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Caspar
Otto Runge, The Morning, 1808
Philipp
1 DEFINING ROMANTICISM
1
1.1
Dening Romanticism
Basic characteristics
be normative, was a strong belief and interest in the importance of nature. However, this is particularly in the
eect of nature upon the artist when he is surrounded by
it, preferably alone. In contrast to the usually very social art of the Enlightenment, Romantics were distrustful
of the human world, and tended to believe that a close
connection with nature was mentally and morally healthy.
Romantic art addressed its audiences with what was intended to be felt as the personal voice of the artist. So, in
literature, much of romantic poetry invited the reader to
identify the protagonists with the poets themselves.[16]
1.4
1.2
Etymology
The group of words with the root Roman in the various European languages, such as romance and Romanesque, has a complicated history, but by the middle of the 18th century romantic in English and romantique in French were both in common use as adjectives
of praise for natural phenomena such as views and sunsets, in a sense close to modern English usage but without
the sexual connotation. The application of the term to
literature rst became common in Germany, where the
circle around the Schlegel brothers, critics August and
Friedrich, began to speak of romantische Poesie (romantic poetry) in the 1790s, contrasting it with classic but
in terms of spirit rather than merely dating. Friedrich
Schlegel wrote in his Dialogue on Poetry (1800), I seek
and nd the romantic among the older moderns, in Shakespeare, in Cervantes, in Italian poetry, in that age of
chivalry, love and fable, from which the phenomenon and
the word itself are derived.[18]
In both French and German the closeness of the adjective to roman, meaning the fairly new literary form of
the novel, had some eect on the sense of the word
in those languages. The use of the word did not become general very quickly, and was probably spread more
widely in France by its persistent use by Madame de Stal
in her De l'Allemagne (1813), recounting her travels in
Germany.[19] In England Wordsworth wrote in a preface
to his poems of 1815 of the romantic harp and classic lyre,[19] but in 1820 Byron could still write, perhaps
slightly disingenuously, I perceive that in Germany, as
well as in Italy, there is a great struggle about what they
call 'Classical' and 'Romantic', terms which were not subjects of classication in England, at least when I left it
four or ve years ago.[20] It is only from the 1820s that
Romanticism certainly knew itself by its name, and in
1824 the Acadmie franaise took the wholly ineective
step of issuing a decree condemning it in literature.[21]
1.3
The period
The period typically called Romantic varies greatly between dierent countries and dierent artistic media or
areas of thought. Margaret Drabble described it in literature as taking place roughly between 1770 and 1848,[22]
and few dates much earlier than 1770 will be found. In
English literature, M. H. Abrams placed it between 1789,
or 1798, this latter a very typical view, and about 1830,
perhaps a little later than some other critics.[23] Others
have proposed 17801830.[24] In other elds and other
countries the period denominated as Romantic can be
considerably dierent; musical Romanticism, for example, is generally regarded as only having ceased as a major
artistic force as late as 1910, but in an extreme extension the Four Last Songs of Richard Strauss are described
stylistically as Late Romantic and were composed in
194648.[25] However, in most elds the Romantic Pe-
3
riod is said to be over by about 1850, or earlier.
The early period of the Romantic Era was a time of
war, with the French Revolution (17891799) followed
by the Napoleonic Wars until 1815. These wars, along
with the political and social turmoil that went along with
them, served as the background for Romanticism.[26] The
key generation of French Romantics born between 1795
1805 had, in the words of one of their number, Alfred de
Vigny, been conceived between battles, attended school
to the rolling of drums.[27] According to Jacques Barzun,
there were three generations of Romantic artists. The rst
emerged in the 1790s and 1800s, the second in the 1820s,
and the third later in the century.[28]
2 ROMANTIC LITERATURE
they pursue; these goals represent the selfexpression of the artists own unique, inner vision, to set aside which in response to the demands of some external voice church, state,
public opinion, family friends, arbiters of taste
is an act of betrayal of what alone justies
their existence for those who are in any sense
creative.[32]
In northern Europe, the Early Romantic visionary optimism and belief that the world was in the process of great
change and improvement had largely vanished, and some
art became more conventionally political and polemical
as its creators engaged polemically with the world as it
was. Elsewhere, including in very dierent ways the
United States and Russia, feelings that great change was
underway or just about to come were still possible. Displays of intense emotion in art remained prominent, as
did the exotic and historical settings pioneered by the Romantics, but experimentation with form and technique
was generally reduced, often replaced with meticulous
technique, as in the poems of Tennyson or many paintings. If not realist, late 19th-century art was often extremely detailed, and pride was taken in adding authentic details in a way that earlier Romantics did not trouble
with. Many Romantic ideas about the nature and purpose
of art, above all the pre-eminent importance of originality, remained important for later generations, and often
underlie modern views, despite opposition from theorists.
