Continental J.

Biological Sciences 3: 16 - 32, 2010

© Wilolud Journals, 2010

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF SOME UNDEREXPLOITED TREE SPECIES IN NIGERIA: URGENT

NEED FOR SEPARATE RESEARCH CENTERS
1
K. Okunomo and 2E.O. Egho
1
Department of Forestry and Wildlife and 2Department of Agronomy, Delta State University, Asaba
Campus, Asaba, Delta State

ABSTRACT
This study reviews the importance of some endangered tree species in Nigeria. Trees
are very important to people. They provide many products, including food for humans
and animals, timber, fuel and medicines. In the tropics (Nigeria inclusive) trees are
much more important as food crops and cash crops than in temperate zones. Proper
management of trees and forests is necessary to make resources sustainable. Trees
play an important part in traditional farming system in Nigeria not just as food and
cash crops but also as suppliers of fuel wood and fodder. The problem we are faced
with however is the high rate of deforestation. Some endangered but extremely
beneficial tree species are disappearing. Furthermore, due to the dearth of research
centers that will tackle specific trees by providing detailed information about such
trees, Nigerians are denied such benefits. The trees considered here are: Irvingia
gabonensis Chrysophyllum albidum, Dialium guineense, Dacryodes edulis, Annona
muricata. Treculia africana, Garcinia kola Parkia bicolor, Tetrapleura tetraptera and
Azadirachta indica. Detailed information about the botanical characteristics and
economic importance has been provided. It is recommended that research centers
should be established for this species either separately or combined as in the case of
some agronomic crops. This hopefully will reduce extinction and create more
awareness about the tremendous benefits derivable from these species.

KEYWORDS: Economic benefit, forest exploitation, research centers, endangered

species

INTRODUCTION
The country Nigeria which is officially referred to as the Federal Republic of Nigeria is a country in West
Africa and the most populous country in the Africa continent. Nigeria shares land borders with the republic
of Benin in the West, Chad and Cameroon in the east, Niger in the North, and borders the gulf of Guinea in
the south. Since 1991, its capital has been centrally located city of Abuja, previously, the Nigeria
government was head quartered in Lagos.

The people of Nigeria have an extensive history and based on archaeological evidence, human habitation of
the area dates back to at least 9000 B.C. The Benue-Cross river area is thought to be the original homeland
of the Bantu migrants who spread across most of central and Southern Africa in waves between the 1st
millennium BC and the 2nd millennium AD. However, the Nigerian state came into being on October 1,
1960 when Nigeria declared its independence from the British; and at present consists of 36 states and the
federal capital territory. Nigeria re-achieved democracy in 1999 after a sixteen year interruption by a series
of military dictators. From 1966 until 1999, Nigeria had been ruled except the short-lived second republic,
1979 – 1983) by military dictators who seized power in coups d’etat and counter-coups.

The people have been planting trees for thousand of years for food, shelter, ceremonial or religious
purposes: the Bible records Abraham planting a tamarisk tree to commemorate the treaty of Beersheba
(Gen 21:23). Probably the oldest planted tree still living, of which a reasonable historical record exists, is
actually in the tropics, in Sri Lanka where the Bodhi tree (Ficus religious) is recorded as being “planted”
miraculously at Anradhapura in about 220 B.C.

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In Nigeria presently, there is a considerable amount of emphasis being given to tree planting due mainly to
the climate change being experienced all over the world currently. However, this study’s purview goes
beyond these. It is seeking for a comprehensive strategy to develop research centers that will concentrate on
providing in-depth information on tree species with a view to alleviating our economic problems.

TRENDS IN NATIONAL FOREST POLICIES

Nigeria forestry started at the end of the 19th century but was formally launched in 1908 as a department
which has the responsibility for development of forest resources and agricultural production i.e forestry
started as an all embracing rural land use sector with responsibility for agricultural production, forestry and
fisheries production.

Between 1908 and 1916 there were series of proclamation which aimed at curtailing the effect of
cultivation in natural forests, specifically forest crops were singled out for protection. Exploitation firms
were compelled to replace trees that were felled by planting a number of seedlings for each felled tree.
Some areas were also identified for reservation and in particular fragile areas among water courses and
river basins were rigorously protected. The result was that a large number of areas were reserved in various
ecological zones of the country with the objectives in the long run that 25% of the superficial area of the
country would be under forest reserve after 1918.

As from 1914 following the amalgamation of Northern and Southern Nigeria a strong forestry department
came into being. It was made to reserve forest areas as quickly as possible. Consequently, a lot of forest
reserves were created between 1908 and 1930. However, a great deal of agitation ensued from the chiefs
and community leaders who felt that their movement and opportunity for shifting cultivation were greatly
limited. Eventually reversals were made to the so-called native authorities which were empowered to
manage the forest estate. Thus there was a positive movement in term of development policy objectives for
the creation of forest reserves between 1908 and 1930. This was followed by backward movement in term
of the mis-management of the forest resources by local or native authorities who did not have the capacity,
vision and development perspective for the forest estate. Inevitably, there was a slow down in the number
of forest reserves being created after 1930. Also because of the importance that agriculture eventually
gained as the base of the national economy, some crops that were originally managed or developed by the
forestry department were passed on to the agricultural department e.g. rubber species introduced by the
early foresters over the past 70 years have been developed as forest crops but since 1935 it has been
managed by the agricultural department. Thus forestry got contracted in terms of legal responsibility and in
term of a slow down in land acquisition for the sector.

In 1946 – 1956 development plan was promulgated for the whole country and forestry featured prominently
in that plan. However, during the political developments between 1948 and 1950 when the country
eventually emerged as a federation, forestry was considered as a separate subject and was passed on to the
concurrent list of topics for which the regional zones has the power to develop without interference from
the central government. Consequently, separate regional forestry department and policies emerged in
accordance to the wishes of the regional government set up in 1954. The federal government had no power
to manage the forest resources since the regional governments owned the forest land. Research was the
only topic reserved for the federal government.

