Polytetrafluoroethylene

Names
IUPAC name
poly(1,1,2,2-tetrafluoroethylene)[1]
Other names
Syncolon, Fluon, Poly(tetrafluoroethene),
Poly(difluoromethylene), Poly(tetrafluoroethylene)
Identifiers
9002-84-0
CAS Number
Abbreviations
PTFE
ChEBI
CHEBI:53251
ECHA InfoCard
100.120.367
KEGG
D08974 =
Properties
(C2F4)n
Chemical formula
Density
2200 kg/m3
600 K
Melting point
327 C
Thermal conductivity
0.25 W/(mK)
Hazards

NFPA 704

Except where otherwise noted, data are given for

materials in their standard state (at 25 C [77 F],
100 kPa).

TERMINOLOGIES EXPLAINED
A CAS Registry Number, also referred to as CASRN or CAS Number, is a unique numerical
identifier assigned by Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) to every chemical substance described in the
open scientific literature (currently including those described from at least 1957 through the present),

including organic and inorganic compounds, minerals, isotopes, alloys and nonstructurable materials
(UVCBs, of unknown, variable composition, or biological origin).
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substances and 66 million protein and DNA sequences, plus additional information about each
substance. The Registry is updated with an approximate 15,000 additional new substances daily.
Chemical Entities of Biological Interest, also known as ChEBI,[1][2] is a database and ontology of
molecular entities focused on 'small' chemical compounds, that is part of the Open Biomedical
Ontologies effort. The term "molecular entity" refers to any "constitutionally or isotopically distinct
atom, molecule, ion, ion pair, radical, radical ion, complex, conformer, etc., identifiable as a separately
distinguishable entity".[3] The molecular entities in question are either products of nature or synthetic
products which have potential bioactivity. Molecules directly encoded by the genome, such as nucleic
acids, proteins and peptides derived from proteins by proteolytic cleavage, are not as a rule included in
ChEBI.
ChEBI uses nomenclature, symbolism and terminology endorsed by the International Union of Pure
and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) and Nomenclature Committee of the International Union of
Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (NC-IUBMB).
The European Chemicals Agency (ECHA; /k/ EK-)[citation needed] is an agency of the European
Union which manages the technical, scientific and administrative aspects of the implementation of the
European Union regulation called Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals
(REACH). ECHA is the driving force among regulatory authorities in implementing the EU's
chemicals legislation. ECHA helps companies to comply with the legislation, advances the safe use of
chemicals, provides information on chemicals and addresses chemicals of concern. It is located in
Helsinki, Finland.
The Agency, headed by Executive Director Geert Dancet, started working on 1 June 2007.
KEGG (Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes) is a collection of databases dealing with
genomes, biological pathways, diseases, drugs, and chemical substances. KEGG is utilized for
bioinformatics research and education, including data analysis in genomics, metagenomics,
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research in drug development.
"NFPA 704: Standard System for the Identification of the Hazards of Materials for Emergency
Response" is a standard maintained by the U.S.-based National Fire Protection Association. First
"tentatively adopted as a guide" in 1960,[1] and revised several times since then, it defines the colloquial
"fire diamond" used by emergency personnel to quickly and easily identify the risks posed by
hazardous materials. This helps determine what, if any, special equipment should be used, procedures
followed, or precautions taken during the initial stages of an emergency response.

Codes

The four divisions are typically color-coded with red indicating flammability, blue indicating level of
health hazard, yellow for chemical reactivity, and white containing codes for special hazards. Each of
health, flammability and reactivity is rated on a scale from 0 (no hazard) to 4 (severe risk). The latest
version of NFPA 704 sections 5, 6, 7 and 8 for the specifications of each classification are listed below.
The numeric values in the first column are designated in the standard by "Degree of Hazard" using
Arabic numerals (0,1, 2, 3, 4), not to be confused with other classification systems, such as that in the
NFPA 30 Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, where flammable and combustible liquid
categories are designated by "Class", using Roman numerals (I, II, III)[2]
Flammability (red)
Materials that will not burn under typical fire conditions (e.g. Carbon tetrachloride), including
0 intrinsically noncombustible materials such as concrete, stone and sand (Materials that will not burn
in air when exposed to a temperature of 820 C (1,500 F) for a period of 5 minutes)
Materials that require considerable preheating, under all ambient temperature conditions, before
1 ignition and combustion can occur (e.g. mineral oil). Includes some finely divided suspended solids
that do not require heating before ignition can occur. Flash point at or above 93.3 C (200 F).
Must be moderately heated or exposed to relatively high ambient temperature before ignition can
2 occur (e.g. diesel fuel) and multiple finely divided suspended solids that do not require heating
before ignition can occur. Flash point between 37.8 and 93.3 C (100 and 200 F).
Liquids and solids (including finely divided suspended solids) that can be ignited under almost all
ambient temperature conditions (e.g. gasoline, acetone). Liquids having a flash point below 22.8 C
3
(73 F) and having a boiling point at or above 37.8 C (100 F) or having a flash point between 22.8
and 37.8 C (73 and 100 F).
Will rapidly or completely vaporize at normal atmospheric pressure and temperature, or is readily
4 dispersed in air and will burn readily (e.g. acetylene, propane, liquid hydrogen). Includes pyrophoric
substances. Flash point below room temperature at 22.8 C (73 F).
Health (blue)
Poses no health hazard, no precautions necessary and would offer no hazard beyond that of ordinary
0
combustible materials (e.g. wood, paper)
1 Exposure would cause irritation with only minor residual injury (e.g. acetone, sodium bromate)
Intense or continued but not chronic exposure could cause temporary incapacitation or possible
2
residual injury (e.g. diethyl ether, ammonium phosphate)
Short exposure could cause serious, temporary or moderate residual injury (e.g. liquid hydrogen,
3
carbon monoxide)
Very short exposure could cause death or major residual injury (e.g. hydrogen cyanide, phosgene,
4
methyl isocyanate, hydrofluoric acid)
Instability/reactivity (yellow)
0 Normally stable, even under fire exposure conditions, and is not reactive with water (e.g. helium, N2)
1 Normally stable, but can become unstable at elevated temperatures and pressures (e.g. propene)
Undergoes violent chemical change at elevated temperatures and pressures, reacts violently with
2
water, or may form explosive mixtures with water (e.g. white phosphorus, potassium, sodium)
Capable of detonation or explosive decomposition but requires a strong initiating source, must be
3 heated under confinement before initiation, reacts explosively with water, or will detonate if severely
shocked (e.g. ammonium nitrate, chlorine trifluoride)
Readily capable of detonation or explosive decomposition at normal temperatures and pressures (e.g.
4
nitroglycerin, chlorine azide, chlorine dioxide)
Special notice (white)
The white "special notice" area can contain several symbols. The following symbols are defined by the
NFPA 704 standard.
Oxidizer, allows chemicals to burn without an air supply (e.g. potassium perchlorate, ammonium
OX
nitrate, hydrogen peroxide).
Reacts with water in an unusual or dangerous manner (e.g. caesium, sodium, sulfuric acid).
SA Simple asphyxiant gas. Specifically limited to the following gases: nitrogen, helium, neon,

argon, krypton and xenon.[2]

Non-standard symbols (white)
These hazard codes are not part of the NFPA 704 standard, but are occasionally used in an unofficial
manner. The use of non-standard codes may be permitted, required or disallowed by the authority
having jurisdiction (e.g. fire department).
COR
Corrosive; strong acid or base (e.g. sulfuric acid, potassium hydroxide)
ACID, ALK
Acid or alkaline, to be more specific
Biological hazard (e.g. flu virus, rabies virus)
BIO or
POI
Poisonous (e.g. strychnine, alpha-Amanitin)
Radioactive (e.g. plutonium, cobalt-60)
RA, RAD or
CRY or CRYO
Cryogenic (e.g. liquid nitrogen)

Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) is a synthetic fluoropolymer of tetrafluoroethylene that has

numerous applications. The best known brand name of PTFE-based formulas is Teflon by Chemours.[2]
Chemours is a spin-off of DuPont Co.,[3] which discovered the compound in 1938.[2]
PTFE is a fluorocarbon solid, as it is a high-molecular-weight compound consisting wholly of carbon
and fluorine. PTFE is hydrophobic: neither water nor water-containing substances wet PTFE, as
fluorocarbons demonstrate mitigated London dispersion forces due to the high electronegativity of
fluorine. PTFE has one of the lowest coefficients of friction of any solid.
PTFE is used as a non-stick coating for pans and other cookware. It is very non-reactive, partly because
of the strength of carbonfluorine bonds, and so it is often used in containers and pipework for reactive
and corrosive chemicals. Where used as a lubricant, PTFE reduces friction, wear and energy
consumption of machinery. It is commonly used as a graft material in surgical interventions. Also, it is
frequently employed as coating on catheters; this interferes with the ability of bacteria and other
infectious agents to adhere to catheters and cause hospital-acquired infections.
HISTORY
PTFE was accidentally discovered in 1938 by Roy Plunkett while he was working in New Jersey for
DuPont. As Plunkett attempted to make a new chlorofluorocarbon refrigerant, the tetrafluoroethylene
gas in its pressure bottle stopped flowing before the bottle's weight had dropped to the point signaling
"empty." Since Plunkett was measuring the amount of gas used by weighing the bottle, he became
curious as to the source of the weight, and finally resorted to sawing the bottle apart. He found the
bottle's interior coated with a waxy white material that was oddly slippery. Analysis showed that it was
polymerized perfluoroethylene, with the iron from the inside of the container having acted as a catalyst
at high pressure. Kinetic Chemicals patented the new fluorinated plastic (analogous to the already
known polyethylene) in 1941,[4] and registered the Teflon trademark in 1945.[5][6]
By 1948, DuPont, which founded Kinetic Chemicals in partnership with General Motors, was
producing over two million pounds (900 tons) of Teflon brand PTFE per year in Parkersburg, West
Virginia.[7] An early use was in the Manhattan Project as a material to coat valves and seals in the pipes
holding highly reactive uranium hexafluoride at the vast K-25 uranium enrichment plant in Oak Ridge,
Tennessee.[8]
In 1954, the wife of French engineer Marc Grgoire urged him to try the material he had been using on
fishing tackle on her cooking pans. He subsequently created the first Teflon-coated, non-stick pans
under the brandname Tefal (combining "Tef" from "Teflon" and "al" from aluminum).[9] In the United

States, Marion A. Trozzolo, who had been using the substance on scientific utensils, marketed the first
US-made Teflon-coated pan, "The Happy Pan", in 1961.[10]
However, Tefal was not the only company to utilize PTFE in nonstick cookware coatings. In
subsequent years, many cookware manufacturers developed proprietary PTFE-based formulas,
including Swiss Diamond International, which uses a diamond-reinforced PTFE formula;[11] Scanpan,
which uses a titanium-reinforced PTFE formula;[12] and both All-Clad[13] and Newell Rubbermaid's
Calphalon, which use a non-reinforced PTFE-based nonstick.[14] Other cookware companies, such as
Meyer Corporation's Anolon, use Teflon[15] nonstick coatings purchased from DuPont.
In the 1990s, it was found that PTFE could be radiation cross-linked above its melting point in an
oxygen-free environment.[16] Electron beam processing is one example of radiation processing. Crosslinked PTFE has improved high-temperature mechanical properties and radiation stability. This was
significant because, for many years, irradiation at ambient conditions had been used to break down
PTFE for recycling.[17] The radiation-induced chain scission allows it to be more easily reground and
reused.
PRODUCTION
PTFE is produced by free-radical polymerization of tetrafluoroethylene. The net equation is
n F2C=CF2 (F2CCF2)n
Because tetrafluoroethylene can explosively decompose to tetrafluoromethane and carbon, special
apparatus is required for the polymerization to prevent hot spots that might initiate this dangerous side
reaction. The process is typically initiated with persulfate, which homolyzes to generate sulfate
radicals:
[O3SOOSO3]2 2 SO4
The resulting polymer is terminated with sulfate ester groups, which can be hydrolyzed to give OH
end-groups.[18]
Because PTFE is poorly soluble in almost all solvents, the polymerization is conducted as an emulsion
in water. This process gives a suspension of polymer particles. Alternatively, the polymerization is
conducted using a surfactant such as PFOS.
PROPERTIES
PTFE is a thermoplastic polymer, which is a white solid at room temperature, with a density of about
2200 kg/m3. According to DuPont, its melting point is 600 K (327 C; 620 F).[19] It maintains high
strength, toughness and self-lubrication at low temperatures down to 5 K (268.15 C; 450.67 F),
and good flexibility at temperatures above 194 K (79 C; 110 F).[20] PTFE gains its properties from
the aggregate effect of carbon-fluorine bonds, as do all fluorocarbons. The only chemicals known to
affect these carbon-fluorine bonds are highly reactive metals like the alkali metals, and at higher
temperatures also such metals as aluminium and magnesium, and fluorinating agents such as xenon
difluoride and cobalt(III) fluoride.[21]
Property
Density
Glass temperature
Melting point
Thermal expansion

Value
2200 kg/m3
388 K [22]
600 K
112125 106 K1 [23]

Thermal diffusivity
Young's modulus
Yield strength
Bulk resistivity
Coefficient of friction
Dielectric constant
Dielectric constant (60 Hz)
Dielectric strength (1 MHz)

0.124 mm2/s [24]

0.5 GPa
23 MPa
1016 m [25]
0.050.10
= 2.1, tan() < 5(-4)
= 2.1, tan() < 2(-4)
60 MV/m

The coefficient of friction of plastics is usually measured against polished steel.[26] PTFE's coefficient
of friction is 0.05 to 0.10,[19] which is the third-lowest of any known solid material (BAM being the
first, with a coefficient of friction of 0.02; diamond-like carbon being second-lowest at 0.05). PTFE's
resistance to van der Waals forces means that it is the only known surface to which a gecko cannot
stick.[27] In fact, PTFE can be used to prevent insects climbing up surfaces painted with the material.
PTFE is so slippery that insects cannot get a grip and tend to fall off. For example, PTFE is used to
prevent ants climbing out of formicaria.
Because of its chemical inertness, PTFE cannot be cross-linked like an elastomer. Therefore, it has no
"memory" and is subject to creep. Because of its superior chemical and thermal properties, PTFE is
often used as a gasket material. However, because of the propensity to creep, the long-term
performance of such seals is worse than for elastomers which exhibit zero, or near-zero, levels of creep.
In critical applications, Belleville washers are often used to apply continuous force to PTFE gaskets,
ensuring a minimal loss of performance over the lifetime of the gasket.[28]

Applications and uses

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The major application of PTFE, consuming about 50% of production, is for wiring in aerospace and
computer applications (e.g. hookup wire, coaxial cables). This application exploits the fact that PTFE
has excellent dielectric properties. This is especially true at high radio frequencies, making it suitable
for use as an insulator in cables and connector assemblies and as a material for printed circuit boards
used at microwave frequencies. Combined with its high melting temperature, this makes it the material
of choice as a high-performance substitute for the weaker and lower-melting-point polyethylene
commonly used in low-cost applications.
In industrial applications, owing to its low friction, PTFE is used for applications where sliding action
of parts is needed: plain bearings, gears, slide plates, etc. In these applications, it performs significantly
better than nylon and acetal; it is comparable to ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene
(UHMWPE). Although UHMWPE is more resistant to wear than PTFE, for these applications, versions
of PTFE with mineral oil or molybdenum disulfide embedded as additional lubricants in its matrix are
being manufactured. Its extremely high bulk resistivity makes it an ideal material for fabricating longlife electrets, useful devices that are the electrostatic analogues of magnets.
PTFE film is also widely used in the production of carbon fiber composites as well as fiberglass
composites, notably in the aerospace industry. PTFE film is used as a barrier between the carbon or
fiberglass part being built, and breather and bagging materials used to incapsulate the bondment when
debulking (vacuum removal of air from between layers of laid-up plies of material) and when curing
the composite, usually in an autoclave. The PTFE, used here as a film, prevents the non-production
materials from sticking to the part being built, which is sticky due to the carbon-graphite or fiberglass
plies being pre-pregnated with bismaleimide resin. Non-production materials such as Teflon, Airweave
Breather and the bag itself would be considered F.O.D. (foreign object debris/damage) if left in layup.

Because of its extreme non-reactivity and high temperature rating, PTFE is often used as the liner in
hose assemblies, expansion joints, and in industrial pipe lines, particularly in applications using acids,
alkalis, or other chemicals. Its frictionless qualities allow improved flow of highly viscous liquids, and
for uses in applications such as brake hoses.
Gore-Tex is a material incorporating a fluoropolymer membrane with micropores. The roof of the
Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome in Minneapolis, US, was one of the largest applications of PTFE
coatings. 20 acres (81,000 m2) of the material was used in the creation of the white double-layered
PTFE-coated fiberglass dome.

