State of Standardisation and
FutureStandardisationNeedsforIntermodalLoadingUnitsinEurope(www.cordis.europa.eu).

4.3.

Thehinterland

TheindustryandinfrastructuraldevelopmentoftheDanubehinterlandareoftenneglectedin
thereviewofnewtransportprojects,suchas,forexample,modalshiftprojectsandintermodal
transport.Furthermore,intermodaltransportpossibilitiesareoftencomparedtothoseonthe
RhinealthoughthereisastrikingdifferencebetweentheRhineandtheDanubehinterland.
TheRhinepassesthroughthemostdevelopedpartsoftheworld,whilethedevelopmentofthe
Danubehinterlandvaries,butisgenerallybelowthatoftheRhine.ThehinterlandoftheUpper
Danube(Germany,AustriaandpartlySlovakiaandHungary)isgenerallywelldeveloped,while
thatoftheMiddleandLowerDanubeisnot.Thereare,however,somesimilaritiesbetweenthe
RhinesPortofRotterdamandtheDanubesConstanta(namely,around1.5millioncontainers
are presently transhipped through Constanta, with 36% increase in 2007 compared to 2006),
but since the destination of this cargo is mostly for the area in the vicinity of Bucharest, the
Danubeasawhole,isnotaswellutilizedanIWTresourceascouldbeexpected.Upgradesin
the infrastructure are required for initialization of modal shift projects. This important fact is
oftenforgotten,andprovenintermodalsolutionswhichworkonthepatternriverRhine
aresometimessuggestedfortheDanube.Table4.1providesanoverviewofthecharacteristics
ofthetworivers.

27

TheRoRoserviceontheDanubeisnotrequiredtobeexaminedhere;forfurtherinformation
seetheMUTANDandCREATINGstudies.Itshouldbenoted,however,thatRoRoservicehas
several advantages taking into account that the largest trade in the Danube corridor is
conducted by road vehicles. Thus, while the market share in the EU15 allocated to the road
transportisaround7075%(withunacceptable30%increaseduringthelasttenyears),inthe
SEECitiscurrentlyabove90%;andincreasingintheshortterm.Therailwayinfrastructurein
Austriaisalsoregardedtobeovercrowded.Consequently,seemsthatIWT,andparticularlythe
DanubeIWT,istheonlyalternativemodewithenormoustransportpotentials,seeAppendix6.

Table4.1AnoverviewoftheRhineandtheDanube
The Rhine

4.4.

Regulated river (ensured through many

investments), guaranteed depths, often 3.5 m
Developed hinterland and transport
infrastructure
850 km navigable
Developed logistics
General knowledge about IWT potential does
exist
Awareness about EST exist
Inland ports traffic: Rotterdam - 110 mill. t,
Duisburg - 50 mill. t
84% & 34% of European selfpropeled and
pushed barges fleet, respectively
56% tkm of EU15 IWT (IWT of EU27-EU15
accounts to only 5% tkm of EU27)

The Danube

Partially regulated river, shallow water on

many sectors, occasionally 2.5 m
Undeveloped hinterland and transport
infrastructure
Long river, 2400 km navigable
Undeveloped logistics concepts
Sufficient knowledge about potential of IWT
does not exist
Awareness about EST does not exist
Inland ports traffic: Constanta 35 mill. t
Regensburg - 2.5 mill. t
4% & 44% of European selfpropelled and
pushed barges fleet, respectively

Concludingremarks

ThereisadramaticdifferencebetweenseaandIWT:
a) Seavesselshavenocompetition(withouttheminternationaltradeisimpossible)
b) IWThasverystrongcompetitionfromalternatives(railwayandroadtransport)
c) IWT is more constrained by natural physical conditions as rivers flow through the
mainland.
Consequently, the land transport modes dictate the cost of transport, but also the type of
intermodal loading units that should be used. So, if standard ISO containers (TEU, FEU) work
well on the sea, that does not yet mean they will be so competitive in IWT, i.e. IWT should
adapt itself to other modes and hence standards that are broadly used in Europe, and in
particular to palletwise domestic containers (EILUs) which are just 616 cm wider than the

28

usual sea containers. Nevertheless, this small difference of only few centimetres poses
problemsinIWT,resultingofteninuncompetitivenesscomparedtolandtransportmodes.
Efficient cargo handling (transhipment), not only in the ports/hubs but in the hinterland, is
essential for successful intermodal transport. In other words, development of the hinterland,
transport infrastructure, knowledge about IWT possibilities, EST, logistics etc. are decisive
factorsforapplicationofintermodality.Theseexplainwhycontainerizationisacceptedonthe
Rhine,whiletheRoRotechnologyseemstoworkbetterontheDanube.
IWTofcontainersisinherentlyamoreefficientintermodalsolution(thanRoRo)duetotheir
stackabilityandstowability.Nevertheless,giventhattheDanubeisnotfullyregulatedandthat
ithasshallowsonseveralsectors,containervesselswithlowercarryingcapacity(thanonthe
Rhine,forinstance)shouldbeconsideredasafeasiblesolution.Bargetrainswithpartlyloaded
bargeswouldgivegoodresultstoo.Inanycase,asufficientnumberofcontainersisnecessary
forsuccessfulIWT,andthatdependsverymuchonthedevelopmentoftheregionaleconomy
alongtheDanubecorridor.

29

5. WATERBORNETRANSPORT[SPIN,26thDuisburgColloquium]
ThecoreofthisreportisgivenintheSection8wheretwotypicaldesignsconceptshipswill
be developed. Concepts are usually based on previous research and successful vessels.
Consequently,itwasdecidedthataSectiononstateoftheartshouldbeadded.
5.1.

Stateoftheart

5.1.1. Selfpropelledvessel

ProbablythemostsuccessfulselfpropelledgeneralcargoandcontainervesselsontheDanube
areoftheclassMGSSJochenstein(Figure5.1).TheseshipswerebuiltintheOsterreichische
Schiffswerften AG in LinzKorneuberg more than 20 years ago for German (about 10 vessels)
andSovietnowUkrainianshippingcompanies(about15vessels).
The MGSS Jochenstein was a prototype for (probably the only) recentlybuilt selfpropelled
vesselontheDanube(builtfortheJRBshippingcompany).Presumablyunusual,butJRBchose
theoldDanubestandardforbreadth(11m),soasacontainervesselshewillbeabletocarry
onlythreecontainersabreast(insteadoffourwithB=11.4m).
Loa=95m

Boa=11.4m(some11.0m)
H=3.2m

T=2.7m

Highestfixedpoint6.5mabovebasisline
Cargocapacity1960t
PB=2x600kW(someofthem2x800kW)
Bowthruster130kW.

Figure5.1GeneralArrangementofMGSSJochenstein
OntheRhineRiver(seeFigures5.2to5.4)muchlargercontainershipsexist,forinstancethe
motorshipoftheJOWIclassthatwerefollowedbytherecentlybuiltZembla(L=135.0m,
B=17.4m,500TEU,3200kW).TheCraneBargeMercuriusAmsterdam(86x11.5m,144TEU,
crane lift capacity 35t/30m, transhipment 18 TEU/h) is suitable for short haul container

30

transportt and transh

hipment directly onto the
t quay (no
o need for port or hub
b) should alsso be
mentioneedas is the first river container
c
sh
hip equipped
d with its ow
wn transhipment equipment
(Figure5.5).

Figgure5.2Ze
emblaoneofthelarggestcontaineershipsonttheRhine(So
ource:INE)

ntheRhinew
withatypicaalcontainersshipof4x4x13=208TEU
Us
Figurre5.3Couplingtrainon

Figure
e5.4SmallcontainerveesselAmerHopper8
86x7.03x2.86m(Sourcce:Mercuriu
us)

31

Figure5
5.5Craneb
bargeMerccuriusAmsteerdam(Source:Mercurius)
Concerniingselfpropelledbulkccarriers,the vesselSavaaMala(96..6x13.8x4
4.4m)isamo
ongst
thelargeestontheDaanube.Herccapacityis2
2600tofbullkcargo;sheehasuniqueeequipmenttthat
enablessselfdischarggetothesho
oreortheholdofanoth
hervessel(th
hesevesselssaremainlyused
forgraveelandsand transport). Toincreasecapacity,hightensilessteelwasussedforcoam
mings
andganggways,sothe
evesselsareerelativelyeelasticwithu
unusuallylarrgesaggingo
ofaround25
5cm.
The cem
ment carrier Sajkas (102 x 11.6 x
x 3.5 m) hass a capacityy of 1500 t.. The vessell was
originallyy built witth 18 cylin
ndrical cem
mentholds and
a
special pneumatiic selfdisch
harge
equipmeent,butsoon
nafterthellaunching,aalthoughinm
manyrespectsaremarkablevessell,she
wasconvvertedintoo
ordinarybulkkcarrier.Thereasonforrthiswasthatadequateeshorecapacities
for cemeent acceptaance were never built!! This emph
hasises the importancee of the ovverall
transporttchainandn
notjustofth
hewaterborrnepart.
The speccial bulk caargo ship M
MercurialLaatistar (86 x 11.4 x 3.5 m) has self
s
loadingg and
unloadingequipmen
ntfortranspo
ortofflourb
bulk(Figure5.6).Transp
portofflourbythispartiicular
shipandroute(intheRhinecorrridor)reducees10,000traailermovesayear.
Tankers(crudeoil,p
products,cheemicalsetc.))arealsopresentonIW
WW.Onetyp
picalRhinetaanker
istheEinstein(Figgure5.7)of 86x11.4x 3.2m,with
h6tankstottalling2055tt/2093m3,w
witha
power in
nstalled of 1080
1
kW. A
A large num
mber of selfp
propelled taankers and tank bargess was
decommissioned on the Danub
be when thee oil pipelin
ne was builtt (this was actually
a
thee first
reason fo
or decline of
o IWT on th
he Danube in recent history; the second
s
was the war and
d UN
sanctionssinexYugoslaviaovertthelastdecaade).

32

Figurre5.6FlourrcarrierMeercurialLatisstar(Sourcee:Mercuriuss)

Figure5.7TypicalselfpropeelledtankerfromtheRh
hineEinsteein(Sourcee:Mercurius)

TherecentlybuiltFFuturaCarrie
er(andherrthreesisteerships,Figu
ure5.8)has innovativessemi
mwithtwop
propulsived
devicesatth
hebow(for minimumw
wavemakingg),air
catamaraanhullform
lubricatio
on (for redu
uced friction
nal resistance) applied for the firsst time to European in
nland
waterway vessels (see Project SMOOTH,
S
Seection 5.2.4.), modular design conccept (see Figgures
5.21 and
d 5.23) etc. Hull
H form is optimised for
f shallow water and offers
o
good manoeuvraability
(with fou
ur identical azimuthing units). Germ
man Federaal Ministry for the Envirronment, Naature
ConservaationandNu
uclearSafetyycofundedtheproject.However,aalthoughtheeFuturaCarrier
isaveryinterestingconcept,sheeisactuallyariverseavvesselandaassuchcann
notcompeteewith
me design compromise
c
es had to be made forr sea sailingg). Consequeently,
river vesssels (as som
severalin
nnovationstthatwereem
mployedareenotasattractiveforth
herivervessselsastheysseem
atthefirstsight.

33

Figure5.8FuturaCarrier(Source:www.newlogistics.com)

5.1.2. BargeTrains
Pushboat technology was introduced on the Danube in 1961 (on the Rhine 1955) and was
copiedfromtheMississippiRiver.Therearetwobargetraintypes:a)apushtrain(pushboat+
barges)and,b)acouplingtrain(motorship+barge).PossiblevesselformationsontheDanube
aredepictedinFigure5.9.

Figure5.9Possiblevesselformations(Source:ManualonDanubeNavigation)

34

Thefirst pushboatsw
wereKablaar(Figure5.10)andKo
osmaj(own
nedbyJRB)..Soonafter that,
thepush
hboattechno
ologywasin
ntroducedin
notherDanu
ubecorridorrcountries; todaypushb
boats
dominatee the Danub
be waterwaay. Relativelyy large bargge convoys were
w
pusheed (when oill was
transportted, before the pipelin
ne was builtt), particularly on the Middle and
d Lower Dan
nube,
consistingoftenof1
12DanubeIItypebarges.Itwasreccordedthat morethan3
35,000tofccargo
waspush
hedinoneco
onvoy,seeFFigure5.11tto5.13.

Figure
e5.10Theffirstnewlyb
builtpushboatontheDaanubeKab
blar;itisstillinoperatio
on

Figure
e5.11Oneo
ofthelargesstconvoysontheDanub
be(withtankkbarges)(So
ource:Grubo
or)

Themain
nadvantageofpushing vs.towingisthatlessp
powerisneeededforpusshing,which
hmay
beexplaiinedthrough
huseofsoccalledtrainfformationco
oefficientcT.Namely,ccT=RT/Ri,w
where
RT is totaal resistance
e of barge train
t
and Ri is individuaal resistancee of each baarge in a pu
ushed

35

formation. So, cT is always less than one and is betweeen 0.65 and
d 0.85 (loweer values arre for
slenderb
bargetraincconfigurations)andisarround0.75fforatypical couplingtraain.cTforto
owing
configuraationsisab
bithigher,orinotherw
words,withtthesamepo
owerpushin
ngspeedisu
upto
10%high
herthanthe
etowingspeeed.Moreovver,steeringgoftowed bargeswas oftennecesssary,
requiringgextramanp
poweronboaard.
Nevertheeless,althou
ughsomewhatobsolete,,thetowinggtechnologyywasneverq
quiteabandoned
ontheDanube.Tow
wingtechnolo
ogyhassom
meadvantagees,particulaarlyduringd
dryseasonsw
when
owing tugs have much
h smaller draught
d
than contempo
orary
the wateer level is low, as to
pushboatts.Furtherm
more,thetow
wingtechno
ologymaybeeapplicableonthesea,whereaspushing
isnotpossibledueto
owavesize.

Figure5..12Pushinggtrainconsisstingof6EuropeIIbargeesabout19
90x34.2m,u
upto16,000
0tdw
dependinggonthedrau
ught(Sourcee:CREATING
GWP5)

Figure5.13Pushingtraainconsistinggof9EuropeIIbarges(about260x34.2m)

36

PossibleformationsalongtheDanubecorridoraredepictedinFigure5.9,whileTable5.1.
showsECEclassificationofEuropeaninlandwaterways.
Table5.1ECEclassificationofEuropeaninlandwaterways,vesselsandpushedconvoys
(Source:ManualonDanubeNavigation)

5.1.3. Barges
By far the largest majority of Danube barges have breath of 11 m, while some are made
according to the Rhine standards and have breadth of 11.4 m (see Sections 4.2 and 2.4
Implications on ship design). In addition, many barges are 9.5 m wide, not to mention old
towingvesselsoccasionallyusedinpushedtrains.Usually,butnotnecessarily,Danubebarges

37

have draaught of up to 2.5 m and

a height of 2.7 m, while
w
barges for the Rhine are deeeper
(draughtofupto3.9
95mandheiight(depth) ofupto4m
m),seeTablee5.2.
Table5.2
2Mostcommonriverbarges(Sourcce:CREATING
GWP5)

Danubesseabargesaare38.25m
mlong,sothattwocoup
pledbarges correspond toonestan
ndard
Danube (river) bargge of 76.5 m (other characteristtics are B=11 m, H=3.9 m, T=3.3 m,
ondingtodw
wt=1070twithalightsh
hipweightoff240t).Nevvertheless,tthereareseeveral
correspo
otherbargetypesalo
ongtheDanubecorridor,e.g.seeFigure5.14.

ntainertransportonthee
Figurre5.14SBbargeswithaacapacityoff80TEUusedforthecon
routeeBelgradeC
Constanta.Prresently,thisistheonlyavailableco
ontainerservviceonthe
Danu
ube(Source:NordMarin
ne)

5.1.4. Pushboats
Long ran
nge and harrbour pushb
boats were built on the Danube and
a most of them had
d two
propellerrs, but large pushboats with threee propellerrs were nott rare. Besid
des the draaught
restrictio
on, Danube pushboats generally diiffer from those on thee Rhine as they have more

38

accommo
odationspace;Danube pushboatsh
havelargerccrewsthatw
workinshiftts,astheDanube
isamuch
hlongerrive
erthantheR
Rhine,i.e.mo
oretimeisspentsailing.
ation
During th
he 1970s, affter some experience
e
w gained, a kind of sttandard or recommend
was
r
emerged
dinEasternB
BlocshippingcompaniesconcerningglongrangeeDanubepu
ushboats.Beesides
thestand
dardisedmo
ooringequip
pment,shipsshavearoun
nd2x1200 HP(2x880kW),alenggthof
around 35
3 m, a breaadth of 11 m
m (like Danu
ube barges) and draugh
ht of less th
han 1.9 m. These
T
pushboattswerebuilttinseriesinallDanubecountriesdo
ownstreamo
ofAustria.
Worthm
mentioningarealsothelaargestpushb
boatsontheeDanubeKaradjordjeeandKarlo
ovac
builtin
ntheshipyarrdTito(no
owBelgrad
de)forJRB (seeFigure 5.15).Oneo
ofthepushb
boats
was equ
uipped with a special system (deevice) for rudder unloading. The reason forr this
innovatio
on wasthat (floating)lo
ogswereofttenwedged
din thenozzzles and/or mainorflan
nking
rudders, which sometimes bloccked or dam
maged the rudders.
r
So, the purposse of the ru
udder
unloadingdevicewaastopermit therestofttherudders (thosewhicchwerenot blockedby logs)
to execu
ute their fun
nction. Altho
ough the pu
urpose of th
his invention
n sounds loggical, due to
o the
poorlydeeveloped mechanism
m
(prototype) and the need for frequent
f
intterventions,, the
unloadingdevicewaassoonreplaacedwithth
heusualsystemofconn
nectingrodss.Anotherreecent
uctionwasm
madetoenaableonlytw
wopropellers/enginesto
obeoperatiional(them
middle
reconstru
shaftlinewasremove
ed).