Over the last thirty years there has been a great deal of divergence between the regional/state policies and
the ideal national forest policy that ought to be pursued in the general interest of the country. For the first
ten years or so there was no collaboration between the various regional governments in terms of forest
developments. Each regional government enunciated its own policy as well as project on the basis of legal
authority without reference to neighboring region and as if forest resources and forestry matters are easily
compartmentalized within political boundaries. However, it became obvious by 1960 that forestry affairs
and its effects thereof are not always strictly limited to the political boundaries.

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Consequently, a committee known as forest/technical committee was set up in 1961. It was set up to
provide opportunities for exchange of ideas and views between the regions chief conservator of forests. The
Forestry Technical Committee was originally headed by the Director, Federal/Department of Forest
Research. Subsequently, the committee work and activities grew in a conventional manner both in scope
and volume to assume an air of authority and policy pronouncement. That committee was transformed in
1970 to what is now known as the National Forestry Development Committee Abo in 1910 by the Federal
Department of Forestry Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources. The National Forestry
Development Committee (NFDC) since then has become a formidable forestry organ in the country.

Although the 19 states at that time still had the constitutional power to develop forestry resources potential
at their convenience. Nevertheless the fact that NFDC met regularly twice a year under the director (FDF)
there has been continuing process of collaboration and correspondence between the various state
government on the one hand, and the state government and the federal government on the other hand.

The members of the (NFDC) consists of the chief conservator of forests (CCF), Director, Forestry Research
Institute of Nigeria and the Heads of Department of forestry in Nigeria Universities. Because the meetings
were held twice a year, a great deal of topics of interest of various state governments are tackled and
discussed with a consensus being arrived at the end. e.g. a number of projects have been developed either
with federal government direct finance or through the support of the international agencies. Also the FDF
have offices in all states of the federation thus providing, a unique opportunity for the federal government
to assist forestry development in the states and for the state to take advantage of the opportunity available
from the neighboring states. Many a time the states are helped to develop their forest resources than they
would have been able to do on their own.

Although, there is a federal constitution and the regulatory forestry policy that started in 1954 are still
largely invoked, and that state forest policies are still constitutionally dependent on the federal government
nevertheless there has been a growing together particularly since 1970 in the formulation of long, and short
term programmes between the states.

The situation as of today, is that there is no forestry service that is financially strong and capable to go it
alone. They have to depend on the federal department of forestry and occasionally the neighbouring state
forestry service for assistance.

TREE SPECIES REQUIRING SEPARATE RESEARCH CENTERS

Presently, there is only one forestry research institute of Nigeria headed by a director saddled with the
responsibility of coordinating forestry research activities in Nigeria. The problem facing the organization at
the moment is under funding. However, the major concern of this study is decentralizing the forestry
research institute, as is common with agricultural crops by so doing opportunities for in depth research on a
particular tree crops will be readily available. Research activities on food crop will be greatly enhanced
with specific findings that will contribute greatly to the economic development of the country.

The various economic species referred to are listed below:

C. Irvingia gabonensis
Irvingia gabonensis and Irvingia wombolu are the two tree species that produce the most economically
viable non-timber forest products from the rain forest zone of West Africa (Ladipo, 2000). These Irvingia
species are found growing wild in the humid lowland forests of tropical Africa in Angola, Cameroon,
Central African Republic (Harris 1990).

Irvingia gabonensis prefers well drained sites while Irvingia wombolu thrives in wetter conditions. They
are also found in compound farms and it is not uncommon to find Irvingia trees protected in cocoa, cola
and coffee plantation (Ladipo, 2000).

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Bush mango is planted and maintained in farms in Central and Western Africa. Presently, most farmers
maintain mature bush mango trees that are already grown, on their land and will also transplant seedling
onto their farms (Ayuk et al, 1999). New seedlings are also raised from selected seeds from trees that are
known to produce high yields of good fruits or from seeds procured from the market. However, the most
common source of new stock for cultivation is from the forest (Tchoundjeu et al, 1997).

Irvingia gabonensis and Irvingia wombolu are very similar and indeed are often difficult to tell apart from
herbarium specimen alone (Harris, 1996). There are not many differences between the two species except
the edibility of the fruit mesocarp (fruit sweetness), seed characteristics and some tree morphological
differences. Some differences listed by Hariss (1996) include the density of fibres in the cotyledon
(drawability), the size of the endosperm, the height at first branching, the disc shape of the tree as
diagnostic characteristics. Two varieties have been identified (Okafor, 1975) based on the reproductive
phenological observation. He reported differences in flowering and fruiting between these varieties.

Irvingia gabonensis and Irvingia wombolu, the bush mango is the sources of “ogbono” the Irvingia kernel
which is popularly used as soup thickener in most West and Central African countries. The popularity of
the kernels in local and international markets has highlighted its potentials as a true commercial crop, and
this has resulted in more intensive collection of Irvingia fruits from the forests (Ladipo, 2000). Local
people gather the fruits of Irvingia gabonensis and Irvingia wombolu and many other mammals consume
the fruits in the forests. The juicy pulp of Irvingia gabonensis is sweet and rich in vitamin C and is widely
consumed as a dessert fruits or snack in the region (Ladipo, 1999). The fruit can be used for making jam,
jelly, juice and wine (Akubor, 1996). Irvingia gabonensis fruits and seeds constitute a significant part of the
diets of forest elephants, gorillas, forest pigs, squirrels and other rodents (Tchamba and Seme, 1993).