Other
PTFE (Teflon) is best known for its use in coating non-stick frying pans and other cookware, as it is
hydrophobic and possesses fairly high heat resistance.
PTFE tapes with pressure-sensitive adhesive backing
Some iron sole plate (of clothes iron) are in PTFE (Teflon).[29]

Niche
PTFE is a versatile material that is found in many niche applications:

It can be stretched to contain small pores of varying sizes and is then placed between fabric
layers to make a waterproof, breathable fabric in outdoor apparel.[30]

It is used widely as a fabric protector to repel stains on formal school-wear, like uniform
blazers.[31]

It is used as a film interface patch for sports and medical applications, featuring a pressuresensitive adhesive backing, which is installed in strategic high friction areas of footwear,
insoles, ankle-foot orthosis, and other medical devices to prevent and relieve friction-induced
blisters, calluses and foot ulceration.[32]

Expanded PTFE membranes have been used in trials to assist trabeculectomy surgery to treat
glaucoma.[33]

Powdered PTFE is used in pyrotechnic compositions as an oxidizer with powdered metals such
as aluminium and magnesium. Upon ignition, these mixtures form carbonaceous soot and the
corresponding metal fluoride, and release large amounts of heat. They are used in infrared
decoy flares and as igniters for solid-fuel rocket propellants.[34] Aluminium and PTFE is also
used in some thermobaric fuel compositions.

In optical radiometry, sheets of PTFE are used as measuring heads in spectroradiometers and
broadband radiometers (e.g., illuminance meters and UV radiometers) due to PTFE's capability
to diffuse a transmitting light nearly perfectly. Moreover, optical properties of PTFE stay
constant over a wide range of wavelengths, from UV down to near infrared. In this region, the
relation of its regular transmittance to diffuse transmittance is negligibly small, so light
transmitted through a diffuser (PTFE sheet) radiates like Lambert's cosine law. Thus PTFE
enables cosinusoidal angular response for a detector measuring the power of optical radiation at
a surface, e.g. in solar irradiance measurements.

Certain types of bullets are coated with PTFE to reduce wear on firearms's rifling that harder
projectiles would cause. PTFE itself does not give a projectile an armor-piercing property.[35]

Its high corrosion resistance makes PTFE useful in laboratory environments, where it is used
for lining containers, as a coating for magnetic stirrers, and as tubing for highly corrosive
chemicals such as hydrofluoric acid, which will dissolve glass containers. It is used in
containers for storing fluoroantimonic acid, a superacid.[36]

PTFE tubes are used in gas-gas heat exchangers in gas cleaning of waste incinerators. Unit
power capacity is typically several megawatts.

PTFE is widely used as a thread seal tape in plumbing applications, largely replacing paste
thread dope.

PTFE membrane filters are among the most efficient industrial air filters. PTFE-coated filters
are often used in dust collection systems to collect particulate matter from air streams in
applications involving high temperatures and high particulate loads such as coal-fired power
plants, cement production and steel foundries.[37]

PTFE grafts can be used to bypass stenotic arteries in peripheral vascular disease if a suitable
autologous vein graft is not available.

Many bicycle lubricants contain PTFE and are used on chains and other moving parts.

PTFE can also be used for dental fillings, to isolate the contacts of the anterior tooth so the
filling materials will not stick to the adjacent tooth.[38][39]

PTFE sheets are used in the production of butane hash oil due to its non-stick properties and
resistance to non-polar solvents.[40]

Safety
Pyrolysis of PTFE is detectable at 200 C (392 F), and it evolves several fluorocarbon gases and a
sublimate. An animal study conducted in 1955 concluded that it is unlikely that these products would
be generated in amounts significant to health at temperatures below 250 C (482 F).[41]
While PTFE is stable and nontoxic at lower temperatures, it begins to deteriorate after the temperature
of cookware reaches about 260 C (500 F), and decomposes above 350 C (662 F).[42] The
degradation by-products can be lethal to birds,[43] and can cause flu-like symptoms[44] in humanssee
polymer fume fever.
Meat is usually fried between 204 and 232 C (399 and 450 F), and most oils start to smoke before a
temperature of 260 C (500 F) is reached, but there are at least two cooking oils (refined safflower oil
at 265 C (510 F) and avocado oil at 271 C (520 F)) that have a higher smoke point.
The Environmental Working Group recommends against using dental floss made with PTFE. [45] They
state that "Exposure to PFCs has been associated with kidney and testicular cancer, high cholesterol,
abnormal thyroid hormone levels, pregnancy-induced hypertension and preeclampsia, obesity and low
birth weight . . . . PFCs pollute water, are persistent in the environment and remain in the body for
years. Leading manufacturers of PFCs have agreed to phase out some of these chemicals by the end of
2015, including PFOA, the most notorious, which used to be a key ingredient in making Teflon.
Unfortunately, theres no evidence that the chemicals that have replaced PFOA are much safer."

PFOA
Main article: Perfluorooctanoic acid

Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA, or C8) has been used as a surfactant in the emulsion polymerization of
PTFE, although several manufacturers have entirely discontinued its use. PFOA persists indefinitely in
the environment. It is a toxicant and carcinogen in animals. PFOA has been detected in the blood of
more than 98% of the general US population in the low and sub-parts per billion range, and levels are
higher in chemical plant employees and surrounding subpopulations. The general population has been
exposed to PFOA through massive dumping of C8 waste into the ocean and near the Ohio River Valley.
[46][47]
PFOA has been detected in industrial waste, stain resistant carpets, carpet cleaning liquids, house
dust, microwave popcorn bags, water, food and Teflon cookware.
As a result of a class-action lawsuit and community settlement with DuPont, three epidemiologists
conducted studies on the population surrounding a chemical plant that was exposed to PFOA at levels
greater than in the general population. The studies concluded that there was probably an association
between PFOA exposure and six health outcomes: kidney cancer, testicular cancer, ulcerative colitis,
thyroid disease, hypercholesterolemia (high cholesterol), and pregnancy-induced hypertension.[48]
Overall, PTFE cookware is considered an insignificant exposure pathway to PFOA.[49][50]
PICTORIAL EXAMPLES

Non-stick pans because it is hydrophobic and has high heat resistance

PTFE tapes with pressure-sensitive adhesive backing

POLY OLEFINS
A polyolefin is any of a class of polymers produced from a simple olefin (also called an
alkene with the general formula CnH2n) as a monomer. For example, polyethylene is the
polyolefin produced by polymerizing the olefin ethylene. Polypropylene is another
common polyolefin which is made from the olefin propylene.

Industrial polyolefins
Most polyolefin produced in the industrial scale are made via polymerization through the use of
catalysts. One example is the use of Ziegler-Natta catalyst for the polymerization of ethylene to
polyethylene.[1]

Thermoplastic polyolefins: polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polymethylpentene (PMP),

polybutene-1 (PB-1);

Polyolefin elastomers (POE): polyisobutylene (PIB), ethylene propylene rubber (EPR), ethylene
propylene diene monomer (M-class) rubber (EPDM rubber)

Properties
Polyolefin properties range from liquidlike to rigid solids, and are primarily determined by their
molecular weight and degree of crystallinity. Polyolefin degrees of crystallinity range from 0%
(liquidlike) to 60% or higher (rigid plastics). Crystallinity is primarily governed by the lengths of

polymer's crystallizable sequences established during polymerization.[2] Examples include adding a

small percentage of comonomer like 1-hexene or 1-octene during the polymerization of ethylene,[3] or
occasional irregular insertions ("stereo" or "regio" defects) during the polymerization of isotactic
propylene.[4] The polymer's ability to crystallize to high degrees decreases with increasing content of
defects.
Low degrees of crystallinity (0-20%) are associated with liquidlike-to-elastomeric properties.
Intermediate degrees of crystallinity (20-50%) are associated with ductile thermoplastics, and degrees
of crystallity over 50% are associated with rigid and sometimes brittle plastics.[5]
Polyolefin surfaces are not effectively joined together by solvent welding because they have excellent
chemical resistance and are unaffected by common solvents. They can be adhesively bonded after
surface treatment (they inherently have very low surface energies and don't wet-out well (the process of
being covered and filled with resin)), and by some superglues (cyanoacrylates) and reactive
(meth)acrylate glues.[6] They are extremely inert chemically but exhibit decreased strength at lower and
higher temperatures.[7] As a result of this, thermal welding is a common bonding technique.
Practically all polyolefins that are of any practical or commercial importance are poly-alpha-olefin (or
poly--olefin or polyalphaolefin, sometimes abbreviated as PAO), a polymer made by polymerizing an
alpha-olefin. An alpha-olefin (or -olefin) is an alkene where the carbon-carbon double bond starts at
the -carbon atom, i.e. the double bond is between the #1 and #2 carbons in the molecule. Alphaolefins such as 1-hexene may be used as co-monomers to give a alkyl branched polymer (see chemical
structure below), although 1-decene is most commonly used for lubricant base stocks.[8]

1-hexene, an example of an alpha-olefin

Many poly-alpha-olefins have flexible alkyl branching groups on every other carbon of their polymer
backbone chain. These alkyl groups, which can shape themselves in numerous conformations, make it
very difficult for the polymer molecules to align themselves up side-by-side in an orderly way. This
results in lower contact surface area between the molecules and decreases the intermolecular
interactions between molecules.[9] Therefore, many poly-alpha-olefins do not crystallize or solidify
easily and are able to remain oily, viscous liquids even at lower temperatures.[10] Low molecular weight
poly-alpha-olefins are useful as synthetic lubricants such as synthetic motor oils for vehicles and can
be used over a wide temperature range.[8][10]
Even polyethylenes copolymerized with a small amount of alpha-olefins (such as 1-hexene, 1-octene,
or longer) are more flexible than simple straight-chain high-density polyethylene, which has no
branching.[7] The methyl branch groups on a polypropylene polymer are not long enough to make
typical commercial polypropylene more flexible than polyethylene.