Figu
ure 5.15 General
G
arraangement pllan of
Karradjordje, the
t largest pushboats
p
o the
on
Danube
Loa==40.45m,B==13.0m,H=2.8m,

T=1..952.15m,PB=3x129
94kW,
V=14
4km/hwith
h12barges1
1700tdweach

39

Although
h not a push
hboat, due to its uniqu
ue electric propulsion,
p
a Austrian river icebreeaker
an
RoethelsteinwithAzipodprop
pulsorsshouldbementio
oned(seeFiigure5.16).Duringtrialss,the
Roethelsteinprove
editscapabiilityofpenetrating4mthickiceridgesandbreaking0.7mlevel
1.52km/h.TThehullformfollowscu
urrentthinkkingforveryyshallowdraaught
iceattheespeedof1
icebreakeerswithacylindricalbo
ow,parallel midbodyandanunderflowstern feedingwatterto
the podeed azimuth propulsion units. Roeethelstein is an intereesting vesseel because of
o its
propulsio
onsystem,i..e.theappliccationoftheeAzipodprin
nciplewithlowpowerd
demands.

Loa=42.3
3m
BMAX=10..3m
H=3.35m
m
Airdraugh
ht=6.05m
T=2m(ccanoperatew
with1.6m)
Bollardpu
ull=125kN
Speed=2
20km/h
Mainengines=2x700
0kW/1500rp
pm
Rudderprropeller2x560kW/550rp
pm

Figure5
5.16RivericcebreakerRoethelstein
n(Source:SShip&BoatInt.)

Pushboatts from oth

her European rivers migght also be of interest for this stu
udy, for insttance
those of Elbe classs (Figure 5..17) their draught is only 0.85 m!
m Other ch
haracteristics are
L=28.6m
m,B=10.3m,highestfixeedpoint4.25
5m,W=166t,P=2x220kkW.

Figgure5.17P
PushboatofElbeclass(Source:DeeutschenBinnnenreedereiH
HoldingAG)

40

5.2.

Conceptsofresearchedinlandvesselsforcargotransport

Several research and development projects have been carried out on inland vessels. Most of
theseprojectswerebasedoncontemporarytechnologyandonlysomeparticularaspectswere
researched.Forinstance,intheCREATINGprojectthemaininvestigationwasdirectedtowards
environmental aspects that would still be economically acceptable for shipowners. In the
INBISHIP project, electric propulsion was specially investigated. In the INBAT and VEBIS
projects,extremelyshallowwatervesselswereinvestigated,andintheMUTANDprojectjust
RoRo service for the Danube was treated. Some of the projects are important for this study
andwillbementionedhere.

5.2.1. SelfpropelledvesselINBISHIP
INBISHIP (Common European Inland Vessel Concept) is an innovative approach to inland ship
designpoweredbyadieselelectricsystemwithapodpropulsionsystem,optimumhulllinesin
terms of resistance, excellent manoeuvrability and increased economical efficiency in inland
shippingoperations(seeFigures5.18,7.12and7.13).Amongstthenoveltiesisthattheengine
roomcanbeplacedanywhereintheship(evenatthebowifnecessary)asthereisnodirect
couplingofenginesandpropellers.Asaconsequencethemachineryrequireslessspacedueto
theadopteddieselelectricpowersystem,hencecargospacemaybeincreased(inparticular,
ona110x11.4mshiponecontainerlayermorecanbeloaded!).Thistypeofshipdesignleads
tolowerfuelconsumption,emissionlevelsandmaintenancecosts.

Figure5.18INBISHIPconcept

5.2.2. PushboatsandbargesforextremelyshallowwaterVEBISandINBATprojects
Overlongerperiods,theElbeandOdraRiversallowshipdraughtsof1.01.4monly.Withthe
reunificationofGermany,theR&DprojectVEBIS(acronymforimprovementoftheefficiencyof
inland water transportation) was initiated. The goal was twofold: a) to increase transport

41

capacity on existing waterways, and b) to enable effective operation at larger draughts. So,
amongst others, pushboats with a draught between 0.8 and 1.7 m with pumpjets and
propellersweredeveloped(linesofshallowdraughtpushboatsandofselfpropelledvesselsare
showninFigures5.19and7.3,respectively).
AnEUprojectundertheacronymINBAT(INnovativeBArgeTrain)wasinitiatedaftertheVEBIS
project with a similar goal, i.e. development of barge train that will operate efficiently at
draughtsrangingfrom0.6to1.7m(seeFigure5.20).WithinINBAT,amongstothers,application
ofnewlightweightconstructionmaterialsandstructuraldesignswereinvestigated(seeFigure
7.7). Modular pushboat designs (Figure 5.21) and new propulsion concepts were also
investigated.

Figure5.19VEBISPushboatwithapropellerof1.2minnozzle

Figure5.20INBATTargets(Source:Guisnetetal.2004)

42


Figgure5.21Pushboatmodules(Sourcce:Guisneteetal.2004)

The shalllow draugh

ht pushboatt developed
d for the IN
NBAT projecct has a rettractable middle
m
rudderp
propeller (in order to en
nhance man
noeuvrabilityy and to red
duce resistance when not
n in
use) toggether with two classiccal horizonttally driven shaft propellers (Figure 5.22). During
operation in very sh
hallow wateer, only sidee propellers are suppossed to be used
u
(the ceentral
ed), while in
n deeper waters the ceentral propeeller would be used to
oo to
propellerr is retracte
increasethebargetrrainspeed.

Figgure5.22Th
hePushboattpropulsionarrangementdevelopedwithinINB
BATproject
(Guesn
netetal.200
04)

5.2.3. Someoth
herprojectsssimilartotheINBATand
dINBISHIPprojects
hisvesselwaasnamedMMPO
AmodulaarvesselwaasbuiltinSeerbia/Yugoslavia,seeFiggure5.23;th
(ModularrMultiPurp
poseVessel13.75x7.6
6x2.4m)an
ndconsistedofapropulssivemoduleewith
a drivingg complex, connectingg modules (pallets)
(
wh
hich providee stiffness, accommodation
modulesandawhee
elhousemod
dule.

43

Figgure5.23M
ModularMultiPurposeV
VesselMM
MPO(Source:ShipyardBelgrade)
Similar to the INBAT propulsion concept, the so calleed hybrid pushboat (Bilen
(
and Zerjal
Z
1998), has
h one largge central propeller off 1.85 m with
w
a convventional sh
haftline and two
azimuthing and rettractable hyydrostatic side propellers of 1.35
5 m. The proposed
p
hybrid
d
engines in line, see
s Figure 5.24.
5
The firrst one is connected to
o the
pushboatt has two diesel
central, mechanicallydriven pro
opeller, while the seco
ond engine drives two hydrostatic side
propulso
orsviahydraaulictransmissionsystem
m(thusenablingindepeendentand flexiblecon
ntrol).
So,load distributionbetweenceentralandssidepropelleersisoptimiised.Themaainadvantageof
ngementistthepossibilitytodrawn
nominalpow
werforaparrticularconvvoyalsoenaabling
thisarran
good maanoeuvring characterist
c
ics. This is similar
s
to th
he INBISHIP propulsion concept, as the
hydraulicc transmissio
on is equivaalent to elecctric transmission (however, the seecond has higher
efficiencyy).

Lo
oa=24.2m
B=11.4m
H=2.8m
T=1.9m
Dieseleng.of2x600kW/1
1800rpm
Nominalprope
ellerpower960kW

Figure5.24Hybridp
pushboatp
project
(Source:BilenandZe
erjal1998)

44

5.2.4. Conceptsofadvancedvessels
Nevertheless, some researched projects carried out concern advanced vessels whose time,
seems,didnotcomeyetduetovariousreasons.Besidenecessarycostsforthedevelopmentof
a new concept, one of the reasons is that innovations are not so easily accepted by the
traditionally conservative inland shipping society, which accepts proven, durable and safe
products.Inthatrespect,notethattheaverageageoftheRhineandDanubevesselsisaround
50and30years,respectively(seeAppendix6).
Someoftheconceptsofresearchedadvancedvesselsthatnevercametobeare:
-

PASCAT (Partial Air cushion Supported CATamaran) a catamaran vessel with

hovercraft/SES capabilities that has advantages at relatively higher speeds, but still
requiresverylargepowertobeinstalledcomparedtocontemporaryshipsFigure5.25.

PELS (Project Energysaving Airlubricated Ships) followed by SMOOTH project

(Sustainable Methods for Optimal design and Operation of ships with air lubricaTed
Hulls) the aim was to reduce frictional resistance of flatbottomed vessels (likeriver
vessels) for around 20% by pumping air under the bottom. Recent fullscale trials on
83 m air cavity system (ACS) seagoing ship ACS Demonstrator, which was 1:4 scale
model of a very large crude oil carrier, revealed fuel savings (hence CO2 too) of up to
15%Figure5.26.

A ship with movable buoyancy bodies (width increases from 9 m to 12.6 m) suited
particularly to operate on shallow water; bodies move by hydraulic cylinders enabling
draughtreductionwithoutreducingthecargoquantityFigure5.27.

Figure5.25PASCATconceptFigure5.26Theprincipleofaircavity
system(Source:TheNavalArchitect)

45

Figure5.27Crosssectionofinlandshipespeciallysuitable
tooperateonshallowwater(Source:SPINRhine)

5.3.

Concludingremarks

Existingtypesofshipsandavailablenewtechnologieswerereviewedtohelpcreateadesignfor
ashallowdraughtDanubeship(seeSection8).
Partlyloadedbargescanbethesimplestandcheapestanswertorestricteddraughtproblems,
taking into account that power needed to push an additional barge (or few of them) rises
slightly,whilecargovolumecanincreaserapidly.Ifthisisthecase,theproblemusuallyposes
thedraughtofapushboatwhichcannotbereduced.So,ashallowdraughtpushboatwouldbe
advantageousinthesesituations.
Ontheotherhand,selfpropelledvesselsarefasterandthereforemoresuitableforcontainer
transport(whichhastocompetewithlandtransportmodes,i.e.railwayandtruck).
Bargesarebyfarthebestfortransportoflargequantitiesofrelativelycheapcargo,likebulk
cargo(coal,ore,gravel,sand,grainetc.).Forliquidcargo(oilandpetroleumproducts)bothship
typesbargetrainsandselfpropelledvesselsareused.
Concerning researched inland vessels, of particular interest for this study are the INBISHIP,
VEBISandINBATprojects.Someinterestingaspectsoftheseprojectswillbementionedinthe
followingsections.
Themainreasonwhytheinnovativeshiptypesarenotappliedonabroaderscaleiseconomics.
Namely,asalreadymentioned,reducedloading(resultinginlowerdraughtnavigation)seems
to be the cheapest solution to adapt to dry seasons and shallow water. Consequently, state
subsidiesshouldprobablybeconsideredasnecessarytogivenewdesignsanychancetoenter
themarket.

46

6. CHARACTERISTICSOFSELFPROPELLEDCONTAINERVESSELSADAPTEDTO
THEDANUBEWATERWAY[COVEDA,SPIN]

The problems connected to the design, construction, hydrodynamics, stability, etc. of inland
container vessels are very different from those of sea going ships. Already mentioned
restrictionsindraughtconnectedtowaterwaydepth,restrictionsinairdraughtconnectedto
theheightofbridges,andrestrictionsinbeamandlengthconnectedtothesizeoflocksmake
numerous and serious challenges to the designer. A good inland container vessel therefore,
differssignificantlynotonlyfromaseagoingship,butalsofromonewaterwaytoanother.An
optimalDanubecontainervesselwouldcertainlynotbethesameastheoptimalvesselforthe
Rhineorsomeotherwaterway.

6.1. Maximalvesseldimensions
As expected, the number of transported containers (which influences transport efficiency)
depends on vessel length, beam and draught. A reasonable number of carried containers on
IWWcanvaryfromthreetosixabreast.So,properbeamofDanubecontainervesselsshould
changediscontinuouslyinthefollowingmanner:
B 9m,for3containersabreast
B= 11.4m,for4containersabreast
B 14m,for5containersabreast
B 16.5m,for6containersabreast
Inthecaseoffourcontainersabreast,thebeamshouldnotexceed11.4m(max.11.45m)so
the vessel can pass through the 12 m locks on the Upper Danube. Consequently, 11.4 m
becameadefactostandard,althoughthisbreadthislesssignificantfortheMiddleandLower
Danube,wherevesselbeamispracticallyunlimitedbythelocks.
TherelationshipbetweennumberofTEUcontainersandvesselmaindimensionsisdepictedin
Figure 6.1. With these diagrams, the choice of vessel length and beam is straight forward,
exceptfortheregionswherethelinesoverlap.Intheseoverlappingregions,thedesignerhasto
decide between two vessel concepts with different L/B ratios. This decision depends on
numerousstability,resistance,propulsionandstrengthconsiderations.
The average mass of containers changes randomly from trip to trip. However, the longterm,
averagevalueforastandard20footcontainer(TEU)canbeassumedtobearound13t.This
massiscalledtherequiredcontainermass.Nevertheless,averageavailablecontainermass(mc)

47

forinlandvesselsislimitedandisindirectcorrelationtoitsrestricteddraughtTandnumberof
containerlayers(nH),whiletheotherparametersareofsecondaryimportance.Onlyacertain
combination of T and nH imply a wellbalanced vessel having, for instance, mc 13 t.
Consequently,designofawellbalancedinlandshallowdraughtcontainervesselisnoteasy.
150

150

L (m)

140

L (m)

2 Container Layers
140

130

3 Container Layers

130

6 Containers Abreast

6 Containers Abreast

120

120

110

110

5 Containers Abreast

5 Containers Abreast

100

100

L/B = 7 - 12

4 Containers Abreast

4 Containers Abreast

90
80

90

L/B = 7 - 12

80

3 Containers Abreast

3 Containers Abreast

70

70

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

Figure6.1RelationofvessellengthtonumberofTEUcontainers

One method of increasing the available container mass without decreasing the number of
containers or increasing draught is to reduce the lightship weight. This is usually too
expensive (as new technologies and new materials should be applied). It is also possible to
increasethevesselbreadth,withoutincreasingthenumberofcontainersabreast.Forexample,
forfourcontainersabreast,vesselbeamcouldbe1213m,ratherthan11.4m.
Thedraughtsthatwouldgivetherequiredcontainermassof13tarepresentedinFigure6.2.
So,draughtshouldbebetween33.25mforthefourlayervesselsusualontheRhine.Three
layervesselswithdraughts(T)between2.252.5mandtwolayervesselswithT=1.61.85m
are acceptable for the Danube. Nevertheless, the choice of draught is influenced not only by
thestatisticsofwaterwaydepth,butalsobyavailablecargoandothertransportation,financial
reasons,technicalcharacteristicsofthevessel,etc.
Air draught might also be critical, since minimal air clearance (above high water level when
passing bellow bridges) is 5.25 m and 7.00 m for two and three container layers respectively
(seeTable2.2bridgeheights).Sometimesthiscouldbeovercomebyballastingtheship,but
thisincreasestransportcosts.
Consequently,duetowaterandairdraughtrestrictions,waterbornetransportofcontainerson
the Danube is less efficient than on the Rhine. On the Danube, a vessel of the same size can
transportonetotwocontainerlayerslessthanontheRhine!

48

17

m c (t)
15

13
4 Layers
3 Layers

11

2 Layers
Required mass

Two
Layers

Three
Layers

Four
Layers

T (m)

5
1

6.2.