2 Romantic literature
John William Waterhouse, The Lady of Shalott, 1888, after a
poem by Tennyson; like many Victorian paintings, romantic but
not Romantic
2.2
Great Britain
2.1
Germany
5
nature, for example the German Forest, and Germanic
myths. The later German Romanticism of, for example E. T. A. Homann's Der Sandmann (The Sandman),
1817, and Joseph Freiherr von Eichendor's Das Marmorbild (The Marble Statue), 1819, was darker in its motifs and has gothic elements. The signicance to Romanticism of childhood innocence, the importance of imagination, and racial theories all combined to give an unprecedented importance to folk literature, non-classical
mythology and childrens literature, above all in Germany. Brentano and von Arnim were signicant literary gures who together published Des Knaben Wunderhorn (The Boys Magic Horn or cornucopia), a collection of versied folk tales, in 180608. The rst collection of Grimms Fairy Tales by the Brothers Grimm
was published in 1812.[40] Unlike the much later work
of Hans Christian Andersen, who was publishing his invented tales in Danish from 1835, these German works
were at least mainly based on collected folk tales, and the
Grimms remained true to the style of the telling in their
early editions, though later rewriting some parts. One of
the brothers, Jacob, published in 1835 Deutsche Mythologie, a long academic work on Germanic mythology.[41]
Another strain is exemplied by Schillers highly emotional language and the depiction of physical violence in
his play The Robbers of 1781.
2 ROMANTIC LITERATURE
Marmion in 1808. Both were set in the distant Scottish
past, already evoked in Ossian; Romanticism and Scotland were to have a long and fruitful partnership. Byron
had equal success with the rst part of Childe Harolds Pilgrimage in 1812, followed by four Turkish tales, all in
the form of long poems, starting with The Giaour in 1813,
drawing from his Grand Tour, which had reached Ottoman Europe, and orientalizing the themes of the Gothic
novel in verse. These featured dierent variations of
the "Byronic hero", and his own life contributed a further version. Scott meanwhile was eectively inventing
the historical novel, beginning in 1814 with Waverley,
set in the 1745 Jacobite Rising, which was an enormous
and highly protable success, followed by over 20 further
Waverley Novels over the next 17 years, with settings going back to the Crusades that he had researched to a degree that was new in literature.[43]
In contrast to Germany, Romanticism in English literature had little connection with nationalism, and the Romantics were often regarded with suspicion for the sympathy many felt for the ideals of the French Revolution,
whose collapse and replacement with the dictatorship of
Napoleon was, as elsewhere in Europe, a shock to the
movement. Though his novels celebrated Scottish identity and history, Scott was politically a rm Unionist. Several spent much time abroad, and a famous stay on Lake
Geneva with Byron and Shelley in 1816 produced the
hugely inuential novel Frankenstein by Shelleys wife-tobe Mary Shelley and the novella The Vampyre by Byrons
doctor John William Polidori. The lyrics of Robert Burns
in Scotland and Thomas Moore, from Ireland reected in
dierent ways their countries and the Romantic interest
in folk literature, but neither had a fully Romantic approach to life or their work.
2.2
Great Britain
7
norms, its literature developed a distinct national identity and began to enjoy an international reputation. Allan
Ramsay (16861758) laid the foundations of a reawakening of interest in older Scottish literature, as well as
leading the trend for pastoral poetry, helping to develop
the Habbie stanza as a poetic form.[49] James Macpherson
(173696) was the rst Scottish poet to gain an international reputation. Claiming to have found poetry written
by the ancient bard Ossian, he published translations that
acquired international popularity, being proclaimed as a
Celtic equivalent of the Classical epics. Fingal, written
in 1762, was speedily translated into many European languages, and its appreciation of natural beauty and treatment of the ancient legend has been credited more than
any single work with bringing about the Romantic movement in European, and especially in German literature,
through its inuence on Johann Gottfried von Herder and
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.[50] It was also popularised
in France by gures that included Napoleon.[51] Eventually it became clear that the poems were not direct translations from the Gaelic, but owery adaptations made to
suit the aesthetic expectations of his audience.[52]
Scotland was also the location of two of the most important literary magazines of the era, The Edinburgh
Review (founded in 1802) and Blackwoods Magazine
(founded in 1817), which had a major impact on the
development of British literature and drama in the era
of Romanticism.[58][59] Ian Duncan and Alex Benchimol
suggest that publications like the novels of Scott and these
magazines were part of a highly dynamic Scottish Romanticism that by the early nineteenth century, caused
Edinburgh to emerge as the cultural capital of Britain and
become central to a wider formation of a British Isles
nationalism.[60]
creasingly adopted English language and wider cultural Scottish national drama emerged in the early 1800s, as
2 ROMANTIC LITERATURE
plays with specically Scottish themes began to dominate the Scottish stage. Theatres had been discouraged by
the Church of Scotland and fears of Jacobite assemblies.