The consideration of Irvingia as a strategic crop and one that has immense value for food security cannot
be over-emphasized if we consider its nutrient values. This is very important where resource poor farmers
whose diet revolves around starchy foods are involved. The attractiveness of Irvingia is derived from the
highly valuable by-product of the fruit – the kernel. The kernels which are classified as oilseeds are ground
into a paste or cake called ‘dika bread’ which is used as soups, stews or sauce additive for flavouring and
thickening (Leakey et al 2003). Irvingia kernels provide carbohydrates and protein, forming an important
part of the diet in West and Central Africa (Onyeke et al, 1995). Margarine, Cooking oil, soap, cosmetics
and pharmaceuticals are produced from fat extracted from the kernels (Ejiofor et al; 1987).

Other uses of this socio-economically important fruit crop include medicinal preparations, environmental
conservation (Tchoundjeu et al, 2000), fodder and chewing stick. The roots, leaves and bark of Irvingia
species are used medicinally in the treatment of diarrhoea, shortening of breast feeding (Ndoye and
Tchoundjeu et al, 1995) as well as for hernia, yellow fever and as An anti – poison. Aside from its role as a
thickener, the residual kernel cake can be used as a binder in food or pharmaceutical product (Joseph,
1995).

Irvingia gabonensis and Irvingia wombulu are ranked first in the list of high value agro forestry tree species
by farmers in the priority settings survey conducted by the International Centre for Research in
Agroforestry (ICRAF) and partners in four countries; Cameroon, Gabon, Ghana and Nigeria (Tchoundjeu
et al., 2002). Many rural dwellers depend on NTFPs for their livelihood and income (Baranty et al; 2001).

The trees are a valuable source of income for West and Central African farmers through the sales of kernels
which fetch a price higher than the fruits (Ayuk et al.,1999). Ladipo (1999), reported that the market for
kernel products was worth in the region of US $50 million. This market which extends to local, regional
and international levels is growing.

Chrysophyllum albidum
Chrysophyllum albidum is a lowland rainforest tree that is usually planted in villages extending from Sierra
Leone to East Africa, it belongs to the family of Sapotaceae, which is relatively large in Nigeria alone. All

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members of the family are trees or shrubs occurring mostly in the rainforest with very few in forest outliers
and riparian forest in the savannah regions.

Under favourable condition, Chrysophyllum albidum may grow up to 36.5 m tall, though it is often small.
The leaves are very important in the preparations of various medicines. The fruit is a large berry containing
four to five flattened seeds or sometimes fewer due to seed abortion (Keay, 1989). Its fruit pulp which is
sweet and pleasantly slightly acidic is edible. Within the head seed coat is the whitish cotyledon which is
used for medicinal purpose including leaves and fruits. The plant has in recent times become a crop of
commercial value in Nigeria. The fleshy pulp is eaten especially as snack and relished by both young and
old (Cenrad, 1999). Chrysphyllum albidum is reported as an excellent source of vitamins, iron, flavours to
diets and raw materials to some manufacturing industries (Umelo, 1997 and Adisa, 2000). In addition, its
seeds are a source of oil, which is used for diverse purposes. The seeds are also used for local games
(Bada, 1997). Traditionally, the fruits are considered as blessings to humanity especially, its potential to
effectively improve the reproductive capacity of men and women. Chrysophyllum is not one of the well
known indigenous fruit trees but it is also among the known multipurpose forest tree species as the wood of
the matured tree is converted for utilization purposes in houses and huts. In certain cases, the wood is used
in household articles and tools handles.

Dialium guineense
In Nigeria, Dialium guineense flowers from September to October and fruits from October to January while
in Ghana, from September to November the tree is covered with small white flowers in panicles. Fruits
ripen in March too May but could extend beyond July. Animals, which like to eat pulp in which the seeds
are embedded, help disperse the fruit.

However, the fruit can also be transported by water since it floats; transporting by sea currents may lead to
long-distance dispersal.

The importance of Dialium guineense cannot be over-emphasized although, this crop is not too well known
and not much has been done on it either. Dialium guineense is edible and widely consumed by the people
of Southern Nigeria the pulp is red with a sweet sour, has a stringent flavour similar to baobab but sweeter.
It is peeled and eaten raw; it can be a little constipating. The species belongs to the family Caesalpinaceae.

BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS (Dialium guineense)

It’s about 30 m in height with a densely leafy crown, but often shrubby. Bole without buttresses, Bark is
smooth, grey, slash reddish, yielding a little red gum. Leaves sometimes finely hairy, with a common stalk,
5 – 13cm long, with an odd terminal leaflet and usually two pairs of opposite or alternate leaflet. The
flowers are usually whitish, in large panicles up to 30 cm long. The branches spread
widely and less horizontally. Fruits are usually abundant, more or less circular and flattened but sometimes
almost glabrous, up to 2.5cm in diameter.

The origin of the generic name is not known J.E. Smith a noted 18th Century English Botanist, sought it and
could not discover it, nor have modern Botanist. The specific name means “of guinea” (Krugman et al;
1998) enriching, refreshing fruit pulp can also be soaked in water and drank as a beverage. Leaves are bitter
they may be used to cook daomoda, a Ghanaian dish that taste both sweet and bitter. It is a good source of
fuel. The tree is good for firewood, charcoal and timber. The sap wood is white with distinct ripple marks;
the heartwood is red-brown. Because the heartwood has high silicate content, axes and saw quickly get
blunt when used on it. The wood is hard, durable, heavy, light brown, with a fine texture. It is used for
vehicles, houses and flooring. The bark and leaves are used against several diseases such as malaria,
diabetes etc.

Harvesting the tree is difficult because the wood is dense. They often have tall buttresses, which have to be
slashed before cutting, as much of the wood would be wasted if the trunk were cut above the buttresses.
The logs cannot be transported by river as they could sink.

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Dialium guineense grows in dense savannah forest, shadowing canyons and gallery forest. It is found from
Senegal to Sudan along the southern border of the sahel. It is the most common and widespread Dialium
guineense in Nigeria. In Ghana, Dialium guineense is found along transition zones bordering high forest in
riperean forest of the savannah woodland, in coastal scrub, and in riparian vegetation of the Volta near Ada.