1.5

2.5

3.5

Figure6.2Draughtsfortwo,threeandfourlayercontainervessels

Transporteconomy

Containervesselsshouldhavefullform(duetodraughtrestrictions),buttheL/Bratio(longor
beamy vessel) has yet to be clarified. In that respect, the transport economy from a
hydrodynamic point of view, or the coefficient of container transport efficiency (CC), was
introduced.So,
CC =

n v no . containers km / h

PB
kW

shows that adding a container layer, or removing a row of containers abreast, dramatically
increasesefficiency.Thelargecontainervesselswith5or6containersabreastneverreachthe
efficiency of less beamy vessels. Also, smaller vessels, in this sense, are found to be
advantageous.
ThechoicebetweenaLongandBeamyvessel(overlappingofcurvesinFigure6.1)isactuallya
choice between L/B=1012 or L/B=79 (having the same draught). Longer vessels are
advantageous from the waveresistance point of view, while beamy vessels are better in
stability (which is satisfied in all cases) and hullweight considerations. Therefore, the
compromiseshouldbemadebetweenresistanceandweightconsiderations.
Reduction in hull weight is significant for inland container vessels because of their limited
draught.Aroughanalysis(forthreecontainerlayers)indicatesthatthereductionofhullweight
bychoosingabeamyinsteadofalongvesselisapproximately1015%.Thisallowsanincrease
ofavailablecontainermassofapproximately510%.
ThewaveresistanceinshallowwaterdependsmainlyonparametersL/handL/B,andbothof
theseparametersdecreaseifabeamyvesselischoseninsteadofthelongone.Thereductionof
L/hwouldbebeneficialifresistanceisinfluencedbythewaterwaybed,whichisthecasefor

49

high,nearcriticalspeedsonly,i.e.highFNh(seeFigures3.2to3.4).However,usualspeedsof
thefastestselfpropelledvesselscorrespondtomuchlowerFNhvalues,certainlybelowFNh=0.65.
Consequently, resistance is influenced mainly by the change of the parameter L/B. Wave
resistancesignificantlydecreasesbychoosingalonginsteadofbeamyvessel.Forinstance,by
choosingthelongership,thecoefficientofcontainertransportefficiencyCCcouldincreaseup
to 20% (see Figure 6.3), which is large enough to compensate the opposing increase of hull
weight. The trends on the Rhine seem to be in favour of this approach, as they show the
tendencytowardsthevesselshavingL/B>11.
Concerning selfpropelled container vessels for Danube tributaries (e.g. Sava, Tisza), it follows
fromthepreviousdiscussionand Table2.3,thatsmallervesselsofB 9m(threecontainers
abreast)withtwocontainerlayers(sometimesthree)wouldbeadequate.Consequently,ifthe
vesselslengthis80m(allowedbyECEclassIV,seeTable5.1)thanaccordingtoFigure6.1,the
carryingcapacitywouldbearound50to75TEUcontainers,fortwoandthreecontainerlayers
respectively.
1

2 Container Layers

C c (no.containerskm/h/kW)

3 Container Layers

C c (no.containerskm/h/kW)

0.8

0.8

L/B = 7 - 12
B =11.4 m
0.6

B=9m

0.6

B = 14 m
B = 16.5 m

B =11.4 m
B=9m

0.4

B = 14 m

0.4

B = 16.5 m

L/B = 7 - 12

0.2

0.2

v = 15 km/h

v = 15 km/h

L (m)

L (m)

0
70

80

90

100

110

120

130

140

70

80

90

100

110

120

130

140

Figure6.3CoefficientofcontainertransportefficiencyCCfordifferentLandB.

6.3.

Hydrodynamicanalysis

Allcommercialrivervessels,includingcontainervesselssailatsubcriticalspeeds(seeSection3)
belowthehighresistanceregion,i.e.usuallyattheeconomicspeed(Vec)whichfollowsfrom
Fnh0.650.70 (see Figure 6.4). So, for a river depth of 5 m, the economic speed would be
around1617km/h,whilefordepthofonly2mitwouldbereducedtoonly1011km/h.Within
thesubcriticalregionitcanbeshown(COVEDAstudy)thatslowervesselshavehighertransport
efficiency.Note,howeverthatthecostofspeedandthebenefitsoftheincreasednumberof
voyageswasnotincludedintheabovementionedCccoefficient.

50

35

v (km/h)

30
25

v cr
20

v ec

15
10
5

h (m)
0
1

Figure6.4Economicandcriticalspeeds
The influence of propeller diameter on transport efficiency (Figure 6.5) also gives an
unexpected result. Although efficiency increases with the increase of propeller diameter, the
influence is relatively small. Taking into account all the risks connected with large propeller
diameters, it follows that somewhat smaller propellers could often be advantageous. This
conclusionisconsideredinmoredetailbyanalysingthepropulsiveefficiencyD.Theresultsare
presented in 3D and 2D diagrams below (Figures 6.6 and 6.7), also showing the minimal
diameter due to the cavitation criteria. The abovementioned considerations are based on a
propeller in a nozzle; if naked propellers would be used it might be expected that the
propulsiveefficiencyDwouldbearound5%less.
It should be noted that in contrast to the draught (which could be reduced by smaller cargo
weight),oncechosen,thepropellerdiametercannotbechanged.Itfollows,logically,thatthe
propeller should be designed according to the minimal draught requirements. Such choice
implies,however,apossiblereductionofitsefficiency.
D

C c (no.containerskm/h/kW)

0.60

0.8

4 Container Layers

0.55

(Dp)min

0.6

0.50

3 Container Layers
0.4

2 Container Layers

0.45

0.8

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

(m
)

13

14

v (km 15
/h)

16

0.8

D p (m)

12

(D p ) min

1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0

ation
Cavit

0.2

17

Figure6.5Coeff.ofcontainertransport
efficiencyfordifferentpropellerdiameters

Figure 6.6 Propulsiveefficiency

asafunctionofspeedandDp

51

0.6

D
D p = 1.7 m

D p = 1.5 m
D p = 1.3 m

0.55

D p = 1.1 m
0.5

D p = 0.9 m
(D p ) min

D p = 0.7 m

0.45

v (km/h)
0.4

Figure6.7PropulsiveefficiencyDasafunctionofspeedandpropellerdiameter
11

12

13

14

15

16

17

6.4.

Hullweightconsiderations

It is essential to correctly assess the mass of lightship in very early stages of ship design, not
only to obtain the right displacement, deadweight or draft, but also to analyse the available
averagecontainermassandverifyifalimiteddraughtvesselcouldbewellbalanced.Thiscan
beassessedfromthediagramshowninFigure6.8(Heuser1986)whichpresentslightshipmass
forthesteelonly(withoutmachineryandequipment)ofRhinecommercialvesselsasafunction
ofvesselcubicmoduleLBH.Thisdatawasenrichedwithfewavailableresults,presentedby
the dots in the diagram. Note that some other sources gave smaller weight than shown in
Figure6.8,althoughthecurvestrendisthesame.
1200

m lig (t)
1000

800

Hauser 1986
Measured

600

400

200

LBH (m )
0
0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

Figure6.8Lightshipmass(steelonly)ofselfpropelledvessels
(onabscissagivenisacubicmodule,i.e.LxBxHm3)

6.5.

Concludingremarks

Summarising,someunexpectedresultswereobtainedbyanalysingvesselcharacteristics,such
as propeller diameter, propulsive efficiency, container transport efficiency etc. It is however,
still discussable whether long and narrow vessels (that have smaller resistance) are

52

advantageousoverlarge,beamyones(whicharecomparativelylighterandthereforecheaper).
Conclusionsregardingshipdimensionsarebasedontheassumptionsmentionedabove;other
parameters of transport efficiencies (e.g. transport costs) could give different answers
(resulting, for instance, in vessels of the Jowi class, see Figure 5.2). A very important
conclusion,however,isthatprofitinthefirstplacedependsonnumberofcontainersonboard,
andthatallotherfactorsarebyfarlessimportant.
The relatively insignificant influence of screw diameter on overall efficiency indicates the
advantagesofsomewhatsmallerpropellers.Actually,thismeansthatsplittingthetotalpower
to more propellers, but of a smaller diameter, can enable navigation in shallow water.
Nevertheless,thiswilldefinitelyincreasetheinvestment(shipbuilding)costs.
On the Lower Danube attention should be paid to the restrictions of low water draught and
high air draught (which is not the case on other Danube stretches), so one might come to a
wrongideatoloadlargerthantheallowednumberofcontainersonboard.
In any case, conclusions derived in the COVEDA study, which are partly presented in this
section,areuseful.Aroughalgorithmforestimatingthevesselsmaindimensionsisdepictedin
Figure6.9.

Input

Numberofcontainers
andthetransportation
route

Choiceof

Numberofcontainer
layersnH=2,3,4??

Determinationof

LandBforgivenn
fromFig.6.1L,B=??

Choiceof

T=??

Determinationof

H=??

L/35T+F

Figure6.9Analgorithmforestimatingvesselmaindimensions

53

7. TECHNICAL MEASURES THAT MAKE INLAND SHIPS CLEANER AND MORE

EFFICIENT[SPIN,RoRo2008,CREATING]
Generallyspeaking,environmentallysustainableandcheapIWTispossibleif:
a) Contemporarylogisticconceptsareapplied
b) Transhipmentisefficient
c) Waterbornetransportisefficient
Issue c) can be achieved by reduction of investment costs (application of design for
manufacture techniques, for instance), reduction of maintenance costs, reduction of crew
members (costs) and reduction of fuel costs. Note, however, that only few of the above
mentionedareactuallytechnicalissues!
Thelastissuereductionoffuelcostsdepends,amongstothers,onthefuelefficiencyofship;
thisispurelyatechnicalmeasurethatwillbediscussedinthissectionaccordingtothescheme
showninFigure7.1(theformulaegivenatthebottomwaspreviouslyexplainedinSection3).
Namely,themaintechnicalmeasurestoenablebuildingofamoreefficientship,hencecleaner
andthereforemoreenvironmentallyfriendly,aredividedintofourmaingroups.Eachgroupis
furtherdividedintosubgroupsandwillbediscussedseparately.Energysaving(fuelefficiency)
of waterborne transportation is the main goal here, but attention should always be paid to
safety,aswellastoreductionofoveralldirectandindirectcosts.

Figure7.1Measuresthatleadtofuelefficiency

54

Environm
mentallyand
decologicallyyfriendlysh
hipdoesnotonlymean moreefficieentship,buttalso
less pollu
utant ship. Prevention
P
o pollution by inland vessels
of
v
is generally regu
ulated by vaarious
internationalandnattionalrules(seeUNECEEResolutionNo.21,forinstance).Assaconsequeence,
h
to be equipped with
w
approp
priate techniical means for collectio
on, retentio
on on
vessels have
board an
nd transfer into
i
reception facilities (shore baseed and floatting) of wasste generateed on
board.Appendix4in
ndicatesposssibleshippo
ollutants.
7.1.

Improvem
mentsinHulllResistance
e(withtheaaimtoreducceRT)

7.1.1. Shipform
m
As alread
dy stated in
n Section 3,, vessel speeed and length should be adapted
d to a partiicular
waterway(waterde
epthseeFigures3.2to
o3.4).Thessecondaryhullformparrameters,m
mainly
the form
m of the bo
ow and stern, significan
ntly influencce resistance (see some shallow water
w
designsFigures7.3to7.5).Itsh
houldbestaated,however,thatago
ood,lowresistancehullform
canbeobtainedonlyyifadviceo
ofexpertsarrefollowed, andoftenaaftermodel experimenttsare
carriedo
outinspecializedtowinggtanks(whicchisnotdon
nesooften),seeFigure7
7.2.Asaresultof
experimeentation, contemporaryy inland vesssels can havve lower ressistance, in some
s
cases even
upto50%
%,thanthosseoffewdeccadesago(ZZoelner2003
3).
Contemp
porary Comp
putational Fluid
F
Dynam
mics (CFD) teechniques may
m be used
d as an effiicient
tool fo
or resistance
e reduction, see Figure 7.2. CFD teechniques, however, aree also developed
withinsccientificand researchinsstitutionsan
ndarenot(yyet)applied intheeveryydayengineering
practice,soexpertad
dviceisagainnecessary.

Figure7.2Modeltestsofapushtrainanexampleeofgoodwaavesystemo
optimisedbyy
Contem
mporaryCom
mputationalFluidDynam
mics(CFD)(SSource:MAR
RIN)
ontext,therresultsofottherrelated projects,fo
orinstancettheVEBISPrroject(Zibelland
Inthisco
Mueller 1996) and Inland ship
p of the future (VBD report 126
60) are veryy useful. In both
nits/hull form
ms for variaable transpo
ort tasks an
nd regimes of
o operation
n are
projects, optimal un

55

investigaated.Hintsaandrecomm
mendationsfforthedesiggnofinland shipsforsh
hallowwatercan
be applieed to vesse
els for the Danube
D
watterway; seee Figures 7.3
3 and 7.4. (small and large
selfpropeelledvesselss)and5.19(pushboat).

Figure7..3Twinscre
ewship(VEB
BISStudy:TyypeIandfro
omitdevelopedTypeIV)L=82m,B
B=9.5
m,T=2
2.5m,TEU77,propellersinnozzleswithconven
ntionalruddeers

Inlandsshipofthefu
uture,
VBD
DReport126
60

Figurre7.4Exam
mpleoftheshiplinesdessign(Sourcee:SPINRhinee)

Fiigure7.5Sp
pecialattenttionshouldbepaidtotu
unneland
skkirtdesignto
oenablebettterwaterin
nflowtothepropeller

56

7.1.2. Shipweightreduction
Lowspeedinlandvesselsaremadeexclusivelyofsteelandareverydurablesincetheirlifeis
usually 50 years, often more. Hull construction of contemporary transport vessels does not
differ much from those of few decades ago; hence their weight has not changed much.
Possibilitiestointroduceoutoftheordinarymaterialstargetedathullweightreductionare
low.Thesuperstructure,forinstance,couldbebuiltofaluminiumorSPS(seebelow),orhigh
tensilesteelcouldbeusedforhullstructure(seeSection5.1.1,selfpropelledbulkcarrierSava
Mala),butreductionofoverallweightwouldberelativelynegligible.
Forinstance,GLRulesthatareoftenusedfordimensioninglargeselfpropelledinlandvessels
pose a restriction that the ratio L/H should be less than 35 (if not, direct calculations are
necessary). This actually stems from the Rhine vessels which, having larger draught than
Danubevessels,alsohavealargersideheight(H).L/HratiosforlargeDanubevessels,however,
mightbelargerthan40,sodirectlongitudinalstrengthcalculationshavetobeperformed.
The socalled Sandwich Plate System (SPS) seems to be able to replace the traditional steel
platewithsecondarystiffeners.SPSconsistsoftwoplateswithanelastomerinjectedbetween
toformasolidunit(seeFigure7.6).ThescantlingsofSPSplatingaregenerallyintherangeof
3mm to 8mm for steel face plates, and 15mm to 50mm for core thickness. Till recently
scantlings could be determined only by direct calculations, however in 2006 Lloyds Register
revealed Provisional Rules for the Application of Sandwich Panel Construction to Ship
StructureseeAppendix5.

Figure7.6SPSvs.conventionalstructure(Source:www.iesps.com)
In the already mentioned INBAT project, a structural weight savings of around 40% was
reported(Jastrzebski1993)ifsteelsandwichpanels(IcoreR)wouldbeusedforasmallbargeof
32.5m(seeFigure7.7).ItisstatedthatuseofIcoreRpanelssimplifiesbargeproductionaswell

57

as mainttenance (note that the IcoreR panel is somew

what different than the SPS analysed in
Appendixx5).Otherp
projectsinw
whichvariousskindsofSP
PSwereinveestigatedaree:DELIGHT,LASS
andCam
mpoCaNord((selfpropelleedbargeof6
65x5.8x3m weighing75tinstead
dof170t,w
witha
lifetimeo
of50yearsaandhullthicknessupto30cminsteadof8mm)).

Figurre7.7Typiccalframecro
osssectiono
ofanIcoreRpanelbargee(Source:IN
NBATProjectt)

As the abovement
a
ioned savin
ngs of 40% appear atttractive, and
d keeping in
i mind thaat LR
Provision
nal Rules we
ere recently published, custom calcculations weere performed especiallly for
thisstudyy(seeAppendix5)onth
heapplicatio
onofanSPSSconstructio
onforatypiccalDanubeb
barge
(77x11x2
2.8m,Figure
e7.8).Accordingtotheeobtainedrresults,aweeightsavingssupto10%
%may
onlybeeexpected.Itwasalsofou
und,howeveer,thatthep
possibilityfo
orweightsavingsshould
dfirst
beexaminedforcon
nventionalsteelconstru
uction,asin practiceIW
WWbargesaaremuchheeavier
eClassificatio
onSocietiesRules.
thanrequiredbythe

Figure
e7.8CrosssectionofcconventionalllystructuredandinnovativeSPSco
ontainerbargge
Nevertheeless,SPSco
onstructionm
mayhaveso
omeotheradvantages(besidesjusttweightsavings),
e.g.cheaaperproducttionandadd
ditionalsafeety.Forinstaance,theinn
nerskinofaanIWWchemical
tanker in
nner plate could be buiilt of stainleess steel and
d the outer plate of conventional steel,
s
usingonlly50%ofthe
eexpensivestainlesssteeelincurren
ntdesigns.

58

7.2.