Uses
Polyolefins are used for blown film and heatshrink electrical insulation sleeves for crimped wire
terminals, as well as rash guards or under garments for wetsuits. Polyolefin elastomer POE is used as a
main ingredient in the molded flexible foam technology such as in the fabrication of self skinned
footwear (for example, Crocs shoes), seat cushions, arm rests, spa pillows, etc. Hydrogenated
polyalphaolefin (PAO) is used as a radar coolant. Head makes polyolefin tennis racket strings.
Polyolefin is also used in pharmaceutical and medical industry for HEPA filter certificationa PAO

aerosol is passed through the filters and the air that exits is measured with an aerosol detector.[11]
Elastolefin is a fiber used in fabrics.[12] Ikea's Better Shelter uses structural panels made out of
polyolefin foam, stating, "They are tough and durable.".[13] Piping systems for the conveyance of water,
chemicals or gases are commonly produced in Polypropylene, and to a much greater extent
Polyethylene. Piping systems in high-density Polyethylene (HDPE, PE100, PE80) are fast becoming
the most commonly used drinking water, waste water and natural gas distribution piping systems in the
world.

POLY VINYL CHLORIDE

Polyvinyl chloride

Names
IUPAC name
poly(1-chloroethene)[1]
Other names
Polychloroethylene
Identifiers
9002-86-2
CAS Number
Abbreviations
PVC
ChEBI
CHEBI:53243
ECHA InfoCard
100.120.191
KEGG
C19508
MeSH
Polyvinyl+Chloride
Properties
(C2H3Cl)n[2]
Chemical formula
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for

materials in their standard state (at 25 C [77 F],

100 kPa).
Infobox references
Mechanical properties
Elongation at break
Notch test
Glass Transition Temperature

2040%
25 kJ/m2
82 C[3]

Melting point

100260 C[3]

Effective heat of combustion

17.95 MJ/kg

Specific heat (c)

0.9 kJ/(kgK)

Water absorption (ASTM)

0.040.4

Dielectric Breakdown Voltage

40 MV/m

Polyvinyl chloride, more correctly but unusually poly(vinyl chloride), commonly abbreviated PVC, is
the world's third-most widely produced synthetic plastic polymer, after polyethylene and
polypropylene.[4]
PVC comes in two basic forms: rigid (sometimes abbreviated as RPVC) and flexible. The rigid form of
PVC is used in construction for pipe and in profile applications such as doors and windows. It is also
used for bottles, other non-food packaging, and cards (such as bank or membership cards). It can be
made softer and more flexible by the addition of plasticizers, the most widely used being phthalates. In
this form, it is also used in plumbing, electrical cable insulation, imitation leather, signage, inflatable
products, and many applications where it replaces rubber.[5]
Pure poly(vinyl chloride) is a white, brittle solid. It is insoluble in alcohol but slightly soluble in
tetrahydrofuran.

Discovery
PVC was accidentally synthesized in 1872 by German chemist Eugen Baumann.[6] The polymer
appeared as a white solid inside a flask of vinyl chloride that had been left exposed to sunlight. In the
early 20th century the Russian chemist Ivan Ostromislensky and Fritz Klatte of the German chemical
company Griesheim-Elektron both attempted to use PVC in commercial products, but difficulties in
processing the rigid, sometimes brittle polymer thwarted their efforts. Waldo Semon and the B.F.
Goodrich Company developed a method in 1926 to plasticize PVC by blending it with various
additives. The result was a more flexible and more easily processed material that soon achieved
widespread commercial use.

Production
Polyvinyl chloride is produced by polymerization of the vinyl chloride monomer (VCM), as shown.[7]

About 80% of production involves suspension polymerization. Emulsion polymerization accounts for
about 12% and bulk polymerization accounts for 8%. Suspension polymerizations affords particles
with average diameters of 100180 m, whereas emulsion polymerization gives much smaller particles
of average size around 0.2 m. VCM and water are introduced into the reactor and a polymerization
initiator, along with other additives. The reaction vessel is pressure tight to contain the VCM. The
contents of the reaction vessel are continually mixed to maintain the suspension and ensure a uniform
particle size of the PVC resin. The reaction is exothermic, and thus requires cooling. As the volume is
reduced during the reaction (PVC is denser than VCM), water is continually added to the mixture to
maintain the suspension.[4]
The polymerization of VCM is started by compounds called initiators that are mixed into the droplets.
These compounds break down to start the radical chain reaction. Typical initiators include dioctanoyl
peroxide and dicetyl peroxydicarbonate, both of which have fragile O-O bonds. Some initiators start
the reaction rapidly but decay quickly and other initiators have the opposite effect. A combination of
two different initiators is often used to give a uniform rate of polymerization. After the polymer has
grown by about 10x, the short polymer precipitates inside the droplet of VCM, and polymerization
continues with the precipitated, solvent-swollen particles. The weight average molecular weights of
commercial polymers range from 100,000 to 200,000 and the number average molecular weights range
from 45,000 to 64,000.
Once the reaction has run its course, the resulting PVC slurry is degassed and stripped to remove
excess VCM, which is recycled. The polymer is then passed through a centrifuge to remove water. The
slurry is further dried in a hot air bed, and the resulting powder sieved before storage or pelletization.
Normally, the resulting PVC has a VCM content of less than 1 part per million. Other production
processes, such as micro-suspension polymerization and emulsion polymerization, produce PVC with
smaller particle sizes (10 m vs. 120150 m for suspension PVC) with slightly different properties
and with somewhat different sets of applications.

Microstructure
The polymers are linear and are strong. The monomers are mainly arranged head-to-tail, meaning that
there are chlorides on alternating carbon centres. PVC has mainly an atactic stereochemistry, which
means that the relative stereochemistry of the chloride centres are random. Some degree of
syndiotacticity of the chain gives a few percent crystallinity that is influential on the properties of the
material. About 57% of the mass of PVC is chlorine. The presence of chloride groups gives the
polymer very different properties from the structurally related material polyethylene.[8]

Additives to finished polymer

The product of the polymerization process is unmodified PVC. Before PVC can be made into finished
products, it always requires conversion into a compound by the incorporation of additives (but not
necessarily all of the following) such as heat stabilizers, UV stabilizers, plasticizers, processing aids,
impact modifiers, thermal modifiers, fillers, flame retardants, biocides, blowing agents and smoke
suppressors, and, optionally, pigments.[9] The choice of additives used for the PVC finished product is
controlled by the cost performance requirements of the end use specification e.g. underground pipe,
window frames, intravenous tubing and flooring all have very different ingredients to suit their

performance requirements. Previously, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were added to certain PVC
products as flame retardants and stabilizers.[10]

Phthalate plasticizers
Most vinyl products contain plasticizers which dramatically improve their performance characteristic.
The most common plasticizers are derivatives of phthalic acid. The materials are selected on their
compatibility with the polymer, low volatility levels, and cost. These materials are usually oily
colourless substances that mix well with the PVC particles. About 90% of the plasticizer market,
estimated to be millions of tons per year worldwide, is dedicated to PVC.[9]

Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate was a common plasticizer for PVC but is being replaced by higher
molecular weight phthalates.
High and low molecular weight phthalates
Phthalates can be divided into three groups based on their molecular weight.
Low molecular weight phthalates have 6 or 7 carbon atoms in their alcohol chain. Medium molecular
weight phthalates have 8 or 9 carbons in their alcohol chain. High molecular weight phthalates have
from 10 to 13 carbons in their alcohol chain. Low molecular weight phthalates are no longer used in the
US because of high volatility at pvc processing temperatures. The most common medium molecular
weight phthalates are DOP (dioctyl phthalate, also known as DEHP, di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate) and
DINP (diisononyl phthalate). High molecular weight phthalates have a limit of 12 carbons (if linear) or
13 carbons (if branched) in the alcohol chain because phthalates with longer alcohol chains are
incompatible with pvc resin. The more common high molecular weight phthalates are DIDP, DPHP and
DTDP, all from branched alcohols. There are phthalates from linear alcohols from 8 to 12 carbons
which are used when the flexible pvc compound is to have superior low temperature flexibility and
improved weathering. Because of possible health effects, there are movements to replace some
phthalates such as DOP/DEHP with safer alternatives in Canada, the European Union, and the United
States. In Europe DEHP and DBP are undergoing the REACH Authorisation process Registration,
Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals with results expected in 2014. Since no
applications for BBP and DIBP were received by the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA), the use of
these substances will be phased out in the EU by 21 February 2015.
Mid-high molecular weight phthalates today represent over 85% of all the phthalates currently being
produced in Europe (2011). On 31 January 2014 the European Commission published its conclusions
regarding the re-evaluation of the restrictions on DINP and DIDP in toys and childcare articles which
can be placed in the mouth.The Commission confirmed the main conclusions presented in August last
year by the ECHA, which was asked in September 2009 to review any newly available scientific
information relative to these two high phthalates.
The European Commission concluded that "no unacceptable risk has been characterised for the uses of
DINP and DIDP in articles other than toys and childcare articles which can be placed in the mouth".
With regard to the latter, the existent restrictions are nevertheless maintained, based on the
precautionary principle. DINP and DIDP are therefore safe for use in all current consumer applications.