Dacryodes edulis
Dacryodes edulis is a medium-sized, evergreen tree attaining a height of 18-40 cm in the forest but not
exceeding 12 m in plantation, it is generally branched from top down, with a deep, dense crown. The bole
is rather short and slightly fluted, about 50-70 cm in diameter and more or less sinuous. The scented pale,
grey rough bark exudes a whitish resin, but gums are absent. Leaves are compound, imparipinnate, with 5-8
pairs of glossy leaflets. Based on long term and extensive field observation in Nigeria, two varieties of
Dacryodes edulis were discovered. Dacryodes edulis var edulis and Dacryodes edulis var parvicarpa. The
fruit of the former is large, elongated, cylindrical and usually more than 5 x 2.5cm. The fruit is thick and
about 3.5-9 cm. The tree often has whorled branching, the branchlets are stout and in ascending order. The
fruit of Dacryode edulis var. parvicarpa is small, rounded and more or less conical, usually less than 5x2.5
cm in size. The fruit pulp is thin, about 2-3.5 cm. Often the tree has bifurcate branching, with slender
dropping branchlets.

The African pear (Dacryodes edulis) is a member of the family Burseraceae (Yombi et al., 1998). Native
pear is typical agroforest species that is widely planted and found mainly in home gardens. It produces
fruits that are softened in hot water or hot ash and eaten in conjunction with boiled or roasted maize
especially during farming season when most of the staple foods such as yam and cocoyam have been
exhausted. The fruit is botanically rich in edible vegetable oil (Bassey, 1982). Kapsou (1996), analyzed the
fruit characteristics and fatty acid composition of pulp oil of two types of African pear. They discovered
that the African pears were significantly different with regards to fatty acid composition.

Dacryodes edulis has been a priority edible fruit species for domestication work in humid West Africa. The
fruit consist of a large seed surrounded by a thin mesocarp. It is rarely taken raw, eaten with maize; and
female plants do not flower at the same time, so pollen storage is necessary to control pollination. This
species is one of the most preferred trees species by farmers in the hummed lowland of Cameroon. It is
used as supplementary feed for chicks.

Functional Uses
The principal value of the species is in its fruit. The fruit has a leathery, shelled seed surrounded by a pulpy,
butyraceous pericarp about 5cm thick which is the proportion eaten either raw or cooked in form of a soft
butter. It has a mild smell of turpentine and is oily. The fruits are boiled in salt water, fried or roasted over
charcoal. The fruit pulp yields about 48% edible oil, its rich in vitamins and contains a range of amino
acids. The kernels which contains about 3.3% proteins, is commonly fed to domesticated livestock such as
sheep and goals. The wood is elastic, grayish, white to pinkish, the sapwood and heartwood is difficult to
distinguish. The wood has general use for tool handles, particularly axe shafts, and occasionally for mortars
and is suitable for carpentry. The bark is used as aromatic on injury. It yields a resin that is used as pitch on
calabashes and for mending earthen ware. It can be burnt as a primitive lamp oil or bush candle. The leaves
of Dacryodes edulis contain a dye. The wood contains an oil that when used as petrol ether extraction has
been found to be composed of fatty acids and esters. The fresh pulp is rich in lipids (55-65%) with a
considerable amount of palmitic and linoliec acid. The tree can produce 7-8l/ha of oil. The resin has been
reported to yield a peppery essential oil rich in sabinene.

This species is a perennial cure for a variety of ailments, ranging from ear infections to fevers and oral
problems. In Nigeria, the resin is used for treating parasitic skin diseases and jiggers. Pulped bark is used to
cicatrice wounds. In the Democratic Republic of Congo a bark decoction is used for gargle mouth wash and
for tonsillitis. It is taken in a powdered form with meleguetta pepper as an anti-dysenteric and for anaemia.
With palm oil, it is applied tropically to relieve general pains and stiffness and to treat cutaneous
conditions. A decoction of the root bark is taken for leprosy.

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Annona muricata (Soursop)

The origin of most of the species of Annona muricata (Soursop) is South America and the Anfilla, however
wild soursop is thought to have originated in Africa. The current distribution of the five species covers
almost all continents, with soursop and sugar apple, showing the wildest distribution mainly in tropical
regions.

The number of genera and species in the family Annonaceae is still debated. The family has 40 to 50
genera and more than 500 species, most of which are shrubs and small trees. A limited number of species
produce edible fruits including many gathered from the wild, and some that have been domesticated. Most
of the species are found in the tropics, with only a few genera present in the temperate zone.

Botanical Description
The name Annonas derives from the Latin “annual harvest” (Lizana and Reginato, 1990). The genus
presents numerous unifying characteristics, especially relating to plant height, root system, bark, stem,
floral biology, pollination, fruit set and fruit type. There are important variations among Annonas seedlings
in the same species, affecting not only the mature foliage and productivity of the plants, but also the fruit
size, form, colour, quality and number of seeds in the fruit. These variations are often pronounced enough
to have resulted in several botanical names for the same species.

In general, the Annonas are shrubs or small trees, whose weight varies from 5 to 11m depending on several
factors such as species climate, soil and crop management. They are erect or some what spreading in habit,
with grey brown bark, often rough and corrugated. Generally stems are ferruginous to grayish; they are
tormentoze when young but later becoming glabrous. With few exceptions, Annonas are deciduous, even
tropical species, especially when grown in water in areas with dry or cool seasons and without irrigation.

Description of Annona muricata

The soursop has an erect growth habit with a high canopy height–to– diameter ratio (Pinto and Silva,
1996), although it tends to be low-branching and bushy with upturned limbs (NAS, 1975).

It is small, slender, evergreen tree 4 to 8m tall when fully mature. It was domesticated in lowland South
American as a garden plant.