InnovationsinPropulsionandTransmissions(withtheaimtoincreaseDS)

Propulsorsthatcanbeusedoninlandwaterways(IWW),justforthepurposeofthisstudy,will
be divided into two groups Screw Propellers and Other Propulsors rather than divided
according to the principle how they work (as is usually done in the textbooks). Furthermore,
having in mind their possible (practical) application, propulsors will be treated together with
power transmissions, since they are often distinguished just according to the way power is
transmittedfromtheenginetothepropeller.Forinstance,bothpodpropulsors(electrical)and
rudderpropellers(mechanical)usethesametypeofpropellers,butaresomehowconsideredto
bedifferentpropulsortypes,althoughthedifferencestemsonlyfromtransmissionofpower.
Thewayhowthevesselhastobesteeredshouldalsotobeconsidered,sincesomepropulsors
inherentlyenablesteering(rudderpropellers/azimuthingthrusters,forinstance),whileothers
needanadditionalsteeringdevicearudder.Vesselsteeringandmanoeuvringcapabilitiesare
very important and belong to the safety measures which are required by various rules that
should be satisfied. Consequently, steering devices are not going to be treated here, except
thatarementionedassomepropulsorsneedtherudderwithadequatesteeringgear.
7.2.1. Screwpropellers
Themainpropulsorswhichareused(ormaybeused)oninlandvesselsarebasedonascrew
propeller(orjustpropeller);thesearethefollowing:

FixedpitchpropellerFPP(ormonoblockpropeller)thereareseveralpropellertypes,and
canhaveupto7ordinaryorskewedblades(forreducedvibrations)simpleandcheap.

Controllable pitch propeller CPP the thrust is controlled by changing the pitch, hence
CPP can adapt to resistance variations (due to water depth, freerunning or towing
conditionsetc.)advantageousforfastervessels.

Propellerinnozzle(Ductedpropeller)increasesthrustifpropellerdiameterisrestricted
(thusheavilyloaded)usualcaseonIWW.

Contra rotating propellers CRP two propellers turning in opposite direction (thus
eliminatingmutualrotatingwake)havethehighestefficiencyamongallpropulsors.

Tandem propellers two propellers turning in same direction efficiency is between FPP
andCRP.

Surface piercing propellers SPP feasible for shallow water since only lower half of the
propellerdiscisimmersedstillindesignphase.

Combinationsoftheabovearealsopossible,forinstanceCPPinanozzle.

59

Sinceriversareusuallyrestrictedindepth,propellerdiameterwillalmostalwaysbelimitedand
therefore, a ducted propeller in a nozzle is necessary for majority of vessel types. There are
various nozzle types; generally for slow speed and high thrust capabilities, a longer nozzle is
needed, while for faster vessels a shorter nozzle should be considered. Consequently, fast
vesselsshouldusenakedpropeller.

7.2.2. Transmissionofpower
Transmission of power from the engine (primemover, usually a diesel engine) can be as
follows:

Mechanicalhorizontal(traditionalandusualcase,rudderisnecessary)
Mechanicalvertical(azimuthingthrusterorrudderpropeller,usuallyturns360o)
Electrical(Dieselelectricpropulsion(electricpodpropulsor)
Hydraulic(Dieselhydraulicpropulsion(hydrostaticpodpropulsor).

Accordingly,usualtransmissionlossesfromtheenginetopropellerare,respectively:

around4%(withgearbox),
around10%(gearbox+2pairsofbevelgears),
1015%(energyconversionlosses,mechanicalelectricalmechanical),and
1520%andmore(energyconversionlosses,mechanicalhydraulicmechanical).

Obviously,transmissionlossesfromtheenginetothepropellerarehighinsomecases,whichis
often forgotten (note that in the last 50 years of propeller development its efficiency has
increasedbysome5%only;inthatcontextitispitytoloseenergyontransmissionlosses).

7.2.3. Propulsorsteeringcapabilities
With traditional horizontal shafting arrangement, rudders are necessary, so to some extent
they have to be treated together with propulsors. A rudder, or sometimes more than one,
should be placed just behind the propeller in its slipstream. For better backward steering
capabilitiestheflankingrudders,positionedinfrontofapropeller,areoftenused(appliedon
riverpushboats).
In all cases where the power transmission line is vertical (often called Zdrive), there is no
need for rudders whatsoever, since these azimuthing thrusters provide complete directional
thrusting capability by rotating around their vertical axis (usually 360 deg.). In general,
enhancedsteeringcapabilitiesofverticalshaftlinethrustershavetobepaidbybreakingthe
shaftlineitself,whichresultsinreducedrobustnessandlowerefficiency.

60

7.2.4. Innovativepropellerbasedconceepts
nging to the family off azimuthingg thrusters)) incorporatte an
Pod propulsors (actually belon
electricm
motorinstalledinthesu
ubmergedpod.ProbablythefirstunitsoftheA
Azipodtype used
on inland
d waterwayys were on the
t Austrian
n river icebrreaker Roethelstein (ssee Figure 5.16).
5
Azipodissatradenameofthefiirstpodpropulsoronth
hemarket(p
producedbyyFinishKvaeerner
Masa+A
ABB);itseem
mstheyarettheonlypro
oducersofco
ompactpodpropulsors..Thewellkn
nown
INBISHIPProject(Figgure5.18)waasbasedonAzipods.
Ifpower wouldbetrransmittedttothepropeellerviablad
detipsinsteeadviaboss (theusualccase),
thenthattwouldbeaatipdrivenpropellerw
withoutclasssicalshafts, whichwouldhave,amo
ongst
others, good
g
unobsttructed water inflow. A
A kind of Eleectrical TipD
Driven prop
peller (with both,
statoran
ndrotorinte
egratedinth
henozzle)haasbeendevelopedbyW
Westinghouse(calledInttegral
Electric Motor Pro
opeller IM
M/P), AEGJASTRAM (Elektrischer
(
r Motorpro
opeller), General
DynamicsElectricBo
oat(RimDrivvenPropelleerRDP),AIIR/VETH(in linepropulssor)andBru
unvol.
These neew devices,, most of them
t
still in experimeental stage, seem quitte promisingg for
applicatio
ononrivervvessels(seeFigure7.9).
Thereareetwotypesofelectric,ttipdrivenprropellers:
a) when
n bearings supporting the propeller axle are co
onnected to
o the hull byy means of strut
arms(asshowninFigure7.9.a)shaftleessdrive/pro
opulsor.
b) when
nthinsectionbearingislocatedinaanozzle.Inthiscasethereisnoneedforanaxleeora
propeellerhub,so
othepropelllermaybeo
ofanovel(unusual)desiign,Figure7
7.9.bandcthis
isbotth,shaftlesssandaxleleessorhubleessdrive/pro
opulsor.

a)

b)

c)

otorpropelleers
Figure7.9Tipdriven(rimdriven))electricmo
(AEGJastram,Brunvo
olandHubleessAIR/VOITTHpropulso
ors,somestillprototypess)

61

SurfaceP
PiercingPro
opellers(SPP
P)haveonlyythelowerh
halfofadisccimmersed inthewaterand
thereforeearesuitablleforshallow
wdraftvesssels.Theyarreusuallyusedforhighspeedcraftss,but
recentlyAIR(nowVO
OITH)starteddevelopingaslowspeeedSPPCPP
Pwhichexploitsthefacttthat
dethethrusst)alargesideforceto
oo,whichen
nablessteering,andhen
ncea
SPPgeneerates(besid
rudder iss not required. Neverth
heless, slow speed SPP are someho
ow clumsy (due to the large
propellerr disc whose
e bottom haalf only prod
duces thrustt) and have to be used
d in pairs (du
ue to
generateedsideforce
e),Figure7.1
10.
Vectorprope
eller

Figure
e7.10Sizecomparison
nofVectoraandconventiionalpropeller(Source:VOITHturbo
o)
7.2.5. Promisinggpropellerb
basedpropulsors

Consequently,promisingpropelllerbasedprropulsorsforrIWWwould
dbethefollowing:
Prope
ellers in nozzles (FPP and
a CPP), with usual (m
mechanical) horizontal or
o vertical power
transsmissionFigure7.11.a.
TandemandCRP
Pwithmechanicaltransm
missionFiggures7.11.b
band7.11.crespectivelyy.
Podp
propulsors(dieselelectrricandhybridwithFPP)Figures7..12and7.13
3.
Comb
binationsoffhorizontal mechanical andazimutthingthrusteer,eitheron
neasideano
other
with wing pod or
o rudder propulsors
p
o similar (seee Figures 5.22
or
5
and 5.24), giving good
oeuvrability,,oronebehindtheotheeralsogivingggoodefficiency(workin
ngasCRP).
mano

a)

b)

c)

Figure7.11Promisingpropellerrbasedprop
pulsorsa)Rudderprop
pellerinanintegratednozzle
HFPP),b)Taandempropeeller(SchottelTwinProp
pellerSTP)andc)CRP((VethZDrivee)
(VETH

62

Figure7.12CompactAzipoddrive(withoutandwithanozzle).Acompactelectricalmotoris
locatedinsidethepodandisdirectlycoupledtotheFPpropeller

Figure7.13Azipodselectricpropulsionandpowerplant

Similartodieselelectricpropulsionisdieselelectrichybridpropulsion(developedbySiemens
underthetradenameSISHIPEcoProp).Asmightbeexpected,thehybridpropulsioncomplies
with stringent environmental requirements. It can also be integrated with alternative energy
sources such as wind, solar or fuel cells. Amongst disadvantages, however, are the high
investment costs and higher weight compared to conventional dieselmechanical systems. It
has some similarities with dieselelectric propulsion explained above, i.e. a sophisticated
controlsystemenablesa)runofasmanydieselpoweredgeneratorsasrequiredtocoverthe
powerdemand,b)dieselenginesoperateatoptimumefficiency(independentoftherequired
propellershaftspeed)andc)powergeneratedisoptimallydistributedforpropellingtheship
andforotherpowerdemands.Anadditionalfeature,however,enablesthebatteriestooperate
inthefollowingfourmodes:

63

Dieseel mode: Po
ower from propulsion
p
diesels drives a geared
d generatorr, feeds the ship
serviccenet,charggesthebatteriesandpropelstheveessel.

Batteery mode: Electrical pow

wer from baatteries feed
ds the ship service net and propels the
vesseel(forinstan
ncewhenanchoring,docckingorman
noeuvringattlowspeed).

Electromode:Po
owerfromaharbourgeneratorchargesthebattteries,and suppliestheeship
serviccenetandp
propulsionm
motors(forin
nstanceforccruising).

Hybriid mode: Propulsion

P
d
diesels
drivee the vesseel with additional pow
wer from geeared
electrical motorss that receeive power from a harrbour generrator (for maximum
m
power
demaand).

The SISH
HIP EcoProp electrical motors
m
and other comp
ponents aree compact and
a standard
dized
(ranging from 100 kW
k to 400 kW per shafttline and are used for road
r
vehiclees too). Elecctrical
motors located in th
he ship are connected via
v the gearrbox to a ho
orizontal pro
opeller shaftt, see
Figure7.14(thisrequ
uiresrudderrs,whichareenotneeded
dwhentheeelectromoto
orisinthep
pod).

F
Figure7.14
Puredieselelectricpropulsionandhybridprop
pulsionconfiguration
(Sourrce:Siemenss)

7.2.6. Otherpro
opulsors
Notcoun
ntingtheclumsysideorsternpaddleewheels(th
hatrequirelo
owRPM),which,bytheway,
havegoo
odefficiencyyandareinherentlyadaaptedtoshaallowdraught(river)veessels,onlytthree
propulso
ors,otherthaanpropellerrbased,willbementionedhere:

WaterjetoraaPumpjet
W
V
Verticalprop
peller(produ
ucedonlybyVoithandthereforeofttencalledVo
oithSchneid
der
propeller,som
metimesCyccloidalpropeeller)
W
Whaleorfish
htalepropulsors(stillin
ndevelopmeentphase).

64

Pumpjets,withaverticalaxisareinitiallydevelopedtobebowthrusters,seeFigure7.15.They
consist of a mixedflow pump placed in a special volute casing which can rotate about its
verticalaxis,enablingsteeringthroughout360degrees.Waterisdrawnintothecasingbelow
thehullandisexpelledthroughtheoutletnozzle.Advantagesareapplicabilitytoveryshallow
draught vessels, good manoeuvrability, simple hull form, robustness (even grounding is
allowed) and reduced jamming. The disadvantage of the Pump Jets are relatively high costs.
Moreover, when operating in very shallow waters, Pumpjets may negatively impact the
riverbedcausingmotion(redistribution)ofsediments.

Figure7.15SchottelsPumpJetandVethsCompactJet
Averticalpropeller(Figure7.16)mightbeusedonvesselsrequiringverygoodmanoeuvrability,
since they can produce controllable thrust throughout 360 degrees. Nevertheless, vertical
propellers are relatively complicated and therefore expensive. They are not as efficient (as
ordinarypropellers)sincetheirverticalbladesgeneratethrustonlyoverapartofrevolutionat
acostofeverpresentfrictionalresistance.
The principle of the vertical axis propeller can be applied to a cycloidal propulsor having
horizontalshaftaswell.Thisisthebasicideaofthewhaletailpropulsor(Figure7.17)whichis
stillinthedevelopmentphase.

Figure7.16VerticalVoithSchneider
propeller

Figure7.17Whaletalearrangement
(Source:CREATINGWP5)

65

7.2.7. Ratingofpropulsors
AnattemptwasmadetocompareallmentionedpropulsorsonthesamebasisseeTable7.1.
Picking out just one of them and rating it separately, would, probably, bring to different
conclusionsfromthosegiveninTable7.1.

TYPEOFA

PROPULSOR

Propulsiveefficiency

Manoeuvring
capabilities

Robustness

Extraspace
onavessel

Costofapropulsor

Builtincost

Maturity
(developingphase)

Environmental
pollution

No.

Transmissiontype

Table7.1PropulsorapplicabilityonapotentialIWWvessel

NakedFPP
NakedFPP
NakedCPP
NakedCPP
DuctedFPP
DuctedFPP
DuctedCPP
DuctedCPP
Ringpropeller
SteerablenozzleFPP
Tandempropeller
CRP
SlowspeedSPP
PodpropulsorFPP
HydrostaticFPP
Tipdriven,shaftlessFPP
Tipdriven,hublessFPP
Pumpjet
Verticalpropeller

MHor
MVer
MHor
MVer
MHor
MVer
MHor
MVer
MHor
MHor
MVer
MVer
MHor
EVer
HVer
EHor
EHor
MVer
MVer

++
+
+

+
++
?

++

++

+
++
++
?
++
+

++
++

++

++

++
+

++

+
++
++
++
++

++

?
?

+
++
+
++

++

++
+

++
++
+
++
++
+
+
+

++
+

++
+

+
+

+
+

+
+

?
++
+
++
++

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19

Abbreviations:Rating

++verygood
+good

average
bad
?notknown

Transmissiontypes
Mmechanical
Eelectrical

Hhydraulic
HORhorizontal
VERvertical

Note:HORarrangements needarudder(except incases10and13),while VERarrangements,justby

rotatingthepropelleralongtheverticalaxis,generatethrustinalldirections,hencedonotneedrudder.

66

7.2.8. ImprovementofHullPropulsorinteractions
Largepotentialsforenergysavingslayinimprovementsofinteractionsbetweenthehullanda
propulsor(i.e.propeller).AsexplainedatthebeginningofSections3and7,theintentionisto
increase efficiency of a propulsor D (which depends on hullpropulsor interaction and is
expressedthroughthesocalledpropulsivecoefficients).Inotherwords,theaftshipshouldbe
adaptedto:a)particularpropulsor,andb)thewaterway(i.e.waterdepthwhichvaryfrom
oneriverstretchtoanother).So,aftshipshouldbedesignedinsuchawaythatadvantagesof
navigationindeepwaterarefullyexploited(witharelativelyundisturbedinflowofwatertothe
propeller),whilemaintainingpossibilitiesofshallowwateroperationinpartlyloadedcondition.
Thiscanberealizedwithanadjustabletunnel(Figure7.18,seealsoFigure7.5),whichis
depending on the draught aligned with the hull (upper photo), or with fins folded
downwards (lower photo) to prevent entrance of incoming air into propeller at low draught.
Thus,thepropulsionefficiencysignificantlyincreasesathigherdraughtsasnoparts,likewith
fixed tunnel forms, prevent water inflow. In addition, a ship with adjustable tunnel is able to
operateatlowerdraughtsthanwithoutit,therebynotjeopardizingpropellerefficiencycaused
by air intake. Actually it enables a ship without a tunnel to operate efficiently under partly
loadedconditiontoo.Adjustabletunnelisnotyetimplementedinfullscale,onlymodeltests
werecarriedoutinDST.Savingsofabout10%areexpected.

Figure7.18Adjustabletunnelforinlandvessel
(Source:www.naiades.info/wiki/index.php5/Adjustable_tunnel)

67

7.3.