In the later eighteenth century, many plays were written
for and performed by small amateur companies and were
not published and so most have been lost. Towards the
end of the century there were "closet dramas", primarily designed to be read, rather than performed, including work by Scott, Hogg, Galt and Joanna Baillie (1762
1851), often inuenced by the ballad tradition and Gothic
Romanticism.[61]
2.3
France
After the Bourbon Restoration, French Romanticism developed in the lively world of Parisian theatre, with productions of Shakespeare, Schiller (in France a key Romantic author), and adaptations of Scott and Byron alongside French authors, several of whom began to write in
the late 1820s. Cliques of pro- and anti-Romantics developed, and productions were often accompanied by raucous vocalizing by the two sides, including the shouted
assertion by one theatregoer in 1822 that Shakespeare,
c'est l'aide-de-camp de Wellington (Shakespeare is
Wellingtons aide-de-camp").[63] Alexandre Dumas began as a dramatist, with a series of successes beginning
with Henri III et sa cour (1829) before turning to novels that were mostly historical adventures somewhat in
the manner of Scott, most famously The Three Musketeers and The Count of Monte Cristo, both of 1844. Victor
Hugo published as a poet in the 1820s before achieving
success on the stage with Hernania historical drama
in a quasi-Shakespearian style that had famously riotous
performances, themselves as much a spectacle as the play,
on its rst run in 1830.[64] Like Dumas, he is best known
for his novels, and was already writing The Hunchback
of Notre-Dame (1831), one of the best known works of
his long career. The preface to his unperformed play
Cromwell gives an important manifesto of French Romanticism, stating that there are no rules, or models.
The career of Prosper Mrime followed a similar pattern; he is now best known as the originator of the story
of Carmen, with his novella of 1845. Alfred de Vigny
remains best known as a dramatist, with his play on the
2.4
Poland
life of the English poet Chatterton (1835) perhaps his best terest in Polish history.[66] Polish Romanticism revived
work.
the old Sarmatism traditions of the szlachta or PolFrench Romantic poets of the 1830s to 1850s include ish nobility. Old traditions and customs were revived
Alfred de Musset, Grard de Nerval, Alphonse de Lamar- and portrayed in a positive light in the Polish messianic
tine and the amboyant Thophile Gautier, whose pro- movement and in works of great Polish poets such as
lic output in various forms continued until his death in Adam Mickiewicz (Pan Tadeusz), Juliusz Sowacki and
1872. George Sand took over from Germaine de Stal Zygmunt Krasiski, as well as prose writers such as
as the leading female writer, and was a central gure Henryk Sienkiewicz. This close connection between Polish Romanticism and Polish history became one of the
of the Parisian literary scene, famous both for her novels and criticism and her aairs with Chopin and several dening qualities of the literature of Polish Romanticism
period, dierentiating it from that of other countries.
others.[65]
They had not suered the loss of national statehood as
Stendhal is today probably the most highly regarded was the case with Poland.[67] Inuenced by the general
French novelist of the period, but he stands in a complex spirit and main ideas of European Romanticism, the litrelation with Romanticism, and is notable for his pene- erature of Polish Romanticism is unique, as many scholtrating psychological insight into his characters and his ars have pointed out, in having developed largely outside
realism, qualities rarely prominent in Romantic ction. of Poland and in its emphatic focus upon the issue of
As a survivor of the French retreat from Moscow in 1812, Polish nationalism. The Polish intelligentsia, along with
fantasies of heroism and adventure had little appeal for leading members of its government, left Poland in the
him, and like Goya he is often seen as a forerunner of early 1830s, during what is referred to as the "Great EmRealism. His most important works are Le Rouge et le igration, resettling in France, Germany, Great Britain,
Noir (The Red and the Black, 1830) and La Chartreuse de Turkey, and the United States.
Parme (The Charterhouse of Parma, 1839).
2.4
Poland
Juliusz Sowacki, a Polish poet considered one of the Three National Bards of Polish literature a major gure in the Polish
Romantic period, and the father of modern Polish drama.
Their art featured emotionalism and irrationality, fantasy and imagination, personality cults, folklore and
country life, and the propagation of ideals of freedom.
In the second period, many of the Polish Romantics
worked abroad, often banished from Poland by the occupying powers due to their politically subversive ideas.
Their work became increasingly dominated by the ideals of political struggle for freedom and their countrys
sovereignty. Elements of mysticism became more prominent. There developed the idea of the poeta wieszcz
(the prophet). The wieszcz (bard) functioned as spiritual
10
2 ROMANTIC LITERATURE
leader to the nation ghting for its independence. The tana.[70] The plays of Antonio Garca Gutirrez were
most notable poet so recognized was Adam Mickiewicz. adapted to produce Giuseppe Verdis operas Il trovatore
Zygmunt Krasinski also wrote to inspire political and re- and Simon Boccanegra. Spanish Romanticism also inligious hope in his countrymen. Unlike his predeces- uenced regional literatures. For example, in Catalonia
sors, who called for victory at whatever price in Polands and in Galicia there was a national boom of writers
struggle against Russia, Krasinski emphasized Polands in the local languages, like the Catalan Jacint Verdaspiritual role in its ght for independence, advocating an guer and the Galician Rosala de Castro, the main gmovements Renaixena and
intellectual rather than a military superiority. His works ures of the national revivalist[71]
Rexurdimento, respectively.