The stems are rounded, rough and not pubescent, with a dark-brown colour. The leaves have short petioles,
and are oblong-ovate to cylindrical, 14 to 16 cm in length and 5 to 7 cm in width. The flowers of soursop
are much larger than those of the other four species. The flowers start to open in the early morning and
complete anthesis takes approximately 6hours, depending on the climate. Soursop produces an ovate,
conical or heart shaped fruit that is dark green when ripe. The fruit has 127 to 170 seeds, scattered
throughout the pulp. They are toxic. Seed size varies from 1 to 2cm in length and from 0.33 to 0.59g in
weight with a black colour soon after harvest, but becoming dark brown later (Pinto and Silva, 1996).

Pulp Properties
Annona Pulp is useful foods because they contain proteins, fatty acids fibres, carbohydrate, minerals and
vitamins.

Soursop pulp is considered to be aromatic and exotic, and is consumed mostly after processing into cold
beverages or sometimes eating fresh. The edible portion constitutes 667.5% of total fruit weight. The
characteristics flavour of this fruit is produced by amyl and geramyl caproic acids. The processed pulp is
used to prepare juices and ice-creams. In Cuba, the pulp is processed to prepare an alcoholic drink called
champola. The most important sugars are fructose (1.8%), glucose (2.3%) and sucrose (6.6%). The most
common acid in its pulp is citric acid. Source of fruits contains vitamin A and B. Also it is the only
ammona with tannius its pulp (Castro et al, 1984).

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Uses of Annona muricata

a. Food Products
Soursop fruits are occasionally consumed fresh or more commonly made into juices and ice creams (Pinto
and Silva, 1994). Most people consider it to be acidic for eating fresh, but it is used for making refreshing
drinks, ice creams and similar foods nectar (sweetened pulp) can be prepared and used after dilution with 3
pints of water. In Java, Indonesia fruits of soursop are added to soup.

b. Mechanical Uses
Various plant parts are also widely used in folk medicine, because of the bioactive compounds (mainly
acetogenis, alkaloids and flavonoids) found in the roots, leaves, bark, fruits and seeds. The bark contain
alkaloids, the leaves have essential oils with parasiticide, anti-diarhoeae, rheumatological and anti-nueragic
properties (Moural, 1988). Boiled water infusions of leaves help treat diabetes and gastric upsets and used
as kidney ailments. The cooked flowers and petals are used for healing eye inflammations, the treatment
requires 2-3 washes a day. Immature soursop fruits have medicinal properties against dysentery, cancer,
skin diseases, rashes, fever, malaria, peptic ulcer, colic and Oedema (Khan et al, 1997).

Treculia africana (African bread fruit)

Treculia africana as commonly known belongs to the family Moraceae. Other members of the family are
Ficus exasperata, Millicia excelsa, Artocarpus spp. There are three species in the genus Treculia, Treculia
africana (decne), T. obvoidea and T. acuminata (Keay et al., 1964). The first two species are used for
furniture making and as fuel wood, but the third one is a slender forest shrub used for construction work.

Treculia africana is generally found along streams and water courses. Its distributions extend from latitude
150N of Angola and down to Saotome Island. It is widely distributed in the following town of Nigeria
mostly in Oyo, Ogun, Anambra, Cross River, Delta and Imo State.

Botanical Characteristics
Treculia africana has a bole usually fluted at the base without buttress. The bark is smooth, light grey to
green in colour. It has a copious milky latex when the tree is cut that comes out of it. It grows up to 37 m in
length and 3 m girth. Branches and young foliage are glabrous and softy hairy. Leaves are 4 – 8 inch wide.
Fruit is greenish, spongy in texture and it is 15 cm long, more in diameter containing numerous individual
fruit-like orange – pips. The fruit germinates around February/March every year (Keay et al 1989). The
flower is brownish yellow. The flowery period of the tree is between October and February (Keay et al
1989). The seeds are round, sometimes elongated about 1.3 m long, Mesocarp is over 5-inch thick. The
leaves are 4-8inches long and 3-4inches broad.

Economic Importance
Treculia africana and other forest food plants like Pentachlethra macrophylla (oil bean seed), Dacryodes
edulis are of high nutritional value which needs to be introduced or added to our food materials consumed.
The importance attached to them is the fact that many of them are usually available at strategic period of
the year when annual crops that are difficult to store are unavailable or scarce (Okafor, 1978).

The wood of Treculia africana is used in many furniture manufacturing companies and also for paper
production. The fruit pulp and leaves are fed to livestock. The pulp is prepared into a paste like pounded
yam, it’s sometimes used as a substitute for pounded yam.

Proximate composition of Treculia africana

Energy K/Cal 43.3 - 489
Protein (g) 15.0 – 20.5
Fat (g) 12.2 – 18.6
Total carbohydrate 60.0 – 65.8
Ash 2.0 – 2.4

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 K. Okunomo and E.O. Egho Continental J. Biological Sciences 3: 16 - 32, 2010

Garcinia kola
The Garcinia kola commonly known as “bitter kola” which has its name Garcinia named after a French
botanist called Laurence Garcin in 18 century (Rai, 2003). The species occurs mostly in West Africa
countries such as Cameroon, Central African Republic, Gabon, Zaire, Benin, Cote D’ivoire, Liberia,
Nigeria and Sierra Leone. It is a widespread tree of evergreen forests.

It is an indigenous medicinal tree belonging to the family Gutiferae. It is well branched, evergreen and
grown as a medium size trees reaching 12m high in 12 years, and found in moist forests throughout West
and Central Africa. The seeds of Garcinia kola have pharmacological uses in treating coughs, throat
infections, bronchitis, hepatitis, (inflammation of the liver), liver disorders (Farombi et al., 2005).