The European Chemicals Agency also concluded that no further risk management measures are needed
to reduce the exposure of adults and children to DINP and DIDP.

Heat stabilizers
One of the most crucial additives are heat stabilizers. These agents minimize loss of HCl, a degradation
process that starts above 70 C. Once dehydrochlorination starts, it is autocatalytic. Many diverse
agents have been used including, traditionally, derivatives of heavy metals (lead, cadmium).
Increasingly, metallic soaps (metal "salts" of fatty acids) are favored, species such as calcium stearate.[4]
Addition levels vary typically from 2% to 4%. The choice of the best heat stabilizer depends on its cost
effectiveness in the end use application, performance specification requirements, processing technology
and regulatory approvals.
Rigid PVC applications
Regular PVC (polyvinyl chloride) is a common, strong but lightweight plastic used in construction. It is
made softer and more flexible by the addition of plasticizers. If no plasticizers are added, it is known as
uPVC (unplasticized polyvinyl chloride), rigid PVC, or vinyl siding in the U.S. In Europe, particularly
Belgium, there has been a commitment to eliminate the use of cadmium (previously used as a part
component of heat stabilizers in window profiles) and phase out lead based heat stabilizers (as used in
pipe and profile areas) such as liquid autodiachromate and calcium polyhydrocummate by 2015.
According to the final report of Vinyl 2010[11] cadmium was eliminated across Europe by 2007. The
progressive substitution of lead-based stabilizers is also confirmed in the same document showing a
reduction of 75% since 2000 and ongoing. This is confirmed by the corresponding growth in calciumbased stabilizers, used as an alternative to lead-based stabilizers, more and more, also outside Europe.
Tin based stabilizers are mainly used in Europe for rigid, transparent applications due to the high
temperature processing conditions used. The situation in North America is different where tin systems
are used for almost all rigid PVC applications. Tin stabilizers can be divided into two main groups, the
first group containing those with tin-oxygen bonds and the second group with tin-sulphur bonds.
According to the European Stabiliser producers[12] most organotin stabilisers have already been
successfully REACH registered. More chemical and use information is also available on this site.
Flexible PVC applications
Flexible PVC coated wire and cable for electrical use has traditionally been stabilised with lead but
these are being replaced, as in the rigid area, with calcium based systems.
Liquid mixed metal stabilisers are used in several PVC flexible applications such as calendered films,
extruded profiles, injection moulded soles and footwear, extruded hoses and plastisols where PVC
paste is spread on to a backing (flooring, wall covering, artificial leather). Liquid mixed metal stabiliser
systems are primarily based on barium, zinc and calcium carboxylates. In general liquid mixed metals
like BaZn, CaZn require the addition of co-stabilisers, antioxidants and organo-phosphites to provide
optimum performance.
BaZn stabilisers have successfully replaced cadmium-based stabilisers in Europe in many PVC semirigid and flexible applications according to the European producers.[13]

Properties
PVC is a thermoplastic polymer. Its properties are usually categorized based on rigid and flexible
PVCs.

Property
3 [14]

Density [g/cm ]
Thermal conductivity [W/(mK)][15]
Yield strength [psi][14]
Young's modulus [psi]
Flexural strength (yield) [psi]
Compression strength [psi]
Coefficient of thermal expansion (linear) [mm/(mm C)]
Vicat B [C][15]
Resistivity [ m][17][18]
Surface resistivity [][17][18]

Rigid PVC
1.31.45
0.140.28
45008700
490,000[16]
10,500[16]
9500[16]
5105[16]
65100
1016
10131014

Flexible PVC
1.11.35
0.140.17
14503600

Not recommended
10121015
10111012

Mechanical properties
PVC has high hardness and mechanical properties. The mechanical properties enhance with the
molecular weight increasing but decrease with the temperature increasing. The mechanical properties
of rigid PVC (uPVC) are very good; the elastic modulus can reach 1500-3,000 MPa. The soft PVC
(flexible PVC) elastic is 1.515 MPa.

Thermal and fire properties

The heat stability of raw PVC is very poor, so the addition of a heat stabilizer during the process is
necessary in order to ensure the product's properties. PVC starts to decompose when the temperature
reaches 140 C, with melting temperature starting around 160 C. The linear expansion coefficient of
rigid PVC is small and has good flame retardancy, the Limiting oxygen index (LOI) being up to 45 or
more. The LOI is the minimum concentration of oxygen, expressed as a percentage, that will support
combustion of a polymer and noting that air has 20% content of oxygen.

Electrical properties
PVC is a polymer with good insulation properties, but because of its higher polar nature the electrical
insulating property is inferior to non polar polymers such as polyethylene and polypropylene.
Since the dielectric constant, dielectric loss tangent value, and volume resistivity are high, the corona
resistance is not very good, and it is generally suitable for medium or low voltage and low frequency
insulation materials.

Chemical properties
PVC is chemical resistant to acids, salts, bases, fats, and alcohols therefore it is used in sewerage
piping. It is also resistant to some solvents, mainly uPVC. Plasticized PVC is in some cases less
resistant to solvents. For example, PVC is resistant to fuel and some paint thinners. Some solvents may
only swell it or deform it but not dissolve it, but some of them, like tetrahydrofuran or acetone, may
damage it.

Applications
PVC's relatively low cost, biological and chemical resistance and workability have resulted in it being
used for a wide variety of applications. It is used for sewerage pipes and other pipe applications where
cost or vulnerability to corrosion limit the use of metal. With the addition of impact modifiers and
stabilizers, PVC scrap has become a popular material for window and door which is 50% less than the
cost of wooden window and door. By adding plasticizers, it can become flexible enough to be used in
cabling applications as a wire insulator. It has been used in many other applications. In 2013, about

39.3 million tonnes of PVC were consumed worldwide. PVC demand is forecast to increase at an
average annual rate of 3.2% until 2021.[19]

Pipes
Roughly half of the world's polyvinyl chloride resin manufactured annually is used for producing pipes
for municipal and industrial applications.[20] In the water distribution market it accounts for 66% of the
market in the US, and in sanitary sewer pipe applications, it accounts for 75%.[21] Its light weight, low
cost, and low maintenance make it attractive. However, it must be carefully installed and bedded to
ensure longitudinal cracking and overbelling does not occur. Additionally, PVC pipes can be fused
together using various solvent cements, or heat-fused (butt-fusion process, similar to joining HDPE
pipe), creating permanent joints that are virtually impervious to leakage.
In February 2007 the California Building Standards Code was updated to approve the use of
chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC) pipe for use in residential water supply piping systems. CPVC
has been a nationally accepted material in the US since 1982; California, however, has permitted only
limited use since 2001. The Department of Housing and Community Development prepared and
certified an environmental impact statement resulting in a recommendation that the Commission adopt
and approve the use of CPVC. The Commission's vote was unanimous and CPVC has been placed in
the 2007 California Plumbing Code.
In the United States and Canada, PVC pipes account for the largest majority of pipe materials used in
buried municipal applications for drinking water distribution and wastewater mains.[22] Buried PVC
pipes in both water and sanitary sewer applications that are 4 inches (100 mm) in diameter and larger
are typically joined by means of a gasket-sealed joint. The most common type of gasket utilized in
North America is a metal reinforced elastomer, commonly referred to as a Rieber sealing system.[23]

Electric cables
PVC is commonly used as the insulation on electrical cables; PVC used for this purpose needs to be
plasticized.
In a fire, PVC-coated wires can form hydrogen chloride fumes; the chlorine serves to scavenge free
radicals and is the source of the material's fire retardance. While HCl fumes can also pose a health
hazard in their own right, HCl dissolves in moisture and breaks down onto surfaces, particularly in
areas where the air is cool enough to breathe, and is not available for inhalation.[24] Frequently in
applications where smoke is a major hazard (notably in tunnels and communal areas) PVC-free cable
insulation is preferred, such as low smoke zero halogen (LSZH) insulation.