best exemplify the Messianic movement in Poland: in two
early dramas, Nie-boska komedyia[68] (1835; The Undivine Comedy) and Irydion (1836; Iridion), as well as in the
later Psalmy przyszoci (1845), he asserted that Poland 2.7 Portugal
was the Christ of Europe: specically chosen by God to
carry the worlds burdens, to suer, and eventually be res- Modern Portuguese poetry develops its character from
the work of its Romantic epitome, Almeida Garrett, a
urrected.
very prolic writer who helped shape the genre with the
masterpiece Folhas Cadas (1853). This late arrival of a
truly personal Romantic style would linger on to the be2.5 Russia
ginning of the 20th century, notably through the works of
poets such as Alexandre Herculano, Cesrio Verde and
Early Russian Romanticism is associated with the writAntnio Nobre. However, an early Portuguese expresers Konstantin Batyushkov (A Vision on the Shores of the
sion of Romanticism is found already in Manuel Maria
Lethe, 1809), Vasily Zhukovsky (The Bard, 1811; SvetBarbosa du Bocage, especially in his sonnets dated at the
lana, 1813) and Nikolay Karamzin (Poor Liza, 1792;
end of the 18th century.
Julia, 1796; Martha the Mayoress, 1802; The Sensitive
and the Cold, 1803). However the principal exponent of
Romanticism in Russia is Alexander Pushkin (The Pris2.8 Italy
oner of the Caucasus, 18201821; The Robber Brothers, 1822; Ruslan and Ludmila, 1820; Eugene Onegin,
Romanticism in Italian literature was a minor movement,
18251832). Pushkins work inuenced many writers
yet still important; it began ocially in 1816 when Mme
in the 19th century and led to his eventual recognition
de Stal wrote an article in the journal Biblioteca ital[69]
as Russias greatest poet. Other Russian poets include
iana called Sulla maniera e l'utilit delle traduzioni,
Mikhail Lermontov (A Hero of Our Time, 1839), Fyodor
inviting Italian people to reject Neoclassicism and to
Tyutchev (Silentium!, 1830), Yevgeny Baratynsky (Eda,
study new authors from other countries. Before that
1826), Anton Delvig, and Wilhelm Kchelbecker.
date, Ugo Foscolo had already published poems anInuenced heavily by Lord Byron, Lermontov sought to ticipating Romantic themes. The most important Roexplore the Romantic emphasis on metaphysical discon- mantic writers were Ludovico di Breme, Pietro Borsieri
tent with society and self, while Tyutchevs poems often and Giovanni Berchet. Better known authors such as
described scenes of nature or passions of love. Tyutchev Alessandro Manzoni and Giacomo Leopardi were inucommonly operated with such categories as night and day, enced by Enlightenment as well as by Romanticism and
north and south, dream and reality, cosmos and chaos, Classicism.[72]
and the still world of winter and spring teeming with life.
Baratynskys style was fairly classical in nature, dwelling
on the models of the previous century.
2.9 South America
Spanish-speaking South American Romanticism was inuenced heavily by Esteban Echeverra, who wrote in the
1830 and 1840s. His writings were inuenced by his haMain article: Romanticism in Spanish literature
tred for the Argentine dictator Juan Manuel de Rosas, and
lled with themes of blood and terror, using the metaphor
Romanticism in Spanish literature developed a well- of a slaughterhouse to portray the violence of Rosas dicknown literature with a huge variety of poets and play- tatorship.
wrights. The most important Spanish poet during this Brazilian Romanticism is characterized and divided in
movement was Jos de Espronceda. After him there three dierent periods. The rst one is basically fowere other poets like Gustavo Adolfo Bcquer, Mariano cused on the creation of a sense of national identity, using
Jos de Larra and the dramatist Jos Zorrilla, author the ideal of the heroic Indian. Some examples include
of Don Juan Tenorio. Before them may be mentioned Jos de Alencar, who wrote Iracema and O Guarani,
the pre-romantics Jos Cadalso and Manuel Jos Quin- and Gonalves Dias, renowned by the poem Cano do
2.6
Spain
2.10
United States
A print exemplifying the contrast between neoclassical vs. romantic styles of landscape and architecture (or the Grecian and
the Gothic as they are termed here), 1816
Exlio (Song of the Exile). The second period, sometimes called Ultra-Romanticism, is marked by a profound
inuence of European themes and traditions, involving
the melancholy, sadness and despair related to unobtainable love. Goethe and Lord Byron are commonly quoted
in these works. The third cycle is marked by social poetry, especially the abolitionist movement; the greatest
writer of this period is Castro Alves.[73]
11
exemplied by Uncas, from The Last of the Mohicans.
There are picturesque local color elements in Washington Irvings essays and especially his travel books. Edgar
Allan Poe's tales of the macabre and his balladic poetry were more inuential in France than at home, but
the romantic American novel developed fully with the atmosphere and melodrama of Nathaniel Hawthorne's The
Scarlet Letter (1850). Later Transcendentalist writers
such as Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson
still show elements of its inuence and imagination, as
does the romantic realism of Walt Whitman. The poetry
of Emily Dickinsonnearly unread in her own time
and Herman Melville's novel Moby-Dick can be taken
as epitomes of American Romantic literature. By the
1880s, however, psychological and social realism were
competing with Romanticism in the novel.