According to Adegoke et al. (1998), seeds of Garcinia kola have inhibitory effects or lipid peroxidation in
rat liver homogenate. The seeds, which serve as, a bitter stimulant also serve as snake repellant when they
are placed round the compound (Nair, 1990). Other medicinal uses include: purgative, antiparasitic, and
antimicrobial. The seeds are used to prevent and relive colic, cure headache or cold. The seeds constituents
include; biflaronoids, xanthones and benzophenones and flavonones. The plant has also shown some
bronchodilator effect also anti-inflamatory, anti-microbial, anti-bacterial and antiviral properties. In
laboratory tests, Garcinia kola was found to halt the deadly disease caused by Ebola virus in its track.
Compounds from the plant have also proved effective against some strains of flu, a contagious respiratory
disease also commonly known as influenza (Iwu, 1993). Its by-products are also useful: the wood makes
excellent fuel-wood, its dense rounded crown makes it an ideal tree for shade around homestead, the
branches are used as chewing stick because of its bitter taste and anti-bacterial activities of its extracts.
(Taiwo et al., 1999).

Parkia bicolor (A.Cheu)

Parkia bicolor (A.Cheu) belongs to the family mimosaceae and order Parkiaea and of the genus Parkia
(Burkill 2004). It is a useful plant of West tropical Africa. Parkia bicolor extends from Guinea to Zaire.
The tree is usually found by the river bank and can grow up to about 100m high. This species is readily
distinguished from Parkia biglobosa by its forest habit and its much smaller leaflets which are always
opposite (Keay, 1989). The thin layer chromatography of the hexane and ethanol extracts of Parkia bicolor
and Parkia biglobosa have been found to display similar properties (Aiyeleagbe, et al; 1996). Extracts of P.
bicolor were slightly more active than those of Parkia biglobosa.

In the Savanna zone of Nigeria., Parkia biglobosa popular known as the African locust bean tree is well
known for its ability to provide shade and is usually planted around the home and used for relaxation. The
fermented seeds of Parkia bicolor and Parkia biglobosa are used in all parts of Nigeria and indeed the
West Coast of Africa for seasoning traditional soups. The oil from the seeds is also extracted and used for
various purposes. Seeds of various species of Parkia have also been investigated for their protein and
amino acid contents (Aiyeleagbe et al; 1996).

A phytochemical analysis of P. bicolor have also reveal the presence of some ingredients such as cardiac
glycosides, tannins, glucosides, steroids, alkaloids e.t.c.

The tree is also utilized as fuel wood among others. Odunfa (1981) stated that the fruit pulp and seeds of
Parkia are also known to be rich in protein and amino acids with a high concentration of glutamic acid.

A phytochemical screening seems to justify the use of the leaf of Parkia for cardiac conditions as
appreciable amount was present in P. biglobosa, alone and not P. bicolor (Ajaiyeoba, 1996).

Tretra pleura tetraptera (Taub)

It is commonly known as Aridan, in Nigeria. It belongs to the family Fabacaea which is widely used in
African traditional medicine for the management and control of an array of human ailments including,
schistosomiasis, asthma, epilepsy, hypertension and for seasoning, flavouring and enhancing the taste of

24
 K. Okunomo and E.O. Egho Continental J. Biological Sciences 3: 16 - 32, 2010

foods, beverages and drugs (Dalziel, 1937). In Eastern parts of Nigeria, the fruits are used to prepare soup
for nursing mothers form the first day of delivery and also used as a mosquito repellant (Adewunmi et al.,
2001).

Tetrapleura tetraptera is generally found in the lowland rainforest of tropical Africa. Its distribution
extends over large parts of tropical Africa, especiallyWest and East Africa (Ojewale and Adewunmi 2004).
It is widely distributed in the following towns in Nigeria mostly in Osun, Niger Delta areas of Nigeria,
Ondo and Oyo states.

Tetrapleura tetraptera is an important spice tree and it is distinguished by the dark green leaves and thick,
woody bark and spreading branches and have four longitudinal wing-like rather fleshy ridge about 2cm.

Botanical Characteristics
Tetrapleura tetraptera plant is a single stemmed, robust, perennial tree with dark green leaves and thick,
woody base and spreading branches. The tree reaches 20 to 25 m in height and may attain a girth of 1.5 m
and has sharp buttress. It is reddish, hard and heavy wood. It is used for firewood, building poles, pestle,
tool handles and carvings. It has a gray/brown, smooth/rough bark with glabrous branchlets.

The fruits are green when tender and dark red brown when fully ripe. The fruit is also 25cm long with four
longitudinal wing-like ridges rarely 3cm broad. The flowers are pinkish cream, turning orange and are
placed solitarily or in pairs, axillary or terminal inflorescence. The flowering period of the tree is between
May and June. The seeds rattle in the pods, are small, black and hard. The fruits and seed are rich in some
macro-elements such as potassium, iron, magnesium and phosphorus but sodium content was low. Sucrose,
fructose and glucose were detected in the fruits and seeds (Dosunmu, 1997).

The leaves are sessile and glabrous, minutely hairy with a common stalk 15 – 30cm long, slightly
channeled on the upper surface. It is Sipinnate to eight pairs of pinnae, placed opposite to each other.

Economic Importance of the Species

The fruit shell, fruit pulp and seed contained varying amounts of nutrients such as protein, lipids and
minerals which were comparable and some were even higher than popular spices and ginger (Essien et al.,
1994). In Eastern Nigeria, fruits are used to prepare soups for mothers from the first day of delivery to
prevent postpartum contraction (Achinewu and Obomanu 1995). Spices are products of plants which are
mostly used for seasoning, flavorings and thus enhancing the taste of foods, beverages and drugs (Iwu,
1993).

Okwu (2003), gave the proximate composition of T. tetraptera as follows: crude protein (7.44% - 17.50%),
crude lipid (4.98% - 20.36%), crude fibre (17% - 20.24%), carbohydrate (43.18% - 49.06%) and food
energy (234.18% - 42,379.48 gl Cal) the species were also sources of minerals e.g, calcium, phosphorus,
potassium, zinc and iron, while the phytochemical screening revealed the presence of tannins phenolic
compounds, saponins, alkaloids, steroids and flavoniods which could be subsumed to be responsible for its
varied biological and pharmacological properties.