Innovationsinpropulsionplantsandfuels
(withtheaimtoreducefuelconsumptionandpollutantemissions)

7.3.1. DieselEngines

Diesel engines dominate IWW nowadays. Modern engines that are nowadays used on inland
ships are often marinized generalapplication diesel engines (generatingset engines having
1500 or 1800 rpm for 50 or 60 Hz, respectively) or are truck engines. Both engine types are
muchlighterandcheaperthantheirpredecessors(thathad700800rpm),nottomentionthat
they are an order of magnitude cleaner than the older ship engines. As a consequence,
contemporarygearboxeshavehighergearratiosthanthoseoffewdecadesago.
AccordingtosomeESTstudies(EnvironmentallySustainableTransport)itisnotexpectedthat
majorbreakthroughtechnologies(concerningshipengines)willbemadeinthenext20orso
years. Furthermore, environmental considerations will, without any doubt, guide and force
engine development. As the shipping industry is too small to drive the development of new
typesofpropulsionplants,truckengineswillprobablyhavetobeusedastheprimemoverson
inlandwaterwayshipsinnextdecades.Inthemeantime,emissionproblemswithdieselengines
willbecomemuchmorepronouncedthanisthecasetoday.
7.3.2. Emissionproblems
Dieselengines(andfuels)areconstantlydevelopedwiththeaimtoreduceharmfulemissions
(and consumption, of course). The quantity of the following substances in exhaust gases is
relevantforevaluatingdieselenginecleanliness:
Carbondioxide(CO2)
Carbonmonoxide(CO)
Nitrogenoxide,NOandNO2(NOX)
Sulphuroxides,SOandSO2(SOX)
Uniciratedhydrocarboncompounds(HCX)
Sootparticles(PM)

Among these, probably the most relevant single substance is carbon dioxide (CO2) which
contributestoclimatechange(globalwarming)seeCrist(2009).
Notethatdifferentabatementmethodshavetobeappliedforeachcomponent:

CO2dependsdirectlyontheamountoffuelconsumption
NOxdoesnotdependonconsumption,butondesignandstateoftheengine
PMismainlycarbonparticles(soot),anddependsonmaintenanceandfueltype
SOxdependsonthetypeofdieselfuel(sulphurcontentofthefuel)

68

7.3.3.

Exhauste
emissionlegiislation

E NonRoaad mobile machinery

m
( are inland vessels) are regulatted by Direective
(as
In the EU,
97/68/EC
C,whileintheUSemisssionstandarrdsaremanagedbytheeEPAregulaationsformarine
vehicles. These stan
ndards are constantly upgraded and in a way
w are allive. Regulatory
authorities are aske
ed/forced by
b engine manufacture
m
ers to harm
monise worldwide emission
standard
dsfordiffere
entmarketsinordertossimplifyengginedevelopment.Asacconsequence,EU
emission limits for nonroad
n
m
machinery
Sttage I/II werre harmonissed (more or
o less) with
h the
ofTier1/2,andStageIII//IVwithUSTTier3/4stan
ndards.StageIII/IVstand
dards
adequateeUSlimitso
applyonlytonewve
ehiclesandeequipment.StageIIIstandardsareffurtherdivid
dedintotwo
osub
stages: Stage
S
IIIA an
nd Stage IIIB
B, see Figuree 7.19. Stagee IIIA standards, amonggst others, cover
c
enginesu
usedinIWW
Wvessels,seeeTable7.2
2.Asarough
hestimateitispredicteedthatStageIIIA
willreduceinlandan
ndcoastalemissionsbyaround50%
%,buttheseebenefitsw
willtakeveryylong
VstandardsfforIWWvesssels,
timetorreach.Atthemoment, therearenoStageIIIB orStageIV
butitmigghtbeexpeccted,bymirrroringEPArregulations,thatinthen
nearfuturettheywillapp
plyto
IWWvessseltoo,seeFigure7.20..

Figure7
7.19EPAan
ndEUNonR
Roademissio
onsregulatio
ons(37560kW)
7.3.4. FindingsffromtheCREEATINGprojject
onslowerthanthetruckkengines(dueto
Generallyyspeaking, shipenginessonlyhave CO2emissio
lowerconsumption. SeeAppend
dix6),whileeNOX,PMan
ndSOXemissionsarehiggher.Thereeason
for this lies in differrent emissio
on regulation
ns for road vehicles (tru
uck engines) and ships (ship
engines),,seeFigure 7.21.NotetthatinthisssectionCCNRnormsareeassumedtoberelevan
ntfor
IWT;CCN
NRIIalmostcorrespond
dstoEUStaggeIIIA.

69


Table 5
Table7.2StageIIIAstandardsforIWWvessels
Stage III A Standards for Inland Waterway Vessels
(Source:www.dieselnet.com/standards/eu/nonroad.php)
Cat.

Displacement (D)

Date

CO

2007.01

5.0

7.5

0.40

dm per cylinder

NOx+HC

PM

g/kWh

V1:1

D 0.9, P > 37 kW

V1:2

0.9 < D 1.2

5.0

7.2

0.30

V1:3

1.2 < D 2.5

5.0

7.2

0.20

V1:4

2.5 < D 5

5.0

7.2

0.20

V2:1

5 < D 15

5.0

7.8

0.27

V2:2

15 < D 20, P 3300 kW

5.0

8.7

0.50

V2:3

15 < D 20, P > 3300 kW

5.0

9.8

0.50

V2:4

20 < D 25

5.0

9.8

0.50

V2:5

25 < D 30

5.0

11.0

0.50

2009.01

Source:MTU

Figure7.20EUExhaustemissionlegislationcomparisonofMarine/Mobilemachinery
Obviouslyemissionregulationsforroadvehicles(EURO)andIWTaredifferent.Inadditionthere
isconsiderabletimelaginimplementationofEURO&CCNRemissionregulations.Takinginto
accountthatshipenginesaremucholderthantruckenginesandthattheybelongtoprevious
technological generation (with a lifetime of at least 20 years for ship engines vs. 5 years for
trucks), emission legislation becomes extremely important. The abovementioned is actually
themainreasonshipsarenotascleanaspreviouslyclaimed.
IntheCREATINGproject(whoseobjectivewastofindsolutionstoimprovetheenvironmental
performanceofIWT)emissionswerecomparedbetweenIWWshipsaRhineselfpropelled

70


Figure7.21Emissionlegislationforroadvehiclesandships

vessel,DanubeRoRovesselandDanubecouplingtrainandatruckonthebasisoftkmwas
evaluated. Surprising results were obtained, see Figure 7.22. Taking into account that fuel
consumptionpertkmofwaterbornetransportisroughly1/3ofthatofroadtransport,andthat
truckshavecleanerengines,followsthat:
a)ShipsareNOTsocleanintermsofNOxandPM,unlessEmissionReductionTechniques(ERT)
areapplied,and
b)StandardsaccordingtoCCNRIII(correspondingtoEUROV)maybemetonlybyapplication
ofERT(inparticularSCR+PMF+LSF)(seeFigure7.22andTable7.3).

Figure7.22EmissioncomparisonsbetweenconsideredIWWships

andatruckonthebasisoftkm

71

Emission Reduction Technologies ERT consist of several compatible and complementary

measures(Table7.3):

FirststepReductionofallowedsulphurformarineoildiesel
Goal: 0.1% (which is still 100 x higher than for trucks), otherwise even IWT cannot
compete with trucks in terms of emissions (this fuel is supposed to be available
throughouttheEUin2011)
SecondstepApplicationofnewdieselenginetechnologiesandexhaustgascleaning.
Olderenginesshouldberetrofittedwithaftertreatmentdevices.

Table7.3Changesinmassemissionscomparedwithabasic
casewithoutreductiontechniques(CCNR1)

NOX

PM

F.C.

CO2

SOX

Aftertreatmenttechniques
SCR

81%

35%

7.5%

7.5%

7.5%

PMF

none

85%

+2%

+2%

+2%

10%

10%

10%

10%

Drivemanagementsystem
ATM

10%

Dieselfuelquality
BD

+10%

30%

+15%

65%

100%

BDB

+2%

6%

+3%

13%

20%

LSF

none

17%

none

none

100%

+4.5

10%

100%

Newenginetechniques
NGE

98.5%

97.5%

SCRSelectiveCatalystReduction
PMFParticulateMassFilter
ATMAdvisingTempomaat
BDBiodiesel
BDBBiodieselBlend(80%fossil+20%BD)
LSFLowSulphurFuel
NGENaturalGasEngine
F.C.ChangesinFuelconsumption

72


So,togettheclimatefriendlyIWWShipaccordingto:

CCNRIII(correspondstoEUROV)fromaCCNRIship,itisnecessarytoapplySCR+PMF
+ATM+LSF(seeTable7.3).AccordingtotheCREATINGproject,thisgreeningonIWW
should be stimulated by financial interests (investment cost of application of
SCR+PMF+ATM+LSF is supposed to return in 3 years). It should be noted that
application of just biodiesel (BD) is not sufficient, and its application is controversial
anyway.Notethatoldshipengineswillprolongimplementationforca.20years!
For EURO VI emissions, similar fuel & engine technology as truck engines is necessary
(which brings new problems), or a completely new engine technology (Natural Gas
Engines,FuelCells)shouldbeapplied.

WithintheCREATINGproject,theDemonstratorthecleanestshipeverwassuppliedwith
the abovementioned technologies. This was the lowemission, fuel efficient and
environmentallyfriendly BP motor tank vessel Victoria (60x11.45 m, 1300 t, with MTU 880
kW/1800rpm).Exhaustfiguresaswellassavings,whichareconstantlyupgraded,canbefound
atwww.cleanestship.eu/chartsandarebasedon3000operationalhoursperyear,anaverage
deliveredpowerof70%andafuelconsumptionof203g/kWh.Theundertakenmeasureswere:

LowsulphurEN590fuel(equaltoroadstandard)wasusedreducesSOx&PM

APM&SCRcatalystinthesamereactor(selectivecatalyticreduction&sootfilter)was
implemented,producedbyHugEngineeringreducesNOx&PM
ATM(theAdvisingTempomaat)producedbyTechnoFysicaenabledoptimaloperation
ofthevesselreducesCO2

Regarding the same subject, Schweighofer & Blaauw (2008) and Schweighofer & Seiwerth
(2007)papersshouldbealsoconsulted.

7.3.5. Innovationsinpropulsionplants
PossibleinnovationsaredepictedinFigure7.23.Notethatdarkerpartsofthetablemeanshort
ormediumtermapplications,whilewhiteonesaremediumandlongtermnicheapplications.
Actually, the darker parts were explained above, while the white parts dieselelectric, gas
enginesandfuelcellsdeservefurtherdiscussion.

73


Figgure7.23In
nnovationso
ofpropulsionplantsand
dfuels(Source:CREATIN
NGproject)
Dieselelectricconce
eptsarenotsofarintheefuture;theeyarealread
dyappliedon
nseavesselssand
on the IWW icebreaker Roeth
helstein (seee Figure 5.16). This concept wass also applieed in
INBISHIPproject(see
eSection5.2
2.1andFigurre7.13).
Natural gas enginess (NGE) are actually dieesel enginess that, insteead of ordin
nary fuel oil, use
liquefied natural gaas (LNG). The
T
necessaary engine adaptationss for LNG are
a presentt day
technolo
ogyandthe mainprobleemissafefu
uelstorageo
onboard(or within)the shipitself(ttobe
inliquid formgashaastobecoolledandpresssurized).Co
omparedto conventionaaldieselenggines,
entandhaveelowerenvirronmentalim
mpact.
NGEaremoreefficie
Fuelcellss(FC)areno
owadaysuseedonsubmarines,whileR&Dworkkisfocused onroadveh
hicles
andstationarypowe
erplants,butthegoalo
ofzeroemisssionisdrivin
ngdevelopm
mentofhydrrogen
FCandh
hydrogensto
oragemetho
ods.FCareeelectrochem
micaldeviceswhichconvvertthechemical
energyofafuel(forexamplehyd
drogenornaaturalgas)in
ntodirectcu
urrentpower.BureauVeeritas
hedguidelin
nes for safe application of FC on sh
hips. Concerrningcommeercial
(BV) receently publish
shipappllication,variioustypesoffFCareinth
heresearch//experimenttalphase.
Withinth
heINBATprroject,FCpo
owerwasexxamined(seeeZenczakettal.2003)fo
oralowdraaught
pushboattandwasco
omparedtovariantsof dieselpoweerplants.Reegardingweight,FCpow
weris
comparabletoacon
nventionalshippowerp
plantwitha mechanicalltransmissio
on,howeverr,the
costofFC
Cwasconsid
derablyhigherthanotheerenginesth
hatwerecon
nsidered.
Within the EU supp
ported Lifeproject Zem
mships (Zero
o Emission Ship) the first FC pow
wered
passengeershipFCSAlsterwasseerwasdevveloped(Figu
ure7.24).Sh
hewasdesiggnedasam
mono
hull ship with two fuel cells of 50 kW and a carrying capacity of 100 passengers. The sh
hip is

74

fuelledbyhydrogen,whichisstoredonboardatapressureof350bar.Theshipis25.5mlong
andhasadraughtof1.2m.ThevesselhasbeensailingontheAlsterinHamburgsinceAugust
2008.FCSAlsterwasserisregardedtobethefirstIWWpassengervesselwhereFCareused
forthemainpropulsion.BesideZemshipproject,thereareotherprojectsonFCapplicationson
maritime vessels, as for instance MOSTH, FelowSHIP, FCSHIP etc., all with a goal to obtain a
nearzeroemissionshipengine.Consequently,therearealsoanumberofreportsavailableon
theinternet.

Figure7.24TheFCSAlsterwasser
(Source:www.naiades.info/wiki/index.php5/Zemships__Zero_Emission_Ships)

7.4. Innovationsimportantforbettershiputilisation/navigation
(withtheaimtoreduceshipspeedandincreasecosteffectivenessandsafety)

RiverInformationServices(RIS)providepossibilitiesforvoyageplanning,trackingandtracing,
bothfromvesselsandfromshores.Improvedcommunicationandinformationexchangewithin
thesystemindirectlycontributestotheoptimisationoffuelconsumption.Thiscanbeachieved,
for instance, through the exchange of information related to lock operation, port/terminal
planning,customsetc.ononeside,andskippersonanother,givingrelevantinformationabout
the ship (her position, speed, destination, cargo etc.). According to received information, a
skipper can calculate the estimated time of arrival (ETA) to a certain destination, and, if
possible, reduce/adjust ship speed. Amongst others, this might result in reduction of fuel
consumption.

75

Softwareesolutionsfforadvanced
drouteplan
nningareavvailablenow
wadays.Inso
omecasesro
oute
planning software relies on thee data provided within the uniquee RIS environment. Plan
nning
procedurresbeforethejourneyaarealsoposssible,since RISprovideesreliablein
nformationaabout
thewateerdepthand
dpotentialo
obstaclesontheintendeedroute.InlandECDIScchartsare,inthe
firstplace,developed
dtoprovideeadditionalssafety,butaalsoenablen
navigationw
withanoptim
mised
speed.
Aftertheeinitialsucce
essofGermanELWIS,A
AustrianDOR
RISandtheEEUprojectA
ALSODanubee,the
importan
nce of RIS fo
or inland naavigation rapidly increaased. As a reesult, the COMPRIS
C
Pro
oject,
CRORIS and YURIS were
together with its extensions
e
w
a further step towards thee full
implemeentationofttheRISonth
heDanube River.Moreeover,theEC
Cprepared thesocalledRIS
Directivee,whichsetssupalegalfframeworkforRiverInfo
ormationSerrvicesinEurrope.
ConcerniingtheDanube,RIStecchnologyisaalreadyused
don theAu
ustriansecto
oroftheDanube
andcertaainlywillbeusedontheewholeDanu
ubeinthenearfuture.
On board computerrisation and
d RIS applicaation (Figuree 7.25) in ad
ddition to crrew trainingg can
lead to socalled ecosailing (eequivalent to
t ecodriving which iss nowadayss widely ap
pplied
througho
out Europe resulting in
n fuel reducctions of 5 to 10%). Fo
or instance, in Holland, the
Ecodrivin
ng Programm
me Voortvarend Besparren (Savingg While Sailing) was in
nitiated with
h the
goaltoreeducefuelcconsumption
nandpollutaantemission
nsfrominlan
ndvessels(p
partoftheD
Dutch
Air Qualiity Action Plan, see ww
ww.voorvarendbesparen.nl). According to DNV,, shipownerss can
reduceairemissionssupto15% fromships, usingavailabletechnolo
ogyontodaysshipswitthout
incurringgadditionalccosts!