2.10.1 Inuence of European Romanticism on
American writers
The European Romantic movement reached America in
the early 19th century. American Romanticism was just
as multifaceted and individualistic as it was in Europe.
Like the Europeans, the American Romantics demonstrated a high level of moral enthusiasm, commitment to
individualism and the unfolding of the self, an emphasis
on intuitive perception, and the assumption that the natural world was inherently good, while human society was
lled with corruption.[74]
Romanticism became popular in American politics, phiMain articles: American literature and Romantic litera- losophy and art. The movement appealed to the revoluture in English
tionary spirit of America as well as to those longing to
In the United States, at least by 1818 with William Cullen break free of the strict religious traditions of early settlement. The Romantics rejected rationalism and religious
intellect. It appealed to those in opposition of Calvinism,
which includes the belief that the destiny of each individual is preordained. The Romantic movement gave rise to
New England Transcendentalism, which portrayed a less
restrictive relationship between God and Universe. The
new philosophy presented the individual with a more personal relationship with God. Transcendentalism and Romanticism appealed to Americans in a similar fashion,
for both privileged feeling over reason, individual freedom of expression over the restraints of tradition and custom. It often involved a rapturous response to nature. It
encouraged the rejection of harsh, rigid Calvinism, and
Thomas Cole, The Course of Empire: The Savage State (1 of
promised a new blossoming of American culture.[74][75]
5), 1836
Bryants "To a Waterfowl", Romantic poetry was being
published. American Romantic Gothic literature made
an early appearance with Washington Irving's The Legend of Sleepy Hollow (1820) and Rip Van Winkle (1819),
followed from 1823 onwards by the Leatherstocking Tales
of James Fenimore Cooper, with their emphasis on heroic
simplicity and their fervent landscape descriptions of an
already-exotic mythicized frontier peopled by "noble savages", similar to the philosophical theory of Rousseau,
American Romanticism embraced the individual and rebelled against the connement of neoclassicism and religious tradition. The Romantic movement in America
created a new literary genre that continues to inuence
American writers. Novels, short stories, and poems replaced the sermons and manifestos of yore. Romantic
literature was personal, intense, and portrayed more emotion than ever seen in neoclassical literature. Americas
preoccupation with freedom became a great source of
motivation for Romantic writers as many were delighted
12
the mystical, many largely abandoning classical drawing and proportions. These included William Blake and
Samuel Palmer and the other members of the Ancients
in England, and in Germany Philipp Otto Runge. Like
Friedrich, none of these artists had signicant inuence
The works of the Romantic Era also diered from pre- after their deaths for the rest of the 19th century, and were
ceding works in that they spoke to a wider audience, 20th century rediscoveries from obscurity, though Blake
partly reecting the greater distribution of books as costs was always known as a poet, and Norway's leading painter
Johan Christian Dahl was heavily inuenced by Friedrich.
came down during the period.[26]
The Rome-based Nazarene movement of German artists,
active from 1810, took a very dierent path, concentrating on medievalizing history paintings with religious and
3 Romantic visual arts
nationalist themes.[78]
See also: Gothic Revival architecture
In the visual arts, Romanticism rst showed itself in
Thomas Jones, The Bard, 1774, a prophetic combination of Romanticism and nationalism by the Welsh artist
13
(1824) and Death of Sardanapalus (1827). The second was a scene from the Greek War of Independence,
completed the year Byron died there, and the last was
a scene from one of Byrons plays. With Shakespeare,
Byron was to provide the subject matter for many other
works of Delacroix, who also spent long periods in North
Africa, painting colourful scenes of mounted Arab warriors. His Liberty Leading the People (1830) remains,
with the Medusa, one of the best-known works of French
Romantic painting. Both reected current events, and increasingly "history painting", literally story painting, a
phrase dating back to the Italian Renaissance meaning the
painting of subjects with groups of gures, long considered the highest and most dicult form of art, did indeed become the painting of historical scenes, rather than
those from religion or mythology.[81]
Francisco Goya was called the last great painter in whose
art thought and observation were balanced and combined
to form a faultless unity.[82] But the extent to which
he was a Romantic is a complex question. In Spain,
there was still a struggle to introduce the values of the
Enlightenment, in which Goya saw himself as a participant. The demonic and anti-rational monsters thrown up
by his imagination are only supercially similar to those
of the Gothic fantasies of northern Europe, and in many Cavalier gaulois by Antoine-Augustin Prault, Pont d'Ina, Paris
ways he remained wedded to the classicism and realism
of his training, as well as looking forward to the Realism of the later 19th century.[83] But he, more than any
other artist of the period, exemplied the Romantic values of the expression of the artists feelings and his personal imaginative world.[84] He also shared with many of
the Romantic painters a more free handling of paint, emphasized in the new prominence of the brushstroke and
impasto, which tended to be repressed in neoclassicism
Thodore Gricault,
exception of a few artists such as Rudolf Maison[85]
The Raft of the Medusa, 1819
rather oddly was missing in Germany, and mainly found
in France, with Franois Rude, best known from his
group of the 1830s from the Arc de Triomphe in Paris,
David d'Angers, and Auguste Prault. Praults plaster
relief entitled Slaughter, which represented the horrors
of wars with exacerbated passion, caused so much scandal at the 1834 Salon that Prault was banned from this
ocial annual exhibition for nearly twenty years.[86] In
Italy, the most important Romantic sculptor was Lorenzo
Bartolini.[87]
Eugne Delacroix,
Liberty Leading the People 1830
14
Literary Romanticism had its counterpart in the American visual arts, most especially in the exaltation of an
untamed American landscape found in the paintings of
the Hudson River School. Painters like Thomas Cole,
Albert Bierstadt and Frederic Edwin Church and others often expressed Romantic themes in their paintings.