Unplasticized poly(vinyl chloride) (uPVC) for construction

uPVC, also known as rigid PVC, is extensively used in the building industry as a low-maintenance
material, particularly in Ireland, the United Kingdom, in the United States and Canada. In the USA and
Canada it is known as vinyl, or vinyl siding.[25] The material comes in a range of colors and finishes,
including a photo-effect wood finish, and is used as a substitute for painted wood, mostly for window
frames and sills when installing double glazing in new buildings, or to replace older single-glazed
windows. Other uses include fascia, and siding or weatherboarding. This material has almost entirely
replaced the use of cast iron for plumbing and drainage, being used for waste pipes, drainpipes, gutters
and downspouts. uPVC does not contain phthalates, since those are only added to flexible PVC, nor
does it contain BPA. uPVC is known as having strong resistance against chemicals, sunlight, and
oxidation from water.[26]

Signs

Poly(vinyl chloride) is formed in flat sheets in a variety of thicknesses and colors. As flat sheets, PVC
is often expanded to create voids in the interior of the material, providing additional thickness without
additional weight and minimal extra cost (see Closed-cell PVC foamboard). Sheets are cut using saw
and rotary cutting equipment. Plasticized PVC is also used to produce thin, colored, or clear, adhesivebacked films referred to simply as vinyl. These films are typically cut on a computer-controlled plotter
or printed in a wide-format printer. These sheets and films are used to produce a wide variety of
commercial signage products and markings on vehicles, e.g. car body stripes.

Clothing and furniture

Black PVC trousers
PVC has become widely used in clothing, to either create a leather-like material or at times simply for
the effect of PVC. PVC clothing is common in Goth, Punk, clothing fetish and alternative fashions.
PVC is less expensive than rubber, leather, and latex which it is therefore used to simulate.
PVC fabric is water-resistant so is used in coats, skiing equipment, shoes, jackets, aprons, and bags.

Healthcare
The two main application areas for single use medically approved PVC compounds are flexible
containers and tubing: containers used for blood and blood components, for urine collection or for
ostomy products and tubing used for blood taking and blood giving sets, catheters, heart-lung bypass
sets, hemodialysis sets etc. In Europe the consumption of PVC for medical devices is approximately
85.000 tons every year. Almost one third of plastic based medical devices are made from PVC.[27] The
reasons for using flexible PVC in these applications for over 50 years are numerous and based on cost
effectiveness linked to transparency, light weight, softness, tear strength, kink resistance, suitability for
sterilization and biocompatibility.
Plasticisers
DEHP (Di-2ethylhexylphthalate) has been medically approved for many years for use in such medical
devices; the PVC-DEHP combination proving to be very suitable for making blood bags because
DEHP stabilises red blood cells, minimising haemolysis (red blood cell rupture). However, DEHP is
coming under increasing pressure in Europe. The assessment of potential risks related to phthalates,
and in particular the use of DEHP in PVC medical devices, was subject to scientific and policy review
by the European Union authorities, and on 21 March 2010, a specific labelling requirement was
introduced across the EU for all devices containing phthalates that are classified as CMR (carcinogenic,
mutagenic or toxic to reproduction).[28] The label aims to enable healthcare professionals to use this
equipment safely, and, where needed, take appropriate precautionary measures for patients at risk of
over-exposure.
DEHP alternatives, which are gradually replacing it, are Adipates, Butyryltrihexylcitrate (BTHC),
Cyclohexane-1,2-dicarboxylic acid, diisononylester (DINCH), Di(2-ethylhexyl)terephthalate,
polymerics and trimellitic acid, 2-ethylhexylester (TOTM).

Flooring
Flexible PVC flooring is inexpensive and used in a variety of buildings covering the home, hospitals,
offices, schools, etc. Complex and 3D designs are possible due to the prints that can be created which
are then protected by a clear wear layer. A middle vinyl foam layer also gives a comfortable and safe
feel. The smooth, tough surface of the upper wear layer prevents the buildup of dirt, which prevents
microbes from breeding in areas that need to be kept sterile, such as hospitals and clinics.
See also: Vinyl composition tile

Other applications
PVC has been used for a host of consumer products of relatively smaller volume compared to the
industrial and commercial applications described above. Another of its earliest mass-market consumer
applications was to make vinyl records. More recent examples include wallcovering, greenhouses,
home playgrounds, foam and other toys, custom truck toppers (tarpaulins), ceiling tiles and other kinds
of interior cladding.
PVC piping is cheaper than metals used in musical instrument making; it is therefore a common
alternative when making instruments, often for leisure or for rarer instruments such as the contrabass
flute.[29]

Chlorinated PVC
PVC can be usefully modified by chlorination, which increases its chlorine content to 67%. The new
material has a higher heat resistance so is primarily used for hot water pipe and fittings, but it is more
expensive and it is found only in niche applications, such as certain water heaters and certain
specialized clothing. An extensive market for chlorinated PVC is in pipe for use in office building,
apartment and condominium fire protection. CPVC, as it is called, is produced by chlorination of
aqueous solution of suspension PVC particles followed by exposure to UV light which initiates the
free-radical chlorination.[4]

Health and safety

Degradation
Degradation during service life, or after careless disposal, is a chemical change that drastically reduces
the average molecular weight of the polyvinyl chloride polymer. Since the mechanical integrity of a
plastic depends on its high average molecular weight, wear and tear inevitably weakens the material.
Weathering degradation of plastics results in their surface embrittlement and microcracking, yielding
microparticles that continue on in the environment. Also known as microplastics, these particles act
like sponges and soak up Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) around them. Thus laden with high
levels of POPs, the microparticles are often ingested by organisms in the biosphere.
However, there is evidence that three of the polymers (HDPE, LDPE, and PP) consistently soaked up
POPs at concentrations an order of magnitude higher than did the remaining two (PVC and PET). After
12 months of exposure, for example, there was a 34-fold difference in average total POPs amassed on
LDPE compared to PET at one location. At another site, average total POPs adhered to HDPE was
nearly 30 times that of PVC. The researchers think that differences in the size and shape of the polymer
molecules can explain why some accumulate more pollutants than others.[30] The fungus Aspergillus
fumigatus effectively degrades plasticized PVC.[31] Phanerochaete chrysosporium was grown on PVC
in a mineral salt agar.[32] Phanerochaete chrysosporium, Lentinus tigrinus, Aspergillus niger, and
Aspergillus sydowii can effectively degrade PVC.[33]

Plasticizers
Phthalates, which are incorporated into plastics as plasticizers comprise 70% of the U.S. plasticizer
market; phthalates are by design not covalently bound to the polymer matrix, which makes them highly
susceptible to leaching. Phthalates are contained in plastics at high percentages. For example, they can
contribute up to 40% by weight to intravenous medical bags and up to 80% by weight in medical
tubing.[34] Vinyl products are pervasiveincluding toys,[35] car interiors, shower curtains, and flooring
and initially release chemical gases into the air. Some studies indicate that this outgassing of
additives may contribute to health complications, and have resulted in a call for banning the use of

DEHP on shower curtains, among other uses.[36] The Japanese car companies Toyota, Nissan, and
Honda have eliminated PVC in their car interiors starting in 2007.
In 2004 a joint Swedish-Danish research team found a statistical association between allergies in
children and indoor air levels of DEHP and BBzP (butyl benzyl phthalate), which is used in vinyl
flooring.[37] In December 2006, the European Chemicals Bureau of the European Commission released
a final draft risk assessment of BBzP which found "no concern" for consumer exposure including
exposure to children.[38]
EU decisions on phthalates
Risk assessments have led to the classification of low molecular weight and labeling as Category 1B
Reproductive agents. Three of these phthalates, DBP, BBP and DEHP were included on annex XIV of
the REACH regulation in February 2011 and will be phased out by the EU by February 2015 unless an
application for authorisation is made before July 2013 and an authorisation granted. DIBP is still on the
REACH Candidate List for Authorisation. Environmental Science & Technology, a peer reviewed
journal published by the American Chemical Society states DEHP poses a serious risk to human health.
[39]