Figure7.25
5Bridgecomputerizatio
ononrivervvessel(Sourcce:WitteveeenBos)

76

7.5. Concludingremarks
InordertoachievemoreefficientandcleanerIWT,contemporarylogisticsconceptsshouldbe
applied.Transhipmentshouldbecheapandfast,andthewaterbornepartoftransportshould
beefficient.Concerningthelastitem,besidesthemeasuresthatoftendonotdependonship
design(crewcosts,taxes,loanandfuelcosts),thefollowingisnecessary(accordingtoFigure
7.1):
a)
b)
c)
d)

Reductionoftotalresistance
Increaseofpropulsionefficiency
Reductionoffuelconsumption
Reductionofshipspeed(ifpossible)

Ofcourse,otheraspectsofshipdesignshouldnotbeforgotten,i.e.safetymeasuresandcheap
production. To achieve this goal it is necessary to obtain the following (according to the
conclusionsofeachsubsectionofchapter7):

In order to maximise the gains and minimise the costs, it is important to involve the
hydrodynamicexpertiseatanearlydesignstage.Oftenagood,lowresistancehullformcan
beobtainedonlyifmodelexperimentsarecarriedoutinspecializedtowingtanks.
Weightreductionispossiblenotonlybyapplyingthelatesttechnologies(likeSPS),butin
the first place by not unreasonable accumulating the additional weight by thickening the
hullstructuremorethanrulesarerequiring.
To obtain good propulsion efficiency, new propulsors should be considered (see Sections
7.2.5.and7.2.7).
Newenginetypesshouldbeconsideredforshipapplications,mostprobablyderivedfrom
general application diesel engines or road vehicles. Exhaust emission legislation measures
areimportantforcleannessofshipengines.Figure7.26depictsPMandNOxemissionsfor
EURO,CCNRandStageIIIAstandards.Thepreconditionforlowemissionsis,however,low
sulphurfuel.CO2emissionschargescouldbecomeeffectiveinthenearfuture(i.e.fuelcost
mightincludeenvironmentallyrelevantsurchargesbasedonSOXandCO2),solowemission
engineswillpayoffinshorterperiodoftime.
For better ship utilisation, commandbridge computerisation is necessary through
applicationofRISandothercontemporaryITachievements.Butaboveall,crewtrainingis
necessary (particularly on the Danube) that would result in higher safety measures and
betterecosailingcapabilities.AccordingtoDNVshipsfromallmarketsegmentscanreduce
theirairemissionsbycarefullyanalyzingandoptimizinganumberofindividualoperations,
such as optimizing engine performance, optimizingtrim for all drafts and speeds and the

77

propu
ulsion system efficiencyy andimpro
oving voyagee managem
ment. Actuallly, all aspeccts of
ship operations should
s
be th
horoughly reviewed in order to inccrease efficiency and reeduce
emisssions.

Figure7.26PMandNOxemisssionsforEURO,CCNRan
ndStageIIIA
Astandards
(Sourcce:CREATING
GProject)

Most of the measurres mentioneed above may

m be and should
s
be applied for all
a new build
dings.
Nevertheeless,themajorityofexxistingoldan
ndoftennottwellmainttainedvesseelscanbenefitby
applyingsomeofthe
eabovemen
ntionedmeaasures.NoteethattheD
Danubefleetisonaveragge20
years yo
ounger than that on th
he Rhine, but is by farr in worse shape due to unaccep
ptable
negligencceandlacko
ofregularm
maintenance(Figure7.27
7).

Figu
ure7.27Tu
ugboat,Belggrade,2008

78

8.

CUSTOMDESIGNEDVESSELSFORTHEDANUBERIVER

Withtheaimtodemonstratehowacontemporary,safe,costeffective,shallowdraughtvessel
intendedparticularlyfortheDanubewaterwayshouldlooklike,someoftheconclusionsand
technicalachievementsaimedatincreasingefficiencyofinlandnavigation,anddiscussedinthe
previoussections,willbeincorporatedintodesignoftwospecificshiptypes:

Selfpropelledcontainervessel
Bargetrain(actuallyapushboat)forbulkcargo.

These two distinct ship type concepts are chosen because they are good representatives of
typicalshipsusedontheDanube.Thisdoesnotmeanthatselfpropelledvesselsareassigned
justforthecontainertransportorbargetrainsforbulkcargo,northatinnovationsintegrated
into one concept cannot be applied in the other. Concepts would be able to operate on the
navigabletributaries,RMDwaterwayandothercanals,naturallywithcertainrestrictionsthat
aregiveninTable2.3andFigure2.4.
Needless to say, but new vessels have to be built (hence designed and operated through its
lifetime)incompliancewithvariousinternationalandnationalrulesandregulations.Thisis,per
se,aguaranteethatthevesselwillbesafeandenvironmentallyacceptable(seeAppendices4
and7).Also,itisusuallyunderlinedthatashipandherequipmentwillbemadeaccordingto
goodshipbuildingpracticeandexperience,standardsoftheyardetc.;thosephrases,however,
donotmeanmuchastheyarenotsocompulsory,althoughtheyaresaidworldwide.
Conceptswillbefollowedwithasectiononpossibleconversionsandretrofittingmeasureswith
asimilarpurpose,i.e.toshowapplicationofnewtechnologiesonalreadyexistingvessels.

8.1.

Selfpropelledshipfortransportofcontainers

Special attention was paid to existing navigation conditions on the Lower Danube, but as it
mightbeexpectedthatthecontainervesselwouldoperateonthewholeDanube,restrictions
oftheUpperDanubewerealsotakenintoconsideration.Anoptimisedvessel,ingeneral,was
briefly explained in Section 2.1, restrictions of the Danube waterway in Section 2.3 and its
implications on ship design in 2.4. The cargo that should be transported intermodal loading
units (ISO containers and EILUs), their size etc. are explained in Section 4.2, while main
characteristicsofconventionalselfpropelledvesselssuitedfortheDanubewaterwayaregiven
inSection6.

79

8.1.1. ProposedfeaturesofaDanubecontainershipconcept
Theobjectivehereistoexplain(inwords)howsuccessfulshallowwatercontainervesselcould
looklike.Therefore,therecommendedvesseldimensionsandotherimportantcharacteristics
tobeincorporatedintodesignarethefollowing:

Draught (T) 2.5 m maximum for three layers of full containers of average mass of 13 t
(see Figure 6.2). With two layers of full containers, draught will be up to 1.85 m.
Nevertheless,accordingtotransportstatistics,onaverage2/3ofallcontainersareloaded
and 1/3 are empty (with a mass of ca. 2 t only). Therefore, it might be expected that in
reality draught will be smaller than stated above. If reduced draught sailing would be
necessary,acouplingtrainshouldbeconsidered.
Breadth (B) 11.65 m (cargo hold breadth just above 10.3 m) allows abreast loading of
fourISOcontainersor2.502.55mwidedomesticcontainersEILUs(seesection4.2).Note
that the usual ship breadth is up to 11.45 m (due to locks and gangway restrictions), but
keeping in mind the extensive use of palletwise EILUs within Europe (other transport
modes are using them) and that the competitiveness of IWT should be increased, a ship
widthof11.65missuggested(althoughlocksontheUpperDanubeare12or24mwide,
see Table 2.2 and 2.3). Note that for the Rhine corridor the breadth of 11.65 m was
requested, but is not allowed yet. Concerning the Danube, downstream of Vilshofen the
allowedbreadthcouldbeanythingupto23.4m(seeSection2.4),butkeepinginmindthat
thelargerthebreadthis,thelargershipresistanceandwavewashis.Abreadthof11.65m
waschosenasagoodoverallcompromise.
Length(L)104mfollowsfromthedesiredcargoholdlengthofaround80m.Withinthis
length,longitudinally13TEUsmaybestowedwith2050mmclearancebetweenthem(this
requires toplift transhipment with a spreader). A hold length of 80 m allows also a wide
varietyofotherstowingpossibilities,forinstance(6x40+1x20),(4x45+4x20),(4xA1360
+4x20),(9xC745+2x20),etc.Discussiongiveninsection6.2(longorbeamyvessel)and
7.1.2(L/Hratio)explainswhythelongershipisnotrecommended.Furthermore,withthis
shiplength,acouplingtrainwithastandard77mDanubebargewouldbeshorterthan185
m(seeTable5.1).
Height (H) 3.1 m. This is a discussible subject and is beyond the scope of this study.
Namely,freeboard(F)of0.6mandsafetyclearanceof1000mm(i.e.hatchcoamingheight
ofatleast400mm)issuggestedforZone3(theDanube)andforthevesselsoftypeC(open
holdvessels)seeUNECEAmendmentoftheRecommendations,GLandsimilarrules.
Nevertheless,takingintoaccountsomerecentdisastersduetoinsufficientsafetyclearance
(seeHofmanetal2006)F = 0.6 m and a coaming height of 1.1 missuggested,whichis
morethanrequiredbytherules.Besides,H=3.1alsosatisfiesGLsuggestionforL/35.

80

Shipformshouldbeoptimisedforlowresistancenavigationinshallowwater.Theform
shouldberelativelyfull(bothCBandCParound0.9),withfullforeandafterbodyproviding
substantial buoyancy (hence allowing larger payload) at low draughts. This, however, will
inevitablyincreaseresistance.Afterbodyisstronglyinfluencedbypropellerdiameterand
propulsortype(twinrudderpropellersofrelativelysmalldiameterareimaginedhere).Ship
formshouldmirrorweightdistribution(accommodationinthefront,enginesatthestern)
whichshouldreducethetrimofpartlyloadedship.Theabovewaterbowformshouldbe
adaptedforpushing(couplingtrainformation).Note,however,thathullformoptimisation
withthepurposetoreduceresistancerequiresmodeltesting(seesection7.1.1).
Ship weight should be reduced by around 10% compared to conventional designs by
applyingstateofthearttechnologies,probablyhightensilesteelforthehullstructure(see
section 5.1.1 vessel Sava Mala), SPS or aluminium for superstructure. Capital weight
savings, however, should not be expected, but overall weight savings within the classical
steelbuildingapproachmightbeobtained(seeSection7.1.2).Althoughsomewhatopposite
to the weight savings, ballasting is often necessary, so ballast tanks should be considered
too.
Propulsion two rudder (azimuthing) propellers in nozzles with D1.35 moptimisedfor
bothlowdraughtandfulldraughtoperation,seeSections7.2.3to7.2.5.Propulsorsmaybe
a) of innovative design, for instance dieselelectric with Azipods (INBISHIP concept, see
section5.2.1andFigures7.12and7.13),orb)conventionalmechanicalZ drive rudder
propellers(seeFigure7.11).Bothwilleliminatetheneedforruddersandwillalsoenable
exceptional manoeuvring capabilities. If dieselelectric propulsion is envisaged then an
innovativetipdrivenpropulsormightalsobeconsidered(seeSection7.2.4andFigure7.9).
Abowthrusterofaround250kW(withtheabilitytoassiststoppingandimprovethrust
fourchannel)eitherdieselorelectricallydriven,shouldbeconsidered.
Engines low emission diesel engines satisfying Stage IIIA/Tier 3 norms or better (see
Section 7.3.3) with relatively high power to weight ratios should be considered. If diesel
electric propulsion would be applied (Azipods), then a power of around 4x400 kW is
suggested; for mechanical rudder propellers around 2x700 kW or so would be sufficient.
Powerisestimatedforanassumedspeedof16km/h,aswellasacouplingtrainformation
withone,probablytwoDanubebarges(dependingonwaterwayconditions).Dieselelectric
propulsion is ecologically very attractive, but is also more expensive than mechanical
transmission.NearzeroemissionFCorsimilar(seeSection7.3.5)shouldntbeexpectedto
beseenonIWvesselsinnextdecadeortwo.Nevertheless,infuturedieselelectricsetsmay
bereplacedbyFC,soelectricallydrivenrudderpropellers(ofAzipodtypeortipdriven/rim
driven)mightberegardedasthepropulsorofthefuture.
Shoretoshippowersupply(ofelectricitywhileinport,oftencalledcoldironing)shouldbe
consideredwiththeaimtoreduceonboarddieselemissions.

81

Accommodation,wheelhouseandengineroom.Allcrewpremisesshouldbedimensioned
according to UNECE Recommendations based on six crew members and should be
positioned in the bow (the wheelhouse too), while the engines (placed in well insulated
spaces)shouldbeatthestern.Thisenablesgoodvisibility(hencesafetytoo),crewcomfort
(novibrationsandnoise)andawellbalancedshipatlowdraughts.
Electronics and computerisation should of latest generation, providing a oneman bridge
systemincludingadatabasedshipmonitoringsystem(engineandshipsystemmonitoring
andrecording,voyageoptimization,etc.);seeSection7.4.
An onboard crane with a capacity 35t/30m should be considered as this would allow
transhipment at any port (see Figure 5.5). However, this would reduce the number of
containersthatcouldbetransported.

Itshouldbenotedhoweverthattheshipowner,accordingtohisownrequirements,judgments
of the market trends and costs, usually requires a specific ship to be designed/built (having
particular dimensions, carrying capacity, engines, equipment) and that design freedom as
exercisedaboveisveryseldom.Forinstance,shipspeed,whichisamongstthemostinfluential
designparameters,wasomittedinthisdiscussion.

8.1.2.Generalarrangementplanofacontainershipconcept
A General Arrangement (GA) plan of a container ship concept is shown in Figure 8.1 and its
enlarged bow and stern parts, in Figures 8.2 and 8.3, respectively. Two additional variants of
thesameconceptaredepictedinFigures8.4and8.5.Namely,dieselelectricpropulsionanda
conventionalmechanical(azimuthing)rudderpropellermaybeemployedseeFigure8.4.An
onboardcraneisdepictedintheGAplan,Figure8.5(withamechanicaltransmissionalready
showninFigure8.4)resultinginreducedcarryingcapacity,seebelow.Themainparticularsof
theabovementionedvesselsarethefollowing:

Loam
Boam
Hm
Tm
Holdlengthm
Holdwidthm
Heightabovebasislinem
PBkW
TEU(3layers/4layers)
Payloadcapacityt

Configuration
BasicWithaCrane
104.0
102.5
11.65
11.65
3.1
3.1
2.5
2.5
80.0
78.5
10.34
10.34
8.3
8.3
4x400
2x700
156/208
134/172
1950
1800

82

Figure8.1G
GeneralArraangement
planofacon
ntainershipconcept
d
dieselelectr
ricpropulsio
on

83

Figu
ure8.2Enlaargedbowp
part(bothvaariants)

8.1.3. Advantageso
A
ofaconceptcomparedttoconventio
onalships
Some off the concepts featurees (underlineed below) suggest
s
an environmen
ntally accep
ptable
vessel with
w
a large
e volume and
a
payload
d capacity. At the saame time due
d
to sup
perior
manoeuvvring capabilities, the proposed
p
co
oncept shou
uld be safer than similar selfprop
pelled
vesselso
ontheRhineandDanubee.So:

Speccial attentio
on was paid
d to lowdrraught perfformance. Consequentl
C
y, the prop
posed
concceptshouldbeabletoo
operatesucccessfullyand
dthereforeb
becosteffectiveatboth
hlow
drau
ught of up to
t 1.71.8 m
m (with two container layers) and full
f draughtt of up to 2.5
2 m
(with3layersofffullcontain
nersoreven4layersofm
mixedfullan
ndemptycontainers).
The chosenhold
dlength(80
0m)andbre
eadth(10.34
4m)allowsstowingofaavarietyof 2.50
2.55
5 m wide do
omesticcon
ntainers(EILUsofC745 andA1360 type),besid
destheusuaalISO
conttainers (TEU
Us and FEUs). By the waay, the sam
me hold lenggth and som
mewhat narrrower
breaadthhascon
ntemporary MGS,which
his110mlo
ong(vs.prop
posed104m
m).Theconccepts
overrall dimensiions 104x11
1.65 m allo
ows passage through all Danube
e locks, eveen in
coup
plingtrainfo
ormation.

84

Figure8.4 Enlargedsteernpart vvariant

withconven
ntionalZdrriverudderpropellers

art
Figure
e8.3 Enlarggedsternpa
varian
ntwithdieseelelectricprropulsion

85

Figure8..5GA plan
nofa
containershipconceept
variantw
withconventtional
rudderp
propellersan
nd
onboardcrane

86

Anonboardcranewouldallowtranshipmentatanyportwhichwouldbeanadvantage
particularlyontheMiddleandLowerDanubewhereadequatecontainerports(hubs)and
dedicated container transhipment equipment are rare. However, this would reduce the
numberofcontainersthatcouldbetransported.

Rudderpropulsorsenableexceptionalmanoeuvringcharacteristics(steering&stopping)
even at low draughts, resulting in a safer ship. If dieselelectrical propulsion would be
installed, then additional benefits would be evident, i.e. better adaptation to various
operation/sailing modes (upstream/downstream, speed and coupling train formation
requiring employment of 1, 2, 3 or all 4 diesel engines). This would also reduce fuel
consumption (probably by 10% in upstream and even more in downstream navigation),
therefore emission levels would be lower as engines would run at optimal RPM/loading.
For refrigerated containers and other large electricity consumers (a bow thruster for
instance), the same electrical network could be used, eliminating the need for auxiliary
units. Conventional, mechanicallydriven rudderpropellers have the advantage of being
cheaperandretractable(hencecanbetteradapttowaterdepths).

Thepositionofengines/engineroomatthesternandthecrewpremisesatthebowoffers
additional crew comfort (reduced vibrations and noise). Application of contemporary
equipmentandelectronicsenablessafersailingandloweroveralloperationalcosts.