They sometimes depicted ancient ruins of the old world,
such as in Fredric Edwin Churchs piece Sunrise in Syria.
These works reected the Gothic feelings of death and
decay. They also show the Romantic ideal that Nature is
powerful and will eventually overcome the transient creations of men. More often, they worked to distinguish
themselves from their European counterparts by depicting uniquely American scenes and landscapes. This idea
of an American identity in the art world is reected in
W. C. Bryants poem, To Cole, the Painter, Departing for
Europe, where Bryant encourages Cole to remember the
powerful scenes that can only be found in America.
Thomas
Cole,
Childhood, one of the 4 scenes in The Voyage of
Life, 1842
15
music in the aesthetics of German romanticism.[89] Another French encyclopedia holds that the German temperament generally can be described as the deep and diverse action of romanticism on German musicians, and
that there is only one true representative of Romanticism
in French music, Hector Berlioz, while in Italy, the sole
great name of musical Romanticism is Giuseppe Verdi,
a sort of [Victor] Hugo of opera, gifted with a real genius
for dramatic eect. Nevertheless, the huge popularity of
German Romantic music led, whether by imitation or
Although the term Romanticism when applied to music has come to imply the period roughly from 1800 until
1850, or else until around 1900, the contemporary application of romantic to music did not coincide with this
modern interpretation. Indeed, one of the earliest sustained applications of the term to music occurs in 1789,
in the Mmoires of Andr Grtry.[91] This is of particular
interest because it is a French source on a subject mainly
dominated by Germans, but also because it explicitly acknowledges its debt to Jean-Jacques Rousseau (himself a
Ludwig van Beethoven, painted by Joseph Karl Stieler, 1820
composer, amongst other things) and, by so doing, establishes a link to one of the major inuences on the
phenomenonso much so that one respected French ref- Romantic movement generally.[92] In 1810 E.T.A. Hoerence work denes it entirely in terms of The role of mann named Mozart, Haydn and Beethoven as the three
16
By the second quarter of the 20th century, an awareness that radical changes in musical syntax had occurred
during the early 1900s caused another shift in historical
viewpoint, and the change of century came to be seen as
marking a decisive break with the musical past. This in
turn led historians such as Alfred Einstein[96] to extend
the musical "Romantic Era" throughout the 19th century
and into the rst decade of the 20th. It has continued to
be referred to as such in some of the standard music references such as The Oxford Companion to Music[97] and
Grouts History of Western Music[98] but was not unchallenged. For example, the prominent German musicologist Friedrich Blume, the chief editor of the rst edition of Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart (1949
86), accepted the earlier position that Classicism and Romanticism together constitute a single period beginning
in the middle of the 18th century, but at the same time
held that it continued into the 20th century, including
such preWorld War II developments as expressionism
and neoclassicism.[99] This is reected in some notable
recent reference works such as the New Grove Dictionary
of Music and Musicians[92] and the new edition of Musik
in Geschichte und Gegenwart.[100]
17
Richard
Wagner,
c.
1870s
Giacomo
Meyerbeer,
1847
Robert
1839
In the contemporary music culture, the romantic musician followed a public career depending on sensitive
middle-class audiences rather than on a courtly patron,
Schumann, as had been the case with earlier musicians and composers. Public persona characterized a new generation
of virtuosi who made their way as soloists, epitomized
in the concert tours of Paganini and Liszt, and the conductor began to emerge as an important gure, on whose
skill the interpretation of the increasingly complex music
depended.[101]
The Romantic movement aected most aspects of intellectual life, and Romanticism and science had a
18
6 ROMANTIC NATIONALISM
ism had a largely negative eect on the writing of history
in the 19th century, as each nation tended to produce its
own version of history, and the critical attitude, even cynicism, of earlier historians was often replaced by a tendency to create romantic stories with clearly distinguished
heroes and villains.[106] Nationalist ideology of the period
placed great emphasis on racial coherence, and the antiquity of peoples, and tended to vastly over-emphasize the
continuity between past periods and the present, leading
to national mysticism. Much historical eort in the 20th
century was devoted to combating the romantic historical
myths created in the 19th century.