Azadirachta indica
Azadirachta indica is one of oldest trees of immense benefit to mankind. They not only provide food and
shelter but also serve humanity by preventing and curing different ailments. Herbs and spices have been
helpful to cure disease. In modern animal feeding, they are forgotten because of use of anti microbial
growth promoters (AGP). But due to the prohibition of most of AGP, plant extracts however gained interest
in animal feed strategies (Charis et al; 2000). The risk of the presence of antibiotic in milk and meat and
their harmful effects on human health led to their prohibition for use in animal feed in the European Union
(Cardozo et al; 2004). Azadirachta indica also produce secondary metabolites such as phenolic compounds,
essential oils and sarasaponins (Kamel, et al; 2001).

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 K. Okunomo and E.O. Egho Continental J. Biological Sciences 3: 16 - 32, 2010

The practice of herbal medicine dates back to the very earliest period of known human history. There is
evidence of herbs having been used in the treatment of diseases and for re-vitalizing body system in almost
all ancient civilizations. The Egyptian, the Chinese and previous literature shows that use of herbs in
animal feed improved the weight gain of animals. These can be used simultaneously for treating parasitic
diseases as well as increasing weight gain and act as growth promoters. The mature tree of Azadirachta
indica (Neem) plant can produce 350kg of leaves a year, which may be used for feeding cattle during
famines. After the oil has been pressed out from the seeds of Neem, the cake is used as fertilizer but it can
also be used as feed. Kudke et al. (1999) posited that up to 10% neem cake may be included in concentrates
for cattle and up to 5% for poultry. Hayat et al; (2002) studied comparative prophylaectic effects of
indigenous preparations of bakin (Melia azadarach) and ilerala (Momordica charntia) in comparison with
the salinomycim against coccodiosis in broiler chicks.

Azadirachta indica, is widely known as neem, a tree that has proven benefit for both city and farm dwellers
throughout the dry tropics and subtropics. Neem has long been recognized as a versatile multipurpose tree
for urban re-greening: agro forestry, fuel wood production, and for a variety of other products including
biopesticides. Azadirachta indica is a member of the Meliaceae (mahogany) family. It has been referred to
in the past by the botanical names, Melia azadarach (chinaberry). The tree is also known as neem,
margosa, limba, minba, nimba, kohomba, and India lilac (Parkar et al; 2003).

Botany
Neem is a small to medium sized tree with a short, straight bole. The stem branches at 2 – 5m forming a
broad, dense, round or oval crown. Total height is 15-25cm, occasionally reaching up to 30 cm, with a stem
diameter ranging from 30 to 90cm. Neem is characterized by a long, penetrating lateral root system, which
can extend up to 15m, with a relatively short tap root. Neem has moderately thick, fissured, grey outer bark,
with a reddish brown inner bark. It is evergreen or deciduous depending on the climate. Leafless periods
are usually brief, occurring during extended drought. Leaves are at the tip of branches. The tree produces
many small, sweet-scented, white or cream colored, bisexual flowers. The fruit is a smooth, ellipsoidal
drupe, 1.2-2.0 long, containing usually one seed. The fruit is initially green and turns yellow as it ripens in
about 12 weeks after full bloom. Neem trees are prolific fruit producers, starting as early as 3-5 years, and
becoming fully productive at 10-12 years (Charis et al., 2000).

Ecology
Neem adapts to a broad range of climate and soil conditions. It is normally found at elevations between sea
level and 700m. Neem can grow at altitudes up to 1500m, as long as temperatures remain moderate, as it
does not withstand cold or frost. Neem tolerates extremely high temperature, but its normal range is about
9.50C – 370C. It is also highly drought tolerant, and once established, it can survive 7-8 month dry seasons.
It requires as little as 150mm rainfall per year in areas where the root system can access ground water
within 9-12m of the surface, however, it performs best in zones receiving 450-1200mm per year. Neem
prefers deep, permeable sandy soils, but can be planted in a wide variety of soil types, including difficult
sites where most other species do not perform well. It can thrive on rocky, dry, shallow, infertile soils, but
is not recommended for rocky, shallow, infertile soils, but is not recommended for silty or micaceous
loams, silty clay soils, saline soils, or where sub-surface hard pan or laterite out cropping occur (NRC,
2000). Neem should also not be planted on sites where soils become waterlogged or seasonally inundated.
It prefers a soil pH in the 6.2-7.0 range but can grow within a range of 5.0-8.0 pH. Mature neem trees are
light demanding but seedlings tolerate moderate shade during their first growing season especially on dry
sites (Dash et al., 2004).

Distribution
Azadirachta indica is indigenous to South Asia, possibly originating in northern Myanmar and the Assan
region of India. Neem’s natural habitat is dry, deciduous, mixed forest, occurring in association with
Acacia spp and Dalbergia sissoo (Lemments at al., 2005). It is widespread in India, Pakistan, Myanmar, Sri,
Lanka, Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia. Neem has been introduced and established throughout the tropics

26
 K. Okunomo and E.O. Egho Continental J. Biological Sciences 3: 16 - 32, 2010

and sub tropics, especially in drier areas in south east Asia, the pacific islands, Australia, South and Central
America, the Caribbean, Sub-Saharan Africa and the Middle Fast (Kael, et al; 2001).