In 2008 the European Union's Scientific Committee on Emerging and Newly Identified Health Risks
(SCENIHR) reviewed the safety of DEHP in medical devices. The SCENIHR report states that certain
medical procedures used in high risk patients result in a significant exposure to DEHP and concludes
there is still a reason for having some concerns about the exposure of prematurely born male babies to
medical devices containing DEHP.[40] The Committee said there are some alternative plasticizers
available for which there is sufficient toxicological data to indicate a lower hazard compared to DEHP
but added that the functionality of these plasticizers should be assessed before they can be used as an
alternative for DEHP in PVC medical devices. Risk assessment results have shown positive results
regarding the safe use of High Molecular Weight Phthalates. They have all been registered for REACH
and do not require any classification for health and environmental effects, nor are they on the
Candidate List for Authorisation. High phthalates are not CMR (carcinogenic, mutagenic or toxic for
reproduction), neither are they considered endocrine disruptors.
In the EU Risk Assessment the European Commission has confirmed that Di-isononyl phthalate
(DINP) and Di-isodecyl phthalate (DIDP) pose no risk to either human health or the environment from
any current use. The European Commission's findings (published in the EU Official Journal on 13 April
2006)[41] confirm the outcome of a risk assessment involving more than 10 years of extensive scientific
evaluation by EU regulators. Following the recent adoption of EU legislation with the regard to the
marketing and use of DINP in toys and childcare articles, the risk assessment conclusions clearly state
that there is no need for any further measures to regulate the use of DINP. In Europe and in some other
parts of the world, the use of DINP in toys and childcare items has been restricted as a precautionary
measure. In Europe, for example, DINP can no longer be used in toys and childcare items that can be
put in the mouth even though the EU scientific risk assessment concluded that its use in toys does not
pose a risk to human health or the environment. The rigorous EU risk assessments, which include a
high degree of conservatism and built-in safety factors, have been carried out under the strict
supervision of the European Commission and provide a clear scientific evaluation on which to judge
whether or not a particular substance can be safely used.
The FDA Paper titled "Safety Assessment of Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP)Released from PVC
Medical Devices" states that [3.2.1.3] Critically ill or injured patients may be at increased risk of
developing adverse health effects from DEHP, not only by virtue of increased exposure relative to the
general population, but also because of the physiological and pharmacodynamic changes that occur in
these patients compared to healthy individuals.[42]

Lead

The metal lead had previously been frequently added to PVC to improve workability and stability.
Lead has been shown to leach into drinking water from PVC pipes.[43]
In Europe (EU 27) the use of Lead stabilizers is being gradually phased out by 2015 under the
VinylPlus voluntary commitment with over 80% replaced by 2013.[44]

Vinyl chloride monomer

Main article: vinyl chloride
In the early 1970s, the carcinogenicity of vinyl chloride (usually called vinyl chloride monomer or
VCM) was linked to cancers in workers in the polyvinyl chloride industry. Specifically workers in
polymerization section of a B.F. Goodrich plant near Louisville, Kentucky (US) were diagnosed with
liver angiosarcoma also known as hemangiosarcoma, a rare disease.[45] Since that time, studies of PVC
workers in Australia, Italy, Germany, and the UK have all associated certain types of occupational
cancers with exposure to vinyl chloride, and it has become accepted that VCM is a carcinogen.[4]
Technology for removal of VCM from products has become stringent, commensurate with the
associated regulations.

Dioxins
Main article: Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins
PVC produces HCl upon combustion almost quantitatively related to its chlorine content. Extensive
studies in Europe indicate that the chlorine found in emitted dioxins is not derived from HCl in the flue
gases. Instead, most dioxins arise in the condensed solid phase by the reaction of inorganic chlorides
with graphitic structures in char-containing ash particles. Copper acts as a catalyst for these reactions.
[46]

Studies of household waste burning indicate consistent increases in dioxin generation with increasing
PVC concentrations.[47] According to the EPA dioxin inventory, landfill fires are likely to represent an
even larger source of dioxin to the environment. A survey of international studies consistently identifies
high dioxin concentrations in areas affected by open waste burning and a study that looked at the
homologue pattern found the sample with the highest dioxin concentration was "typical for the
pyrolysis of PVC". Other EU studies indicate that PVC likely "accounts for the overwhelming majority
of chlorine that is available for dioxin formation during landfill fires."[47]
The next largest sources of dioxin in the EPA inventory are medical and municipal waste incinerators.
[48]
Various studies have been conducted that reach contradictory results. For instance a study of
commercial-scale incinerators showed no relationship between the PVC content of the waste and
dioxin emissions.[49][50] Other studies have shown a clear correlation between dioxin formation and
chloride content and indicate that PVC is a significant contributor to the formation of both dioxin and
PCB in incinerators.[51][52][53]
In February 2007, the Technical and Scientific Advisory Committee of the US Green Building Council
(USGBC) released its report on a PVC avoidance related materials credit for the LEED Green Building
Rating system. The report concludes that "no single material shows up as the best across all the human
health and environmental impact categories, nor as the worst" but that the "risk of dioxin emissions
puts PVC consistently among the worst materials for human health impacts."[54]
In Europe the overwhelming importance of combustion conditions on dioxin formation has been
established by numerous researchers. The single most important factor in forming dioxin-like
compounds is the temperature of the combustion gases. Oxygen concentration also plays a major role
on dioxin formation, but not the chlorine content.[55]

The design of modern incinerators minimises PCDD/F formation by optimising the stability of the
thermal process. To comply with the EU emission limit of 0.1 ng I-TEQ/m3 modern incinerators
operate in conditions minimising dioxin formation and are equipped with pollution control devices
which catch the low amounts produced. Recent information is showing for example that dioxin levels
in populations near incinerators in Lisbon and Madeira have not risen since the plants began operating
in 1999 and 2002 respectively.
Several studies have also shown that removing PVC from waste would not significantly reduce the
quantity of dioxins emitted. The European Union Commission published in July 2000 a Green Paper on
the Environmental Issues of PVC. "[56] The Commission states (page 27) that it has been suggested that
the reduction of the chlorine content in the waste can contribute to the reduction of dioxin formation,
even though the actual mechanism is not fully understood. The influence on the reduction is also
expected to be a second or third order relationship. It is most likely that the main incineration
parameters, such as the temperature and the oxygen concentration, have a major influence on the dioxin
formation". The Green Paper states further that at the current levels of chlorine in municipal waste,
there does not seem to be a direct quantitative relationship between chlorine content and dioxin
formation.
A study commissioned by the European Commission on "Life Cycle Assessment of PVC and of
principal competing materials" states that "Recent studies show that the presence of PVC has no
significant effect on the amount of dioxins released through incineration of plastic waste."[57]

End-of-life
The European waste hierarchy refers to the five steps included in the article 4 of the Waste Framework
Directive:[58]
1. Prevention: preventing and reducing waste generation.
2. Reuse and preparation for reuse: giving the products a second life before they become waste.
3. Recycle: any recovery operation by which waste materials are reprocessed into products,
materials or substances whether for the original or other purposes. It includes composting and it
does not include incineration.
4. Recovery: some waste incineration based on a political non-scientific formula[citation needed] that
upgrades the less inefficient incinerators.
5. Disposal: processes to dispose of waste be it landfilling, incineration, pyrolysis, gasification and
other finalist solutions. Landfill is restricted in some EU-countries through Landfill Directives
and there is a debate about Incineration For example, original plastic which contains a lot of
energy is just recovered in energy instead of being recycled. According to the Waste Framework
Directive, the European Waste Hierarchy is legally binding except in cases that may require
specific waste streams to depart from the hierarchy. This should be justified on the basis of lifecycle thinking.
The European Commission has set new rules to promote the recovery of PVC waste for use in a
number of construction products. It says: "The use of recovered PVC should be encouraged in the
manufacture of certain construction products because it allows the reuse of old PVC ... This avoids
PVC being discarded in landfills or incinerated causing release of carbon dioxide and cadmium in the
environment".
Industry initiatives

In Europe, developments in PVC waste management have been monitored by Vinyl 2010,[59]
established in 2000. Vinyl 2010's objective was to recycle 200,000 tonnes of post-consumer PVC waste
per year in Europe by the end of 2010, excluding waste streams already subject to other or more
specific legislation (such as the European Directives on End-of-Life Vehicles, Packaging and Waste
Electric and Electronic Equipment).
Since June 2011, it is followed by VinylPlus, a new set of targets for sustainable development.[60] Its
main target is to recycle 800,000 tonnes/year of PVC by 2020 including 100,000 tonnes of difficult to
recycle waste. One facilitator for collection and recycling of PVC waste is Recovinyl.[61] The reported
and audited recycled PVC tonnage in 2014 was 481,018 tonnes.[62]
One approach to address the problem of waste PVC is also through the process called Vinyloop. It is a
mechanical recycling process using a solvent to separate PVC from other materials. This solvent turns
in a closed loop process in which the solvent is recycled. Recycled PVC is used in place of virgin PVC
in various applications: coatings for swimming pools, shoe soles, hoses, diaphragms tunnel, coated
fabrics, PVC sheets.[63] This recycled PVC's primary energy demand is 46 percent lower than
conventional produced PVC. So the use of recycled material leads to a significant better ecological
footprint. The global warming potential is 39 percent lower.[64]
Restrictions
In November 2005 one of the largest hospital networks in the U.S., Catholic Healthcare West, signed a
contract with B. Braun Melsungen for vinyl-free intravenous bags and tubing.[65]
In January 2012 a major U.S. West Coast healthcare provider, Kaiser Permanente, announced that it
will no longer buy intravenous (IV) medical equipment made with polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and
DEHP (di-2-ethyl hexyl phthalate) type plasticizers.[66]