5.3 Theology
To insulate theology from reductionism in science, 19thcentury post-Enlightenment German theologians moved
in a new direction, led by Friedrich Schleiermacher and
Albrecht Ritschl. They took the Romantic approach of
rooting religion in the inner world of the human spirit, so
that it is a persons feeling or sensibility about spiritual
matters that comprises religion.[107]
Akseli Gallen-Kallela, The Forging of the Sampo, 1893. An
artist from Finland deriving inspiration from the Finnish national epic, the Kalevala
6 Romantic nationalism
6.1
19
with its own peculiar quality, and only when
in every people each individual develops himself in accordance with that common quality,
as well as in accordance with his own peculiar
qualitythen, and then only, does the manifestation of divinity appear in its true mirror as
it ought to be.[108]
were its workhorses. This is visible in Germany and Ireland, where underlying Germanic or Celtic linguistic substrates dating from before the Romanization-Latinization
were sought out. And, in Catalonia, nationalists reclaimed Catalanism from before the Hispanicization of
the Catholic Monarchs in the 15th century, when the
Crown of Aragon was unied with the Castilian nobility.
Early Romantic nationalism was strongly inspired by
Rousseau, and by the ideas of Johann Gottfried von
Herder, who in 1784 argued that the geography formed
the natural economy of a people, and shaped their customs and society.
The nature of nationalism changed dramatically, however, after the French Revolution with the rise of
Napoleon, and the reactions in other nations. Napoleonic
nationalism and republicanism were, at rst, inspirational
to movements in other nations: self-determination and a
consciousness of national unity were held to be two of the
reasons why France was able to defeat other countries in
battle. But as the French Republic became Napoleons
Empire, Napoleon became not the inspiration for nationalism, but the object of its struggle. In Prussia, the development of spiritual renewal as a means to engage in
the struggle against Napoleon was argued by, among others, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, a disciple of Kant. The word
Volkstum, or nationality, was coined in German as part
of this resistance to the now conquering emperor. Fichte
expressed the unity of language and nation in his address
To the German Nation in 1806:
Those who speak the same language are
joined to each other by a multitude of invisible
bonds by nature herself, long before any human
art begins; they understand each other and have
the power of continuing to make themselves
understood more and more clearly; they belong
together and are by nature one and an inseparable whole. ...Only when each people, left to
itself, develops and forms itself in accordance
20
7 GALLERY
Joseph
Wright,
arts of this period. Arguably, the most distinguished Ro1774, Cave at evening, Smith College Museum of
mantic poet of this part of Europe was Adam Mickiewicz,
Art, Northampton, Massachusetts
who developed an idea that Poland was the Messiah of
Nations, predestined to suer just as Jesus had suered
to save all the people. The Polish self-image as a "Christ
among nations" or the martyr of Europe can be traced
back to its history of Christendom and suering under
invasions. During the periods of foreign occupation, the
Catholic Church served as bastion of Polands national
identity and language, and the major promoter of Polish
culture. The partitions came to be seen in Poland as a
Polish sacrice for the security for Western civilization.
Philip James de
The most known ones are the moral aspect of part II,
Loutherbourg, Coalbrookdale by Night, 1801, a key
individualist and romantic message of part IV, as well as
location of the English Industrial Revolution
deeply patriotic,messianistic and Christian vision in part
III of poem. Zdzisaw Kpiski, however, focuses his interpretation on Slavic pagan and occult elements found in
French Romantic painting
the drama. In his book Mickiewicz hermetyczny he writes
about hermetic, theosophic and alchemical philosophy on
the book as well as Masonic symbols.
Gallery
Joseph
Vernet,
1759, Shipwreck; the 18th century sublime
Ingres, Death of
Leornardo da Vinci, 1818, one of his Troubadour
21
style works
John
Constable,
1821, The Hay Wain, one of Constables large six
footers
J. C. Dahl, 1826,
Eruption of Vesuvius, by Friedrichs closest follower
William Blake, c.
182427, The Wood of the Self-Murderers: The
Harpies and the Suicides, Tate
J. M. W. Turner,
The Burning of the Houses of Lords and Commons
(1835), Philadelphia Museum of Art
Eugne Delacroix,
Collision of Moorish Horsemen, 184344
Other
22
ROMANTIC AUTHORS
Bront family
Robert Burns
Lord Byron
Thomas Carlyle
Alexander Chavchavadze
Samuel Taylor Coleridge
Alexandre Dumas
Maria Edgeworth
Ralph Waldo Emerson
Ivan
Aivazovsky,
1850, The Ninth Wave, Russian Museum, St.
Petersburg
Ugo Foscolo
Aleksander Fredro
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
Nikolai Gogol
Nathaniel Hawthorne
Victor Hugo
Washington Irving
John Keats
Zygmunt Krasiski
Jzef Ignacy Kraszewski
Herman Melville
Adam Mickiewicz
Frederic
Edwin
Church, 1860, Twilight in the Wilderness, Cleveland
Museum of Art
Albert
Bierstadt,
1863, The Rocky Mountains, Landers Peak
Mary Robinson
George Sand
Walter Scott
Romantic authors
Mary Shelley
Percy Shelley
Jane Austen
Juliusz Sowacki
Nikoloz Baratashvili
William Blake
William Wordsworth
23
Scholars of Romanticism
Gerald Abraham
M. H. Abrams
Donald Ault
Jacques Barzun
Ian Bent
Isaiah Berlin
Tim Blanning
Harold Bloom
Friedrich Blume
James Chandler
Jerey N. Cox
Carl Dahlhaus
Northrop Frye
Peter Kitson
Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe
Paul de Man
[11] Day, 3
Jerome McGann
[12] Ruthven (2001) p.40 quote: Romantic ideology of literary authorship, which conceives of the text as an autonomous object produced by an individual genius.