8.2. Bargetrainfortransportofbulkcargo

The main advantage of a push train, or barge transport, compared to selfpropelled ship
transport,isthatcosteffectivenavigationwithreduceddraughtwithpartlyloadedbargesmay
beutilized.Usuallyitisthedraughtofapushboatthatposesthemainproblem,asitcannotbe
reduced below a certain level (the transom and propellers should have designed minimal
draught,otherwisetheycannotworkproperly).ConventionalDanubepushboatswithapower
ofaround2000kWusuallyhavedraughtofmorethan1.7to1.8m,meaningthatthisdraught
isactuallyalimitingfactor.Duetothat,pullingtechnologywasnevercompletelyabandonedon
theDanubeastowingvesselshavelowerdraught(usuallybelow1.5m)andarethereforeused
duringthedryseasons.Consequently,alowdraughtpushboatwithapowerofaround2000kW
wouldbemorethanadvantageousontheDanube.
Ifnavigationwithareduceddraughtwouldberequired,thentosubstituteforreducedcarrying
capacity,thenumberofbargesinaconvoymightbeincreased;powerneededforpushingthis
convoy would not increase proportionally (see Section 5.1.2); this is the main advantage of
pushboat technology). Suggested power of around 2000 kW would be sufficient for sailing
alongthewholeDanubeatusualpushtrainspeedswithuptosixfullyloadedDanubebarges
(withacarrying1500to1600teach).TonnagecapacityatreduceddraughtofatypicalDanube
barge(77x11x2.8m)follows:

87

T[m]
Tonnage[t]

0.5

1.0
300400

1.5
700800

2.0
11001200

2.5
15001600

Note that according to the ToR, vessels for bulk cargo and container transport should be
suggested. Therefore, a selfpropelled vessel (Section 8.1) was designed particularly for
container transport, and a barge train was designed for bulk cargo, although discussions that
followwouldbethesameforothercargo(generalcargo,containersetc.),theonlylimitation
beingthedraughtofbargesandofapushboat.

8.2.1. Proposedfeaturesofapushboatconcept

Draught (T) 1.4 m maximum. Larger draught would certainly be desirable from a
hydrodynamicpointofview,butifthereisaneedtopushaconvoyatextremelylowwaters
(see Section 2.3.2), then 1.4 m is probably the maximum allowable draught. With the
abovementioned draught, a propeller in a nozzle with a diameter of 1.5 m could accept
power of up to 700 kW, making a threepropeller installation feasible. Furthermore, a
standard Danube barge with a draught of 1.5 m will carry a bit less than 800 t, which is
approximatelyhalfofthecarryingcapacityofafullyloadedbargeat2.5m.Itisadiscussible
subject, but sailing at a lower draught than 1.5 m would probably not be costeffective.
From this point of view, the pushboats draught of 1.4 m is also justified. Obviously the
choiceofdraughtisthemostimportanttechnicalcompromiseinpushboatdesign.
Triplescrew propulsion, (skewed) propellers in nozzles with a diameter (D) of 1.5 m,
should be located in a relatively shallow tunnel. A somewhat larger propeller diameter
wouldbeallowable(anddesirable),buttakingintoaccountthelimitedbreadthof11mand
highspeeddiesels,itisbelievedthat1.5mwouldbejustsufficient.Withanenginepower
of 700 kW, propeller loading would be 375 kW/m2, which is high, but is still acceptable.
Specialattentionshouldbepaidtothedesignoftunnels,propellersandanozzleswiththe
aim to increase ahead and astern thrust and reduce vibrations (model experiments are
recommended).
Breadth (B) 11 m, which is the same as a standard Danube barge. A somewhat larger
breadthwouldnotbesoharmful,asthepushboatisusuallypushingamuchwiderbarge
convoy.Evenifonlyonebargeispushed,asomewhatwiderpushboat(thanabarge)would
not be so disadvantageous. Barge packing, however, is easier if both the pushboat and a
bargehavethesamewidth.Nevertheless,ifdraughtislimited,theneitherthelengthora
width(orboth)shouldsubstitutetheneededbuoyancy.Consequently,itwasdecidedto
fixthebreadthto11m.

88

Length (L) of around 30 m,undertheconditionthereisenoughspaceforallnecessary

machineryandcrew.Asomewhatlongervessel(ifBandTarefixed)wouldbeacceptable.
With L=30 m, the overall length of a convoy of two barges and a pushboat would be
2x77+30=184m,whichisstillacceptableforpassingthroughDanubelocks(seeTables2.2
and5.1).
Height (H) 2.5 m is considered to be minimal for fitting engines and other necessary
machineroomequipmentbelowthedeck.
Weight (dry) is estimated to be 270 t taking into account lightweight engines and other
equipmentandmachinery.Alargervaluemightcompromisethedraughtandthereforethe
projectitself.Afullyloadedpushboatwithfuelandotherprovisionsshouldbearound350t
(at a level draught of 1.4 m). Weight saving should be considered wherever possible (SPS
technologymightbeemployedforthesuperstructure).
Ship form, and particularly the tunnels, is of utmost importance as relatively large power
needstobeinstalledwithinanextremelyshallowdraughthull(seeFigures5.19and5.22).
The transom and propellers should always have a draught of around 1.4 m, while weight
variations(duetofuelconsumption)shouldchangethetrimandbowdraughtonly.Model
experimentsarerecommended.
PropulsionplantLowemissiondieselenginesof3x700kW,satisfyingStageIIIA/Tier3
norms or better (see Section 7.3.3) with relatively high power to weight ratio should be
considered. Transmission of power should be via conventional horizontal shaftline and a
gearbox (with somewhat higher reduction ratio), see Section 7.2.2. Main engines and
gensets should be flexibly mounted to the motor girder to reduce noise and vibrations
levels.Withinstalledpowerofaround2000kWsailingalongthewholeDanubewithapush
trainofsixfullyloadedbarges(atT=2.5m,carryingaround1500to1600tofcargoeach)at
usual convoy speeds is possible during most of the navigable season. Expected fuel
consumptionwouldbearound10t/day.
Shoretoshippowersupply(ofelectricitywhileinport,oftencalledcoldironing)shouldbe
consideredwiththeaimtoreduceonboarddieselemissions.
Steeringthreefishtailrudderslocatedbehindpropellers(withoutflankingrudders,see
section7.2.3)andagondola type bow thruster(withelectricalmotor)ofaround300 kW
shouldbeconsidered.
Provisionsformax7days,meaningthat70t(around85m3)offuelshouldbeprovided.
Nevertheless,althoughontheDanubeitisaccustomedtocarryrelativelylargequantitiesof
fuel (often for a roundtrip), much smaller quantities and refuelling on the way should be
considered as overall situation within the New Europe has changed. Carrying smaller
quantitiesoffuelmightbeacosteffectivemeasure.

89

Crew members 8, according to UN ECE Recommendations. Accommodation premises

shouldbeinonetiersuperstructureonthedeck(comprising4singleand2doublecabins,
althoughthisdependsontheshipownersneeds/request).Livingpremisesshould befully
airconditioned. Resiliently mounted superstructure (on pneumatic shock absorbers) for
reducedvibrations,noiseandincreasedcomfortshouldalsobeconsidered(howeverthat
wouldrequiresomewhatdifferentcabinarrangementthangivenontheGAplan).
Wheelhouse with the possibility to be raisedtoincreasevisibilitytoatleast250m,as
requestedbyUNECERecommendations.Whenloweredmaximalheightabovewaterlevel
shouldbebelow6.3m,allowingsailingbelowallDanubebridges(excepttoontheUpper
DanubeatHWL,seeTable2.2).
Electronics and computerization should be of the latest technology, providing oneman
watch operation of the vessel with engine and shipsystem monitoring and recording,
voyageoptimization,etc.;seeSection7.4.

Everythingelseshouldbeasusualonapushboatofthissize,intendedfornavigationalongthe
Danube River. Nevertheless, modern lightweight equipment and materials should be
consideredwhereverpossible,aslargerweight(displacement,hencedraught)thanpredicted
caneasilycompromiseeverypushboat.

8.2.2. Generalarrangementplanofapushboatconcept
The General Arrangement (GA) plan of a pushboat concept is shown in Figure 8.6. The
pushboatsmainparticularsarethefollowing:

Loam
Boam
Hm
Tm
Heightabovebasislinem
PBkW
BowthrusterkW
Crew

30.0
11.0
2.5
1.4
6.0
3x700
250300
8

90

Figure8.6Gen
neralArranggementplanofapushbo
oatconcept

91

8.2.3. Advantagesofaconceptcomparedtoconventionalpushboats

Themainadvantageoftheproposedpushboatisitsextremelylowdraughtofonly1.4m
(compared to draught of above 1.7 m of similar conventional pushboats). This enables
navigationwithpartlyloadedbargesonthewholeDanubeevenatLNRL.
A gondolatype bow thruster of 250 300 kW enables enhanced manoeuvring capa
bilities, eliminating the necessity for conventional flanking rudders. Due to absence of
flankingrudders,unobstructedwaterinflowtothenozzlescanbeachieved(hencehigher
efficiency),whichisveryimportantparticularlyforhighlyloadedpropellers(duetolimited
propellerdiameter,whichisaresultofdraughtlimitation).
Application of the latest technological achievements that increase efficiency, safety,
cleanliness and comfort (for instance: clean engines, the advising tempomaat, RIS
equipment,resilientlymountedsuperstructureetc.).Nevertheless,thesebenefitsarenota
result of the proposed pushboat concept, but rather of a modern era. Namely, almost all
Danubepushboatswerebuilt30orsoyearsagoandthereforewereequippedaccordingto
thestandardsbelongingtotheprevioustechnologicalgeneration,soanewlybuiltpushboat
ofanydesignorconceptwillbeadvantageouscomparedtotheold(conventional)ones.

8.3. Conversionandretrofittingmeasuresthatcanleadtogreenernavigation
Firstofall,gradualphasingoutofoldervesselsshouldbeconsidered.Anoldfornewpolicywas
appliedontheRhine,sosimilarmeasureswithexperiencegainedsofaronthepatternRiver
RhineshouldbeconsideredtobeemployedontheDanubetoo.
The list of conversion and retrofitting measures with the aim to modernise existing vessels is
endless. Only some of them those that reduce fuel consumption are mentioned below
(accordingtoZigic2006):

Replacementofold(usuallymediumspeed)withnew(usuallyhighspeed)enginesthis
needsanewtransmissiongeartoo!Inthefirstplacemaintenancecostsarereduced,but
fuelconsumptionandpollutantemissionsarereducedaswell.

Replacementofpropellers/nozzlesorwholeafterbody(whenpropulsorsaredamagedso
repair is not viable), or when engines are replaced. New stern+propellers+engines can
reduceconsumptionupto13%.

Lengtheningofahull(middlebody)orrebuildingofthecargoholdbyimplementingnew
technologieswiththeaimtoreduceweight(withemploymentofSPSforinstance).

92

Artifficial (and cheap) modiffication of pre

p
and/or aftbody off a pushing ship and pu
ushed
bargge to form a
a stumpen
nd connecttion (Figuree 8.7) may reduce
r
explo
oitation costs by
arou
und 5%. Stilll, this meassure is seldom applied. Accordingly, formatio
on of pushttrains
(stum
mpendconnection)wo
ouldalsobeccosteffectivve.

Figure8.7FFullscaletesstswithapo
olyurethanew
wedgetomatchstumptransom
ofabargge(Source:DST)
Notethaatotherkind
dsofmeasurresmightbeeundertaken
ntoo(forinstancethosewhichenh
hance
manoeuvvrabilityand
dsafety,enaablevessels tocomplyw
withnewrullesetc.).Nevvertheless,ssome
essential features of
o existing vessels often cannot be changed
d, nor theiir characterristics
noticeablyimproved,whicheverreasonabletechnicalm
measureswouldbeapplieed.

8.4.

Thecostofnewbuildingss

orbuildingttheselfprop
pelledvesselandpushbo
oatconceptsarearound56
Theexpeectedcostfo
millionand45millio
onEuros,resspectively.TThese,however,toagreeatextentdeependonch
hosen
equipmeent,shipyard
d,material(steel)cost, timeoforderetc.Therrefore,variationsoford
derof
magnitud
deofaround
d10to20%totheabovementioned
dmightbeexpected.Bythewayino
order
toreduceeproduction
ncostsinlan
ndvesselsno
owadaysareeusuallybuilltintwoorm
morecompaanies.
Typically thehullisb
builtinalow
wercostarea,suchasSeerbiaorChin
na,andthen
niscomplettedin
theNetherlandsorG
Germanywherecostsarehigher.
Retrofittiing and conversion costts are impossible to bee anticipated
d as they deepend on seeveral
factors.N
Notehoweverthatduetoa)inadeq
quatesafetyyandenvironmentalpolicy(onceveessels
are builtt and explo
oited), and b) general durability of river vessels and their equipm
ment,
shipowneersoftenincclinetovario
ousretrofitttingorconveersionpossib
bilitiesratheerthanscrap
pping
and building new vessels.
v
Conssequently, an
a oldforn
new policy/sscheme sho
ould probably be
ube.
initiatedontheDanu

93

9. CONCLUSIONS
ConcludingremarksweredrawnaftereachSection,sothereisnoneedtorepeatthemagain.
Moreover, all of Section 8, ending with the custom designs of two typical Danube vessels
selfpropelled and pushboat concepts, is a kind of conclusion, as most of the innovations and
benefitsmentionedinprevioussectionswereincorporatedinthenewdesigns.
It should be underlined, however, that contemporary (modern) shallow draught vessels,
particularly suited for the Danube waterway, are feasible and desirable. The only problem is
thatinherentlytheywillbelessefficientandlesscosteffective(ifwaterisdeepenough)than
the vessels with deeper draught (see Figure 2.1). Besides, IWT (river vessels) in general have
verystrongcompetitionfromothermodesrailwayandroadtransport,sounderthepresent
circumstancestheremaybealimit(concerninglowdraughtnavigation)underwhichIWTwill
notbecosteffectiveanymore,asothermodes(alreadymuchstrongerandbetterpositioned)
will prevail. On the other side, when there is not enough water (when LNRL) low draught
vesselswillhavealogisticaladvantagecomparedtodeeperdraughtpushboats,aswillbeable
tonavigatealltheyearround.
Consequently,underwhichconditionsIWTwillwork(i.e.whatwouldbeminimal/guaranteed
water depth along the river and throughout the season, cost of fuel, taxes, eventual state
subsidiesetc.)isapoliticalquestionwhichshouldalsobeinfluenced,amongstothers,bythe
technical and ecological requirements of IWT. Ships were navigating in the past, often
transporting a larger quantity of cargo than today (on the yearly basis) although navigational
conditionswereworse(withalotofshallowsandfreeflowingsectors,seeforinstanceFigure
9.1), but the business environment was different than it is today (with pipelines, railway and
roadinfrastructurepassingthroughtheDanubecorridor).

Figure9.1TowingwiththeassistanceofraillocomotivesinSipskikanal,Danubekm944+
2200m,rightbank(currentspeedupto18km/h),from1918tillthebeginningof1970
(whenDjerdapdamwasbuilt)(Source:www.tkinfo.net)

94

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www.zemships.eu/en/service/downloads/index.php

98

APPENDICES

99

APPENDIX1
TheOECDPublicationInlandWarerways&EnvironmentalProtection,whosesummaryfollows,is
regardedimportantasassessesthewaysinwhichtheEUWaterFrameworkDirectiveaffectsthe
planningenvironmentforinternationalwaterwaysandsetsanewagendaforimprovingtheecological
valueofwaterways.ThereportmakesrecommendationsongoodpracticeandidentifiestheDanube
riverbasinasthecriticalareaforimprovement.Thisiswheretheeffortsofinternationalgovernmental
organisationsandNGOscouldmostusefullybecombinedtodevelopabasinwideenvironmental
protectionandwaterwaydevelopmentstrategy.

100

101


102

103

APPENDIX2
Impactsofclimatechange
(fromPIANCReportonclimatechangeandnavigation)
The main goal of EnviCom Task Group 3 Climate Change and Navigation was to discuss the
climate change related issues for the navigation sector and how to deal with the above
mentioned problems and various project scenarios. Potential adaptation and mitigation
responseswerealsoidentified.
Climate change impacts inland navigation primarily through ice conditions, icing, extreme
hydrologicalconditions,rivermorphology,windconditionsetc.Linksbetweendriversofchange
andpotentialimpactsoninlandnavigationaredepictedinthefollowingfigure.

104


Potential impacts on navigation primarily in terms of water depth and velocity, resulting in
changesinsedimentationandpresenceandabsenceoficearelistedinthefollowingtable

105

Ifnavigationconditionsarealteredoveralongerperiodsoftime(lowwaterlevelsforinstance)
adaptationofthefleetandnewvesselsofdifferentdesignseemtobeinevitable.Thefollowing
table summarizes some possible responses which, however, require additional investments
and/orcausehigheroperationalcosts.