Sustainability
PVC is made from petroleum. The production process also uses sodium chloride. Recycled PVC is
broken down into small chips, impurities removed, and the product refined to make pure white PVC. It
can be recycled roughly seven times and has a lifespan of around 140 years.
In the UK, approximately 400 tonnes of PVC are recycled every month. Property owners can recycle it
through nationwide collection depots. The Olympic Delivery Authority (ODA), for example, after
initially rejecting PVC as material for different temporary venues of the London Olympics 2012, has
reviewed its decision and developed a policy for its use.[67] This policy highlighted that the functional
properties of PVC make it the most appropriate material in certain circumstances while taking into
consideration the environmental and social impacts across the whole life cycle, e.g. the rate for
recycling or reuse and the percentage of recycled content. Temporary parts, like roofing covers of the
Olympic Stadium, the Water Polo Arena, and the Royal Artillery Barracks, would be deconstructed and
a part recycled in the Vinyloop process.[68][69]
PICTORIAL APPLICATIONS

PVC is used extensively in sewage pipe due to its low cost, chemical resistance and ease
of jointing

"A modern Tudorbethan" house with uPVC gutters and downspouts, fascia, decorative
imitation "half-timbering", windows, and doors

Black PVC trousers

The handles of the Victorinox Swiss Army knives are made of PVC.

ABLATION & ABLATIVE MATERIALS

Ablation is removal of material from the surface of an object by vaporization, chipping,
or other erosive processes. Examples of ablative materials are described below, and
include spacecraft material for ascent and atmospheric reentry, ice and snow in
glaciology, biological tissues in medicine and passive fire protection materials.
Biology

Biological ablation is the removal of a biological structure or functionality.

Genetic ablation is another term for gene silencing, in which gene expression is abolished through the
alteration or deletion of genetic sequence information. In cell ablation, individual cells in a population
or culture are destroyed or removed. Both can be used as experimental tools, as in loss-of-function
experiments.[1]
Glaciology

In glaciology and meteorology, ablationthe opposite of accumulationrefers to all processes that

remove snow, ice, or water from a glacier or snowfield.[2] Ablation refers to the melting of snow or ice
that runs off the glacier, evaporation, sublimation, calving, or erosive removal of snow by wind. Air
temperature is typically the dominant control of ablation, with precipitation exercising secondary
control. In a temperate climate during ablation season, ablation rates typically average around 2 mm/h.
[3]
Where solar radiation is the dominant cause of snow ablation (e.g., if air temperatures are low under
clear skies), characteristic ablation textures such as suncups and penitentes may develop on the snow
surface.[4]
Ablation can refer either to the processes removing ice and snow or to the quantity of ice and snow
removed.
Laser ablation
Main article: laser ablation

Laser ablation is greatly affected by the nature of the material and its ability to absorb energy, therefore
the wavelength of the ablation laser should have a minimum absorption depth. While these lasers can
average a low power, they can offer peak intensity and fluence given by:

Surface ablation of the cornea for several types of eye refractive surgery is now common, using an
excimer laser system (LASIK and LASEK). Since the cornea does not grow back, laser is used to
remodel the cornea refractive properties to correct refraction errors, such as astigmatism, myopia, and
hyperopia. Laser ablation is also used to remove part of the uterine wall in women with menstruation
and adenomyosis problems in a process called endometrial ablation.
Recently, researchers have demonstrated a successful technique for ablating subsurface tumors with
minimal thermal damage to surrounding healthy tissue, by using a focused laser beam from an ultrashort pulse diode laser source.[5]
Marine surface coatings

Antifouling paints and other related coatings are routinely used to prevent the buildup of
microorganisms and other animals, such as barnacles for the bottom hull surfaces of recreational,
commercial and military sea vessels. Ablative paints are often utilized for this purpose to prevent the
dilution or deactivation of the antifouling agent. Over time, the paint will slowly decompose in the
water, exposing fresh antifouling compounds on the surface. Engineering the antifouling agents and the
ablation rate can produce long-lived protection from the deleterious effects of biofouling.
Medicine

In medicine, ablation is the same as removal of a part of biological tissue, usually by surgery. Surface
ablation of the skin (dermabrasion, also called resurfacing because it induces regeneration) can be
carried out by chemicals (chemoablation), by lasers (laser ablation), or by electricity (fulguration). Its
purpose is to remove skin spots, aged skin, wrinkles, thus rejuvenating it. Surface ablation is also
employed in otolaryngology for several kinds of surgery, such as for snoring. Ablation therapy using

radio frequency waves on the heart is used to cure a variety of cardiac arrhythmiae such as
supraventricular tachycardia, WolffParkinsonWhite syndrome (WPW), ventricular tachycardia, and
more recently as management of atrial fibrillation. The term is often used in the context of laser
ablation, a process in which a laser dissolves a material's molecular bonds. For a laser to ablate tissues,
the power density or fluence must be high, otherwise thermocoagulation occurs, which is simply
thermal vaporization of the tissues.
Rotoablation is a type of arterial cleansing that consists of inserting a tiny, diamond-tipped, drill-like
device into the affected artery to remove fatty deposits or plaque. The procedure is used in the
treatment of coronary heart disease to restore blood flow.
Radiofrequency ablation (RFA) is a method of removing aberrant tissue from within the body via
minimally invasive procedures. I.e., RFA in an electrophysiology study to remove cells that are issuing
abnormal electrical activity leading to arrhythmia.
Bone marrow ablation is a process whereby the human bone marrow cells are eliminated in preparation
for a bone marrow transplant. This is performed using high-intensity chemotherapy and total body
irradiation. As such, it has nothing to do with the vaporization techniques described in the rest of this
article.
Ablation of brain tissue is used for treating certain neurological disorders, particularly Parkinson's
disease, and sometimes for psychiatric disorders as well.
Recently, some researchers reported successful results with genetic ablation. In particular, genetic
ablation is potentially a much more efficient method of removing unwanted cells, such as tumor cells,
because large numbers of animals lacking specific cells could be generated. Genetically ablated lines
can be maintained for a prolonged period of time and shared within the research community.
Researchers at Columbia University report of reconstituted caspases combined from C. elegans and
humans, which maintain a high degree of target specificity. The genetic ablation techniques described
could prove useful in battling cancer.[6]
Passive fire protection

Firestopping and fireproofing products can be ablative in nature. This can mean endothermic materials,
or merely materials that are sacrificial and become "spent" over time while exposed to fire, such as
silicone firestop products. Given sufficient time under fire or heat conditions, these products char away,
crumble, and disappear. The idea is to put enough of this material in the way of the fire that a level of
fire-resistance rating can be maintained, as demonstrated in a fire test. Ablative materials usually have a
large concentration of organic matter[citation needed] that is reduced by fire to ashes. In the case of silicone,
organic rubber surrounds very finely divided silica dust (up to 380 m of combined surface area of all
the dust particles per gram of this dust[citation needed]). When the organic rubber is exposed to fire, it burns
to ash and leaves behind the silica dust with which the product started.
Spaceflight
Main article: atmospheric reentry Ablative

In spacecraft design, ablation is used to both cool and protect mechanical parts and/or payloads that
would otherwise be damaged by extremely high temperatures. Two principal applications are heat
shields for spacecraft entering a planetary atmosphere from space and cooling of rocket engine nozzles.
Examples include the Apollo Command Module that protected astronauts from the heat of atmospheric
reentry and the Kestrel second stage rocket engine designed for exclusive use in an environment of
space vacuum since no heat convection is possible.

In a basic sense, ablative material is designed to slowly burn away in a controlled manner, so that heat
can be carried away from the spacecraft by the gases generated by the ablative process while the
remaining solid material insulates the craft from superheated gases. There is an entire branch of
spaceflight research involving the search for new fireproofing materials to achieve the best ablative
performance; this function is critical to protect the spacecraft occupants and payload from otherwise
excessive heat loading.[7] The same technology is used in some passive fire protection applications, in
some cases by the same vendors, who offer different versions of these fireproofing products, some for
aerospace and some for structural fire protection.