Anne K. Mellor
Jean-Luc Nancy
Ashton Nichols
Leon Plantinga
Christopher Ricks
Charles Rosen
Ren Wellek
Susan J. Wolfson
10
See also
11
Notes
24
11 NOTES
[23] Day, 15
[24] Mellor, Anne; Matlak, Richard (1996). British Literature 1780-1830. NY: Harcourt Brace & Co./Wadsworth.
ISBN 978-1413022537.
[47] Or at least he tried to; Kean played the tragic Lear for a
few performances. They were not well received, and with
regret, he reverted to Nahum Tate's version with a comic
ending, which had been standard since 1689. See Stanley
Wells, Introduction from King Lear Oxford University
Press, 2000, p. 69.
[30] Berlin, 57
[31] Several of Berlins pieces dealing with this theme are collected in the work referenced. See in particular: Berlin,
34-47, 57-59, 183-206, 207-237.
[51] H. Gaskill, The Reception of Ossian in Europe (Continuum, 2004), ISBN 0826461352, p. 140.
25
[60] A. Benchimol, ed., Intellectual Politics and Cultural Conict in the Romantic Period: Scottish Whigs, English Radicals and the Making of the British Public Sphere (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2010), ISBN 0754664465, p. 209.
[85] McKay, James, The Dictionary of Sculptors in Bronze, Antique Collectors Club, London, 1995
[61] I. Brown, The Edinburgh History of Scottish Literature: Enlightenment, Britain and Empire (17071918)
(Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2007), ISBN
0748624813, pp. 22930.
[69] Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin (17991837)". University of Virginia Slavic Department. Retrieved 1 August
2011.
[70] Philip W. Silver, Ruin and restitution: reinterpreting romanticism in Spain (1997) p. 13
[109] Maria Tatar, The Hard Facts of the Grimms Fairy Tales,
p. 31 ISBN 0-691-06722-8
[110] Prilozi za knjievnost, jezik, istoriju i folklor (in Serbian). ,
. 1965. p. 264. Retrieved 19 January 2012.
[111] Jack Zipes, The Great Fairy Tale Tradition: From Straparola and Basile to the Brothers Grimm, p 846, ISBN 0393-97636-X
26
12
12
References
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28
13 FURTHER READING
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Zwischen Romantik und Moderne: vier Studien zur
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29
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14
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2x'
data-le-width='128'
data-leheight='128' /></a> Home page <a href='http://art.thewalters.org/detail/3792' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20'
height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png
1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-lewidth='620' data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Eugne Delacroix
File:Eugne_Delacroix_-_La_libert_guidant_le_peuple.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/Eug%
C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_La_libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This page from this gallery.
Original artist: Eugne Delacroix
File:Eugne_Delacroix_-_The_Bride_of_Abydos_-_WGA06224.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/c/c7/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_The_Bride_of_Abydos_-_WGA06224.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors:
Web Gallery of Art: <a href='http://www.wga.hu/art/d/delacroi/5/509delac.jpg' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Inkscape.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/20px-Inkscape.svg.png'
width='20'
height='20'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/30px-Inkscape.svg.png
1.5x,
https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/40px-Inkscape.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='60' data-le-height='60'
/></a> Image <a href='http://www.wga.hu/html/d/delacroi/5/509delac.html' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20'
height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png
1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-lewidth='620' data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Eugne Delacroix
File:Eugne_Ferdinand_Victor_Delacroix_043.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/Eug%C3%A8ne_
Ferdinand_Victor_Delacroix_043.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVDROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Eugne Delacroix
File:Ferdinand-Victor-Eugne_Delacroix,_French_-_The_Death_of_Sardanapalus_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/Ferdinand-Victor-Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix%2C_French_-_The_Death_of_
Sardanapalus_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: GQEXB6lJVIn9wA at Google Cultural Institute maximum
zoom level Original artist: Eugne Delacroix
File:Fra_Hardanger_Gude.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Fra_Hardanger_Gude.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: upload on http://en.wikipedia.org, 21:15, 10. Okt 2004 . . User:Leifern . . 600x488 Original artist: Hans
Gude
File:Gallen_Kallela_The_Forging_of_the_Sampo.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Gallen_
Kallela_The_Forging_of_the_Sampo.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: 2. The Bridgeman Art Library, Object 476496 Original
artist: Akseli Gallen-Kallela
File:GericaultHorseman.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/GericaultHorseman.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:
Q4233718'><img
alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.
svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png'
width='20'
height='11'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/
40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Giacomo_Meyerbeer_nuorempana.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/Giacomo_Meyerbeer_
nuorempana.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
15.2
Images
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34
15
15.3
Content license
35
15.3
Content license