106

APPENDIX3
WaveWashProducedbyHighSpeedCraft[2ndCPBS,2010]
Fast vessels produce wave wash that is different than that of conventional ships and natural
waves,havinglongperiodsandsignificantenergy.Theamplitudeoftheleadingwaveproduced
byhighspeedcraftisnotsolarge(whencomparedtostormwaves,forinstance)butitdoes
have a relatively long wave period. When these waves reach (get into) shallow water their
height increases rapidly, often causing large and damaging surges on the beaches. They also
arrive unexpectedly, often after the high speed craft has passed away. Consequently, wash
restrictionswereimplementedonseveralsensitivehighspeedcraftroutes.Duringthelast20
yearsofevolution,washrestrictionswerefirstbasedonspeedlimits,thenwavewashheights,
and ultimately by the limitation of energy produced by wash at certain distance from the
vesselstrack.Accordingtothelatestfindingsbothwashheightandenergyareimportant;see
forinstanceCox(2000)andDoyleetal.(2001).
Concerning wash in the sheltered waters, it is only a vessels divergent waves which are
relevant. A visual indicator of wave wash size is usually its height only; however the wave
periodseemstobethecriticalfactorregardingdamage.
Deepwater
Asmentionedabove,wavewashrestrictionsarenowbasedontheenergyinthewavetrain.By
usingthisapproachthewaveheightandperiodaretakenintoconsideration.Forexample,the
StateofWashingtonrestrictwavewashenergy,E,tovaluesoflessthan2450J/matadistance
of300moffthevesselstrack,or2825J/matadistanceof200moffthevesselstrack.
Thedistancesfromthevesselareincludedintherequirementsbecausewaveheightdiminishes
as the lateral distance from the sailing line increase. The decay rate in farfield (distances
beyondtwowaterlinelengths)maybeobtainedfromtherelation1/x0.33,wherexisdistance
perpendicular to ship track. It should be noted, however, that the wave period is nearly
constantasdistancexchanges.
Thecalculationsofwavewakeenergyperlinearlengthofwavefrontisgivenbythefollowing
equation,inwhichtheperiod,T,isassociatedwiththemaximumwaveheight.
E=(g2H2T2)/16=1960H2T2J/m.
Shallowwater
The characterization of shallow water waves is more complicated because wave period also
varieswithdistancefromthesailingline.Longerandfasterwavestravelontheoutsideofwash

107

andhaveealargerKe
elvinangleth
hantheshorterandslowerwaves. Whenthew
wavesarein
nvery
shallow water
w
and the
t supercrittical region,, the first wave
w
in the group
g
is usu
ually the higghest.
Howeverr, as depth increases,
i
th
he second or
o third wavve typically becomes
b
thee highest. Figure
F
1
below depictswave
epatternsinshallowwatterinsubcrritical,criticaalandsupercriticalregio
on.

CombinedinfluenceoflengtthFroudenumberranddepthFroudenumberonwaveeheightisdepicteed(MichletSoftwaare,LeoLazauskkaswas

nddepthFrouden
numbers).Theimaagesinthecenter vertical
employedto calculatesurfacewavepatternsforrvariouslengthFrroudenumbersan
oraconstantlenggthFroudenumberFnL0.43(excep
ptthelastimage),whiledepthFrou
udenumberincreaasesfrom0.65to2.5.On
columnarefo
theotherhan
nd,theimagesintthecenterhorizon
ntalrowhaveaconstantdepthFrou
udenumber(Fnh=0
0.90),whilelength
hFroudenumberincrease
from0.26to 0.61.Thelastimaagedepictswavesforthesupercriticalspeed,i.e.FnL>0.7.Theprogress
>
sionfromthetoptobottomofthe vertical
figures illustrrates the wave paattern changes asssociated with tran
nsitioning from th
he subcritical regim
me to the supercrritical regime. Relative to
this,thehorizontalfigures,all evaluatedfortheesamedepthFroudenumber,dep
pictsomewhatdiffferentwavepatteernsandheightsw
withthe
differentlenggthFroudenumbe
ers.Themiddlefiggurehasthemaxim
mumwaveheightasFnh=0.9andFnLL0.4.

108

Theappropriatemeasureofwavewashinshallowwaterseemstobeboththewaveheightand
waveenergy,whichcanbeobtainedfromthewavewashtrace(forinstance,typicalRhinebarge
wash (subcritical speed) at 30 m off vessel track, having height 0.47 m and period 3 sec, hence
E=1030J/sat200misdepictedbelow).

Source:Lewthwaite2006

Asexpected,thelargestwavesoccuraroundFnh=1.Variationofwaveheightandenergywith
depthFroudenumberrecordedatxLareshownbelow.

Source:Doyle,2001

109

Mostoftheenergyiscontainedinasinglelongperiodwavewithsmalldecayenergydispersion
atadistance.Thedecayrateinshallowwaterissmallerthanindeepwaterandisafunctionof
h/L ratio. The decay ratio at critical speeds is different than that in supercritical region, as
shownbelow.Thisisacontributingfactortounexpectedlylargewavesinshallowwaterata
largerdistancefromavesselstrack.Ifratioh/L>0.5,thewavesaremoreorlessthesameasin
deepwater.

Source:Doyle,2001
LowWashHulls
Naval architects are nowadays trying to identify a low wave wash hull form characteristics.
Generally,foralowwasha)thespeedscorrespondingtoFnL=0.350.65shouldbeavoided,and
b) displacement should be as low as possible while length should be as large as possible.
According to Cox (2000) there is no sufficient evidence for claims that catamaran, multihull
vessel,oranyotherformissignificantlybetterthanmonohulls(providedcomparisonismade
betweencompetentdesigns).AccordingtoPIANC2003,highspeedcraftwavewashcannotbe
reducedjustbyoptimizingthehullformandvariousdesignratiossincewaveperiodgenerally
increaseswithspeedanddoesntdecayquickly,whichisimportantfornavigationparticularlyin
shallowwater.

110

APPENDIX4

PossibleShipPollutants
Prevention of pollution by inland vessels is generally regulated by various international and
nationalrules(seeUNECEResolutionNo.21,forinstance).OfparticularinterestareADNRules
(InternationalCarriageofDangerousGoodsbyInlandWaterways)whichrepresentasetofregulations
whichplayanimportantroleincontrollingwaterpollutionbyinlandnavigationvessels.

As a consequence of abovementioned inland navigation vessels have to be equipped with

appropriate technical means for collection, retention on board and transfer into reception
facilities (shore based and floating) of waste generated on board. Possible ship pollutants are
indicatedinthefollowingFigure.

Source:Highlights3/2003AnewsletterpublishedbySSPA,Sweden

111

APPENDIX5

ApplicationofSPStoDanubeBargeHullStructure
Sandwich Plate or Panel System (SPS) consists of two plates with welded perimeter bars and
withanelastomerinjectedbetweentoformasolidunit.In2006LRrevealedProvisionalRules
for the Application of Sandwich Panel Construction to Ship Structure. The Rules cover
construction procedures, scantling determination for primary supporting structures, framing
arrangementsandmethodsofscantlingdeterminationforsteelsandwichpanels.TheRulesare
in general applicable to monohull ships of normal forms, speed and proportions. As usually,
applicationofSPSinanyareathatisnotspecifiedintheRules,requiresspecialconsiderationby
LR.
The overall philosophy of the Rules is to ensure that designs utilising steel sandwich
construction are equivalent in strength and safety to conventional steel construction. The
thickness of the top and bottom plate and core of the SPS is determined on basis of the
scantlingsgivenfortheequivalentordinarysteelconstruction.TheassumedscantlingsofSPS
construction are checked for strength by formula given in the Rules. If the strength is not
satisfied, the chosen thickness has to be increased. The process is iterative. Welding is
conductedviatheperimeterbar,seeconnectiondetailsbelow.

ThepurposeoftheinvestigationwastovalidatewhetherapplicationofSPSconstructiontoa
Danubebargecanleadtosignificantweightreduction(40%orsoasreported,forinstance,by
Jastrzebski 1993). A typical general cargo Danube barge of 77x11x2.8 m is chosen for this
comparison. A conventional steel structure was evaluated according to LR Rules and
RegulationsfortheClassificationofInlandWaterwaysShips(forgeneralcargo,bulkcarrierand
containershiptype),whileProvisionalRuleswereusedforSPSstructures.

112


wasmadebetweenfollo
owingconceepts:
Weightccomparisonw
a) A
An existing, convention
nallybuilt (mixed fram
med) steel barge, builtt 30 years ago
acccordingtoYugoslavReegisterofShiippingRules,,
andcalcu
ulated(accordingtoLR)conventionaalsteelbarggewithtwottypesofstru
uctures
b) mixedframin
m
ngsystem
c) lo
ongitudinalfframingsysteem,
aswellassinnovative(calculatedaccordingto
otheProvisiionalRules)
d) SPSstructure
e.
udinal framiing system is the type of ship stru
ucture in wh
hich all seco
ondary structure
A longitu
stiffenerss are set up
u longitudinally, whilee in a transsversally fraaming system all secon
ndary
structureestiffenersaarepositionedtransverssally.Amixeedframingssystemdeno
otesheredo
ouble
bottomttobetransvversallyfram
med,whilethedoublessideanddecckarelongittudinallyframed.
Theexisttingbargeissbuiltwith mixedframingsystem, whichisno
owadaystypicallyapplieedfor
inlandbaargestructures.Consideeringtheloccalstrength requirements,sternand
dbowstructures
are assumed to be conventionaally built an
nd thereforee remain the same in all
a cases. Figgures
belowrepresentparttofthemidshipsectionofthebargesconsidereed.

Mixedframed
d
M
Longittudinallybuiiltbarge(casse:c)calculaated)
(ccases:a)exissting,andb))calculated)

113


SPSconstruction(cased)ccalculated)
WeigghtcomparissonforgeneralcargoDaanubebarge(77x11x2.8m)forallfo
ourconsidereed
casessisshownbe
elow.

STEEL
WEIGHTT

Comm
ment:

Complletesteelweighttisshownconsisstingofmiddleb
bodyof67man
ndbow&sterno
of10m.
TotallightweightofparticularJRBbarrgeis342t(steeelweight316taandequipment2
26t).
Weigh
htofbow&stern
nisassumedtobethesame(53
3t)inallcases.

114

Concludingremarks
Duetothevariousexploitationreasonsthehullstructurescantlingsofthecalculatedbargesare
oftenincreased,allowingthemtomeetstrengthrequirementsoveraprolongedperiod(more
than 50 years). Consequently, the existing barge is heavier by around 12.5% than an
equivalently framed calculated barge. If longitudinal framing would be used, this difference
would be 18%, although a conventional steel structure was assumed for both cases. The
innovativeSPSstructurewouldbelighterby22%,11%and5%respectively.Summarising,the
innovativeSPSbargecanbelighterbyonlyupto10%thanaconventional(calculated)barge.
Nevertheless, it seems that weight savings should first be examined within the conventional
steel construction approach, and afterwards the innovative approaches, like SPS, could be
examined.
Notethatcontainerandbulkcargobarges(thatwerealsoanalysed)areheavierbyaround10%
thanthegeneralcargobargesandthatasavingsduetoapplicationofSPSconstructionwould
besmalleraround2to5%only.

115

AP
PPENDIX6

StatisticcsonInlan
ndWaterw
wayTransp
portandDaanubeTransport

Withintotalttrafficenerggyconsumpttion
W
Road+Rail+IW
WT,IWTssh
hareisonly
ab
bout1.5% (Source:EEA
A)

Transportd
distanceperrmodewith
hfuel
consumptio
onof5lit/to
on(Source:BVB)

Externaalcostofgoods
transpo
ort(Source::BVB)

116

Energyconsumptionininland
navigation(Source:ECDGfor
energy&transport)

CONGESTIONIWThasnorestrictionsonfreightgrowth(allowableincreaseontheRhine
andDanubeare4and10times,respectively).Furthermore,itistheonlymodewhichcan
relievecongestedroadsandrailway.

RecentUSAstatistics(fromMaritimeTodayEnews,June17th2009)
AModalComparisonofFreightTransportationEffectsontheGeneralPublic
www.nationalwaterwaysfoundation.org

TheresearchteamfocusedonCarbonDioxide(CO2)emissions,whicharecurrentlythefocusofthe
publicpolicydebateonGreenHouseGasses.UsingEPAparameters,theteamcalculatedhowmuch
CO2isemittedpertonmileforeachmode.Emissionspertonmilearethoseemissionsexperiencedin
movingonetonofcargoonemile.TheteamdeterminedthattheemissionsofCO2pergallonoffuel
burnedareroughlythesameforeachmode,sothecomparisonfocusedonhowmuchcargogetsmoved
forthatgallonoffuel.Theydeterminedthatcomparedtoinlandbargetransportation,railtransport
generates39%moreCO2andtruckinggenerates371%moreCO2.

Truckscanonlyproduce155tonmilesofcargomovementpergallonoffuelandcandeliveronly13,964
tonmilesofcargomovementforeachtonofCO2produced.

Railroadsproduce413tonmilesofcargomovementpergallonoffuel,allowingthemto37,207.2tons
milesofcargomovementpertonofCO2produced.

Inlandtowboatsmovethemostcargopergallonoffuel576tonmilespergallonandthusproduce
theleastamountofCO2emissionspertonmile,deliveringsome51,891tonmilesofcargomovement
foreachtonofCO2emitted.

Toputthesenumbersinperspective,theresearchteamcalculatedthatifallthecargothatmovedby
bargein2005,theyearofthestudy,wereinsteadmovedbyrail,itwouldhaveresultedinanadditional
2.1milliontonsofCO2intheatmosphere.Ifthatsamecargohadmovedbytruck,itwouldhave
generatedanadditional14.2milliontons.

Regardingthesamesubject,seealsoCrist(2009)paperonGreenhouseGasEmissions(OECDpubl.).

117

Marketshare
M
edevelopme
entof
caargotranspo
ortontheDaanube
(SSource:MierrkaDonauhaafen)

TOTALFREIGHTRANSSPORTONTTHEDANUBEE2007
Inmillliontons/ye
ear

Source::DanubeNaavigationinA
Austria,AnnualReport2
2008,viadon
nau

118

Danubefleet(2003)Source:ProspectsoftheDevelopment,viadonau
Shiptype
Number
Capacity
Averageage
(1000t)
(years)
Motorcargovessel
Drycargobarges
Tankers
Tankbarges
Pushboats
TOTAL

104(6206)
1796(2522)
8(1390)
192(147)
283(675)
2631(10940)

160(6158)
2842(3348)
10(1771)
258(215)

3256(11492)

29(50)
24(29)
29(36)
41(34)
24(49)
26(44)

Comment: In the parentheses given are data for the Rhine vessels. Only vessels that are
appropriate for the international trade are contained. Only vessels larger than 1000 t are
containedfortheDanubestatistics.Pushboatswithengineslargerthan750kWarecontained
fortheDanubestatistics.

EstimatedfleetdemandfortheDanubein2015(numberofvessels)
Source:ProspectsoftheDevelopment,viadonau
Shiptype
Year2003
Totaldemand
AdditionalDemand
Motorcargovessel
Drycargobarges
Tankers
Tankbarges
Pushboats
TOTAL

104
1796
8
192
283
2631

293428
7691117
3855
112162
169246
13812008

189324
0
3047
0
0
219371

Comment: For details see the source document. Total demand and additional demand are given
fromto as the number depends on actions undertaken for improving the navigation. Additional
demandisconstructionofnewvesselsduetofleetmodernization.

119

APPENDIX7

RecentIMOActivities
It should be mentioned that IMOs Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC) is,
amongst others, developing measures to enhance energy efficiency in international shipping
andtherebyreducegreenhousegasemissions.Thesearetechnicalandoperationalmeasures
aswellaspossiblemarketbasedinstruments.Consequently,thefollowingwasintroduced:
EnergyEfficiencyDesignIndex(EEDI)fornewships,onthebasisofexperiencegainedthrough
its trial application over the past six months. The EEDI is meant to stimulate innovation and
technical development of all the elements influencing the energy efficiency of a ship, thus
makingitpossibletodesignandbuildintrinsicallyenergyefficientshipsofthefuture.
Energy Efficiency Operational Index (EEOI), which enables operators to measure the fuel
efficiencyofanexistingshipand,therefore,togagetheeffectivenessofanymeasuresadopted
toreduceenergyconsumption.TheEEOIhasbeenappliedbyMemberStatesandtheshipping
industry,onatrialbasisandsince2005,tohundredsofshipsinoperation;itprovidesafigure,
expressed in grams of CO2 per tonne mile, for the efficiency of a specific ship, enabling
comparisonofitsenergyorfuelefficiencytosimilarships.
ShipEnergyManagementPlan(SEMP)incorporatesguidanceonbestpractices,whichinclude
improvedvoyageplanning,speedandpoweroptimization,optimizedshiphandling,improved
fleetmanagementandcargohandling,aswellasenergymanagementforindividualships.
The above mentioned is a successor instrument to the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations
FrameworkConventiononClimateChange(UNFCCC)andconcernsseagoingships,butsooner
orlatersimilarmeasureswillhavetobeappliedtoinlandshipstoo.Inthecontextofthisstudy,
EEDI,EEOIandSEMParerelatedtosubjectspresentedinSection7.
MEPC is currently developing a Convention on ship recycling regulations for international
shippingandforrecyclingactivities.Thenewconvention(expectedtoenterintoforcein2013)
willprovideregulationsforthedesign,construction,operationandpreparationofshipssoasto
facilitate safe and environmentally sound recycling, without compromising the safety and
operational efficiency of ships; the operation of ship recycling facilities in a safe and
environmentally sound manner; and the establishment of an appropriate enforcement
mechanism for ship recycling, incorporating certification and reporting requirements.
Consequently,everynewshipwillhavetoenterservicewithacertifiedInventoryofHazardous
Materials(IHM)andtheshipyardwillberesponsibleforpreparingit.

120

121