Economic Importance
i. Agro-forestry and urban forestry:
Neem plays an important role in both urban and rural landscapes. Its well formed crown and short
deciduous period has made it a popular choice for shade planting around buildings and along road sides. It
is also used on forms as a pasture tree to shade livestock and in boundary rows. Neem is not used as
hedgerows or alley cropping, but is used in wind breaks and shelter belts to protect crops from wind
damage and soils from erosion (Cardozo et al; 2004).

ii. Wood products:

Neem produces a moderately dense wood, somewhat similar to mahogany. The wood has a specific gravity
of 0.52-0.85, averaging 0.68 (N.R.C, 2000). The heart wood portion is reddish brown, while the sap wood
has a yellowish gray or grayish white color. The wood is hard, durable, dull to some what lustrous,
aromatic and resistant to insects and fungi. The wood dries with only slight shrinkage, seasons well, and is
easy to work, but the rough, interlocked grain does not take a high polish. Neem sawn timber is used in
light construction and to make beams, door and window frames, boxes, crates, carts, axles, yokes, cabinets,
panels, boats, oars, cigar boxes, carvings, toys, drums, and agricultural implement. It is also used for
furniture especially wardrobes, book case, and closets, because the wood repels insects. Neem trees are
often managed under pollarding or coppicing systems to produce posts and poles. The round wood is also
used as fuel wood and makes very good charcoal. At 14% moisture content the wood gives an energy value
of 16.92 mega joules/kg (Lemmens et al., 2005).

iii. Non-timber products

Useful products can be harvested from almost every part of the neem tree. The bark produces tannins, a
fiber used to make rope, and a resin used to make glue. Bark is used medicinally as a remedy for fever, and
fruit pulp is also used as a tonic; leaves are used as mulch and green manure, and can also be used as
fodder. The leaves have a crude protein content of 12-18%, because they have a bitter taste, livestock
usually prefer other foods. Neem leaves mixed in with stored grain house traditionally been used in India to
repel insects and prevent food and seed losses.

iv Azadirachta
The principal active compound in the leaves is azadirachtin, which repels pests, acts as an anti-feedant, and
disrupts insects growth and reproduction. Several bio active compounds are found in the leaves and other
tissues, however, the neem seed kernel’s are the main source of azadirachtin. Neem seed contains the most
concentrated and accessible amounts of other potentially useful compounds as well. Neem based pesticides
have already been approved for various applications and are being produced commercially in several
countries (Randhawa et al; 2007).

v. Neem oil and neem seed cake

Neem seeds will yield 40-50% oil when the dry kernels are crushed or pressed through an oil mill. Neem is
used as fuel for lumps. An antiseptic for animal wounds, a lubricant for machinery, an insect repellent, to
remove tobacco suckers, and in the production of soap, toothpaste.

Medicinal Uses
The medicinal plants and herbs have been used for many years in the treatment of various diseases in
animal’s and human beings. Nowadays, utilization of these medicinal plants is increasing. These are used
in animal feed as growth promoters due to prohibition of most of the antimicrobial growth promoters in
animal feeds because of their residual effects. Hayat et al (2004).

Various parts of the neem tree have been used as traditional Ayurvedre medicine. In India neem oil and the
bark and leaf extracts have been therapeutically used as folic medicine to control leprosy, helminthiasis,

27
 K. Okunomo and E.O. Egho Continental J. Biological Sciences 3: 16 - 32, 2010

respiratory disorders, constipation and also as a general health promoters. Akilandeswari et al; (2003).
Neem oil finds use to control various skin infections. Bark, leaf, root, flower and fruit together cure blood
morbidity, biliary infections, itching, skin ulcer’s etc (Almas et al;1999).

The medicinal uses of Azadirachta are as follows:

Immunostimulant activity: The aqueous extract of neem bark and leaf also possesses anticomplement and
immuno-stimulant activity. Neem oil has been shown to possess activity by selectively activating the call
medicated immune mechanisms to elicit an enhanced response to subsequent nitrogen.

Anti ulcer effect: Neem leaf and bark aqueous extracts produce highly potent anti acid and anti ulcer
activity.

Anti fertility effect: Intro-vaginal application of neem oil, prior to coitus, can prevent pregnancy. It could
be a novel method of contraception.

Anti malarial activity: Neem seed and leaf extracts are effective against both chloroquine resistant and
sensitive strain malarial parasites.

Anti cancer activity: Neem leaf aqueous extract effectively suppresses oral squamous cell carcinoma,
induced by 7, 12-dimethybenz (a) anthracene (DMIZA), as revealed by reduced incidence of neoplasm.
Neem may exert its chemo preventive effect in the oral mucosa by modulation of glutathione and its
metabolizing enzymes.

Anti oxidant activity: The anti-oxidant activity of neem seed extract has been demonstrated in vivo during
horse grain germination.

Anti bacterial activity: Oil from the leaves, seed and bark possesses a wide spectrum of anti bacterial action
against gram-negative and gram-positive micro organisms, including M. tuberculosis and Streptomycin
resistant strains. Anti microbial effects of neem extract have been demonstrated against streptrococcus
motions and S. fuecalis.

Anti fungal activity: Extracts of neem leaf, neem oil seed kernels are effective against certain fungi
including Trichophyton, microspor Trichoseporon, Candida, Geotricum and Cosmetics. It has also
traditionally been used for a variety of medicinal purposes, but there is evidence that it should not be
ingested orally, neem oil may also have potential in the development of pesticide and fungicides, although
it does not contain azadirachtin (N.R.C, 2000). Neem seed cake is the residue left after the oil has been
extracted from the kernel. Neem cake is used as a fertilizer with insecticides and fungicidal effect.

CONCLUSION
The economic importance of the species is highlighted in this paper. However, the urgent and most critical
point to consider is the lack or inadequate research effort initiated toward harnessing these economic
benefits for the larger society. Azadirachta indica in this study has been shown to possess tremendous
medicinal values far more than any of the other species considered. Therefore establishing a research
institute for this species individually or collectively with one or two species which hopefully will create
room for thorough, in depth, comprehensive and analytical study is absolutely necessary. This will go a
long way to promoting the benefits of this species and ultimately enrich the local farmers who may have
embarked on the cultivation. Secondly, it will stimulate greater interest in the domestication of this species.

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Received for Publication: 18/05/2010

Accepted for Publication: 21/06/2010

Corresponding author;
K. Okunomo and
Department of Forestry and Wildlife, Delta State University, Asaba Campus, Asaba, Delta State

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